intergenerational transmission of parenting...
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INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF PARENTING AND ADOLESCENT PROBLEM BEHAVIORS Janna Lynn Herman Redmond, Washington B.S. Cornell University, 1985 M.A. University of Virginia, 1990 A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of Virginia January, 1995
Intergenerational Transmission i
Abstract
This investigation provided insight into the role of parent-adolescent relationships
in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. Representations of parenting
were examined as a potential mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted
intergenerationally from mothers to their adolescents. Paternal, gender and family
composition influences on the intergenerational progression were also explored. One
hundred thirty-five adolescents, aged 14 to 18 years, and their mothers (and fathers
when available) completed Epstein's (1983) Mother-Father-Peer Scale, Armsden and
Greenberg's (1987) Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, and questionnaires about
smoking, alcohol and drug use. Indications of an intergenerational transmission of
smoking, drinking and drug use from mothers to adolescents were found. Evidence of
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting which corresponds to those
described by attachment theory was also uncovered. For both mother and adolescent
generations, representations of parenting received were significantly related to problems
with alcohol and drug use, but not with quantity of drug use. Limited effects were
found for fathers, adolescent gender and family composition. Evidence implying that
representations of parenting may play a partial mediating role was found. Although,
when representations were examined as completely mediating the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors, substantial unmediated effects remained. Findings
suggest the importance of continuing integrated research to determine how and why
representations of parenting influence the intergenerational transmission of substance
use. Information gleaned from such research will assist in the development of
prevention and intervention efforts.
Intergenerational Transmission ii
Table of Contents Abstract..................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................... iv Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 Methods................................................................................................... 21 Results .................................................................................................... 27 Discussion................................................................................................ 91 References ............................................................................................. 116 Appendix A: Epstein's Mother-Father-Peer Scale........................................... 128 Appendix B: Armsden & Greenberg's Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment... 131 Appendix C: CAGE Interview.................................................................... 135 Appendix D: Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire.......................................... 137
Intergenerational Transmission iii
Acknowledgements
There are many people I wish to thank for contributing their time and effort to
this project. First, I would like to thank all the families who participated in the Virginia
Study of Teens and Families for opening their lives to this research. Without their
contribution this project would never have been possible. I would also like to thank the
project coordinator, Kathleen Boykin, the research assistants, and my fellow graduate
students (particularly Gabe Kuperminc and Cindy Moore) for their support and humor
during the preliminary phase of this project.
I am especially indebted to the members of my committee. I would like to thank
Steve Nock, for his sociological perspective on the findings of this study, making the
variance explained seem so much more significant. I would like to thank Dick Bell, for
providing an understanding that can only come from years of experience and his ability
to see things from a unique viewpoint. Dick Reppucci, I acknowledge for his support
and friendship throughout my graduate career, and for making this dissertation possible
by teaching me to write. I especially recognize Joe Allen, as an excellent academic role
model with a broad base of theoretical and statistical knowledge, and more importantly,
as a wonderful example of how to have a happy family life and a successful career. His
advice will always be valued. I cannot imagine how anyone else could have provided
so much support over such a long distance!
I would like to thank my fellow graduate students for helping me to maintain a
sense of sanity during the trials and tribulations of my graduate career. Particularly, I
would like to thank Gail Clavet, for her loyal friendship; she provided a dependable,
rational force, when the rest of the world seemed to be going crazy. I would also like
to thank Anne Ricciuti, for an adult attachment has lasted over thousands of miles.
Without Gail and Anne, I might have moved into the "ivory tower" and forgotten the
Intergenerational Transmission iv
world where we three had such good times!
Finally, I would like to thank my family. I would especially like to thank my
mother and father, their desire to say "my daughter the doctor", helped motivate me to
continue my education. I would like to thank my daughter, Michelle, for her patience
while "mommy was working very hard" and for reminding me of what is truly
important in my life. Most importantly, I must thank my husband, Joe, for his
confidence in my ability to achieve this goal, for his support to make it real, and for his
love that "will never die".
Intergenerational Transmission 1
Introduction
There are approximately 35 million people living in the United States between
the ages of 10 and 19 years (Department of Commerce, 1992), and many of these
adolescents are engaging in behaviors that threaten their health, their welfare and their
lives. During 1991, more than 40% of youths used alcohol, more than 37% smoked
cigarettes, and approximately 20% used some form of illicit drug (National Institute on
Drug Abuse, 1991). These harmful behaviors not only endanger the well-being of our
society's youth, but they also cost the nation billions of dollars.
Every year the United States spends more money trying to repair the damage
done by adolescent problem behavior. Federal expenditures for drug abuse programs
have increased nearly 400 percent over the last decade, from $1.1 billion in 1981 to
$5.5 billion in 1989 (Select Committee, 1990). Notably, these figures do not even
account for indirect costs to the country, such as those from lost human resources and
productivity. The total estimated cost of drug abuse to the United States for 1988 was
$58.3 billion, of which about 75% ($32.5 billion) was spent on police protection, private
legal defense, property destruction and productivity losses (Rice, Kelman & Miller,
1991). Thus, adolescent problem behaviors cost our society billions of dollars annually.
In an attempt to reduce these costs and to prevent the hazards associated with
adolescent problem behavior, psychologists have examined its correlates, and sought to
find its causes. This research has revealed a distinctive feature of many of these
problem behaviors: they appear to be transmitted across generations, from parent to
child. Although the behaviors researchers have seen in later generations are not
necessarily in the same form as in earlier generations, they believe them to be
derivatives of the same problem behaviors, indicating heterotypic continuity (Kagan,
1980). There are two interrelated ways by which parents might transmit their problem
Intergenerational Transmission 2
behaviors to their children to maintain this continuity: biologically, through their genes
or socially, through their behaviors. While the importance of genetic influence in the
transmission of problem behaviors cannot be overlooked, this study primarily examines
the social influence of parenting on problem behavior across generations.
In order to substantiate the intergenerational transmission of social influences on
problem behaviors, not only must derivatives of problem behaviors be exhibited across
generations, but family environmental situations must demonstrate some homotypic or
heterotypic continuity across generations and must show a statistically significant
association with problem behaviors as well. This thesis examines such intergenerational
connections to help better explain the relationship of family environmental influences to
the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. First, research regarding
genetic and environmental influences on the intergenerational transmission of problem
behavior are be addressed. Second, recent studies and theory supporting the
intergenerational transmission of parenting behavior are reviewed. Third, research
showing the specific qualities of parent-child interactions that have been associated with
problem behaviors are discussed. Finally, the few studies, which have integrated these
three bodies of research are examined. Following this review of the literature, a set of
hypotheses are introduced and examined to help explain the process by which families
influence the problem behavior of subsequent generations. Clarification of this process
should help to develop more effective intervention programs by targeting the particular
qualities of parenting which foster these intergenerational cycles, and by specifying the
at-risk populations that are most susceptible to these costly and hazardous problem
behaviors.
Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors
The research on the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors has
Intergenerational Transmission 3
shown intergenerational consistency for alcoholism, tobacco use, and other problem
behaviors (Caspi & Elder, 1988; Collins, 1990; DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991;
Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn & Morgan, 1987; Hanson, Henggeler, Haefele & Rodick,
1984; Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz & Walder, 1984; Lahey et al., 1988; Orford &
Velleman, 1991; Patterson & Dishion, 1988; Simons, Whitbeck, Conger & Chyi-In,
1991; Velleman, 1992). The present study examines cigarette smoking, drinking and
drug use, and associated problems among adolescents and their parents. Since this study
is concerned with the monotonic relationships between the smoking, drinking and drug
use of parents and their adolescents, the focus is on prediction of problem behaviors at
all levels, from low to high, rather than on identifying individuals who cross an arbitrary
threshold. The pertinent question asks whether more parent smoking, drinking and drug
use is associated with more smoking, drinking and drug use by teenagers.
There is research examining the genetic and environmental mechanisms by
which parents' problem behavior might influence their children's subsequent behavior.
Twin and adoption studies have been utilized to tease apart the correlated influences of
parents' genetic and environmental contributions. These influences are confounded
since parents not only determine their children's genetic composition, but most of their
environmental conditions as well (Scarr & McCartney, 1983). Both twin and adoption
studies confirm the existence of environmental and genetic components for alcohol abuse
(Cadoret, Troughton and O'Gorman, 1987; Collins, 1990; Devor & Cloninger, 1989;
Sigvardsson, Cloninger and Bohman, 1985), for cigarette smoking (Carmelli, Swan,
Robinette & Fabsitz, 1992; Collins, 1990; Hughes, 1986; Rowe, Chassin, Presson,
Edwards & Sherman, 1992), and for other problem behaviors such as criminal activity
(Cadoret, Troughton, Merchant and Whitters, 1990; Cadoret, Troughton and
O'Gorman, 1987; DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991; Hanson, Henggeler, Haefele & Rodick,
Intergenerational Transmission 4
1984; Patterson & Dishion, 1988; Rutter, 1985; Widom, 1991).
The research comparing genetic and environmental influences on the
intergenerational transmission of alcoholism, tobacco use and other problem behaviors
demonstrates the significance of both forces. Therefore, it is important for
developmentalists not only to study the influence of genetic heritability on problem
behaviors (Gottesman & Goldsmith, 1993), but also the explicit circumstances in the
home which most influence the transmission of these behaviors. Since substantial
proportions of the samples from studies failed to exhibit the behaviors induced by their
genetic predilection (Cadoret, Troughton, Merchant and Whitters, 1990; Cadoret,
Troughton and O'Gorman, 1987; Carmelli, Swan, Robinette & Fabsitz, 1992; Collins,
1990; Devor & Cloninger, 1989; DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991; Hanson, Henggeler,
Haefele & Rodick, 1984; Hughes, 1986; Patterson & Dishion, 1988; Rowe, Chassin,
Presson, Edwards & Sherman, 1992; Rutter, 1985; Sigvardsson, Cloninger and
Bohman, 1985) discontinuity in problem behaviors across generations has also been
demonstrated (Kagan, 1980). Thus, it seems genetic predispositions to particular
problem behaviors may be influenced by environmental factors, and so the means by
which these cycles might be broken must also be considered.
Recent studies are recognizing the importance of family environment over and
above the effects of heritability. For example, Molina, Chassin and Curran (1994)
studied 327 youth and their parents, including 178 adolescents who were living with at
least one biological, alcoholic parent. The authors found that, regardless of whether the
adolescent was the child of an alcoholic, parental monitoring and negative affect
significantly predicted teens' substance use. This study shows the importance of certain
qualities of parenting on adolescents' substance use. Outlining detrimental and
protective familial circumstances will aid the development of intervention programs to
Intergenerational Transmission 5
target these situations.
Gender Differences in the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors
Gender differences in the intergenerational transmission of smoking, drinking
and drug use are also important to consider. Since females usually do not exhibit the
same kind of problem behaviors as do males, studies searching for continuity between
generations' problem behaviors may have had limited success due to apparent gender
differences in the expression of problem behaviors. For example, Devor and
Cloninger's (1989) review of the genetics of alcoholism describes how daughters of
more serious, Type II alcoholics do not tend to abuse alcohol themselves, but have an
abnormally high rate of psychosomatic disorders. While research clearly demonstrates
the importance of familial, environmental influences on heritability of problem behavior
(Cadoret, Troughton, Merchant and Whitters, 1990; Cadoret, Troughton and
O'Gorman, 1987; Carmelli, Swan, Robinette & Fabsitz, 1992; Patterson & Dishion,
1988; Rowe, Chassin, Presson, Edwards & Sherman, 1992; Rutter, 1985; Sigvardsson,
Cloninger and Bohman, 1985; Widom, 1991), it often focuses on male populations since
their acting out behaviors are those that determine clinical definitions (e.g., antisocial
behavior), and are easy to observe and to measure. Previous work which studied both
genders has shown significant sex differences in outcomes within generations and
significant differences in the heritability from mother to son, mother to daughter, father
to son, and father to daughter (Patterson & Dishion, 1988; Rowe, 1986). Therefore, it
is important for new research concerning the intergenerational transmission of problem
behaviors to work from a sample of both males and females, and to consider separately
each parent's influence on their children. What the current research findings clearly
show is that there are important genetic and environmental influences on the process by
which parents transmit their problem behaviors to their offspring.
Intergenerational Transmission 6
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting
As family environment seems to play a part in the intergenerational transmission
of problem behavior, continuity in parent-child interactions from generation to
generation might be fostering these problem behaviors. However, if that is the case, not
only must continuity in problem behaviors be demonstrated among the generations, but
continuity in parenting experiences and a relationship between parenting and problem
behaviors must be demonstrated as well. A recent examination of the research on the
intergenerational transmission of parental attitudes and behaviors (Van IJzendoorn,
1993) concludes that parents do seem to transmit their parenting behaviors to their
children, although, since most of the research is cross-sectional, retrospective
perceptions and memories of parenting are examined, rather than actual parenting
behaviors. Homotypic and heterotypic continuity in perceptions of parenting from one
generation to the next have been studied in attachment research and investigations
attempting to isolate the antecedents of child abuse, aggression and inadequate social
functioning.
It has not yet been established that parenting behavior is transmitted across
generations, but one area in which evidence for an intergenerational connection is
growing comes from studies correlating attachment classifications of adults with those of
their children (Van IJzendoorn, 1993). This research has thus far focused primarily
upon continuity in representations of parenting experiences as a first step toward
understanding continuity in behavior across generations. Attachment researchers have
been attempting to demonstrate intergenerational continuity in attachment relations using
Adult Attachment Interview and Strange Situation classifications. In this research, the
Adult Attachment Interview probes for descriptions of childhood relationships and
related incidents. These memories are analyzed according to how the adults recount
Intergenerational Transmission 7
events, in terms of qualities such as accessibility, idealization, coherence and
contradiction, rather than for the content of the episodes (Main & Goldwyn, in press).
These assessments outline the adults' mental organization of their attachment
information, reflecting current internal representations of their attachment relationships
with their parents (Main, Kaplan & Cassidy, 1985). Since these working models are
assessed by the way parents describe and think about the parenting they have
experienced (Main & Goldwyn, in press), this research will not serve to demonstrate
intergenerational continuity of parenting behavior, but may show continuity in
representations of parenting experiences.
Studies have been conducted which illustrate how the internal working model
might act as a mechanism for the transmission of the attachment relationship from
generation to generation by parents' current states of mind affecting their behavior in
their relationships with their children. For example, Crowell and Feldman (1988) found
that mothers' representations of attachment relationships were associated with their
behavior towards their preschool children. Mothers with secure states of mind
regarding attachment were characterized as more supportive and helpful than mothers
with detached or preoccupied states of mind. In retrospective and prospective studies,
attachment research has demonstrated the correspondence between security of parents'
and infants' attachment classifications. This relationship has been found when Strange
Situations were conducted six months before (Carlson, 1989), five years before
(Grossmann, Fremmer-Bombik, Rudolph & Grossmann, 1988; Main, Kaplan &
Cassidy, 1985), one year after (Fonagy, Steele & Steele, 1991), and at the same point in
time (Ricks, 1985) as the parents' Adult Attachment Interviews. Thus, research has
shown the correspondence of parents' Adult Attachment Interview classifications with
their children's Strange Situation attachment classifications.
Intergenerational Transmission 8
The correlation of parent and child attachment classifications has implications for
the intergenerational transmission of representations of parent child-relationships,
because classifications are thought to reflect the individual's internal representations of
attachment relationships. The research demonstrating continuity in attachment relations
over time and generations provides strong evidence for the intergenerational
transmission of attachment representations between mothers and their very young
children. However, the intergenerational continuity of perceptions of parenting
experiences at other points in the life span, such as between parents and their
adolescents, has not yet been addressed.
Gender Differences in the Intergenerational Transmission of
Representations of Parenting
Intergenerational transmission of parenting experiences has also been revealed by
research examining the antecedents of aggressive behavior, child abuse and social
functioning (Elder & Caspi, 1988; Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz & Walder, 1984;
Kaufman & Zigler, 1987; Rutter, Quinton & Hill, 1990; Simons, Whitbeck, Conger &
Chyi-In, 1991). This research demonstrates the continuity of representations of
parenting with some gender differences. For example, in their study examining the
intergenerational influence of representations of parenting, Simons, Whitbeck, Conger
and Chyi-In (1991) found grandparents' (g1) harsh discipline styles described by parents
(g2) to be modestly associated with adolescents' (g3) reports of harsh parenting received
from their mothers, but not with that received from their fathers. Moreover, fathers'
(g2) harsh parenting of sons (g3) was related to their experiences of harsh discipline
only from grandmothers, and their harsh parenting of daughters (g3) was related only to
experiences of harsh discipline from grandfathers (g1), whereas mothers' harsh
parenting of children of either sex was only related to experiences of harsh discipline
Intergenerational Transmission 9
from grandmothers (g1). The authors propose that the direct effects of grandmothers'
harsh parenting on mothers' and fathers' behavior toward their children stem from
children observing mothers, since until recent decades, mothers were primarily
responsible for raising children. On the other hand, they speculate that the relationship
of harsh parenting by grandfathers with fathers' harsh parenting of daughters is not due
to an intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviors, but a transmission of
attitudes toward women. They posit that fathers leave the parenting of daughters to
mothers, and with the onset of adolescence, fathers' interactions with daughters are
determined by their perceptions of women (which they derive from grandfathers).
Simons and colleagues' results demonstrate the value of examining each parent's
behaviors to find the precise manner that representations of parenting are transmitted.
Representations of Parenting Received Vs. Parenting Administered
Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz and Walder's (1984) study also demonstrated an
intergenerational transmission of "harsh" parenting behaviors and aggression, however it
only examined representations of parenting administered (i.e., parents' perceptions of
their behaviors toward their children). They failed to assess perceptions of parenting
received (i.e., children's perceptions of their parents' behaviors toward them). Gecas
and Schwalbe's (1986) study of 128 mothers, fathers and teenagers found a lack of
congruence between parents' and adolescents' reports of parental behavior.
Furthermore, they found that adolescents' self-esteem was not influenced by parents'
reports of parenting behavior, but was related to teens' perceptions of parenting
behaviors. In a study of adolescent drug use, Rees and Wilborn (1983) found distinct
differences between parents' and adolescents' reports of parents' behaviors. It was
adolescents' perceptions of their parents' behavior, not parents' perceptions of their own
behavior, which differentiated those teens who used drugs from those who did not.
Intergenerational Transmission 10
Moreover, the authors noted that mothers and fathers of drug abusing adolescents were
not able to describe their children's perceptions of parental behavior as well as the
parents of non-drug abusing teenagers. Since adolescents' perceptions of parenting
received are related to their behavioral outcomes, but often differ from their parents'
reports of parenting administered (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Rees & Wilborn, 1983;
Simons, Whitbeck, Conger & Chyi-In, 1991), research which utilizes representations of
parenting received must be conducted to examine the intergenerational transmission of
parenting and problem behaviors.
Buffering Effects
Research in this area should also investigate protective effects, such as those
found in several studies. Rutter, Quinton and Hill's (1990) study on the heritability of
parenting in previously-institutionalized adults revealed that marital support was a
protective factor for preserving adequate parenting ability during stressful life conditions.
Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz and Walder (1984) observed that stability in
aggressiveness of the third generation was to some extent, a function of both parents'
(g2) aggressiveness, which indicates the possibility for one parent's personality to inhibit
the transmission of aggression from the other parent. Adoption studies on the
transmission of child abuse have similarly found that female adoptees with one
supportive, loving parent are able to break the cycle and do not abuse their own
children (Kaufman & Zigler, 1987). These indications of protective effects beg an
empirical question: do adolescents' representations of relationships with one parent
influence a predisposition for problem behaviors transmitted from the other parent?
The existing research suggests there might be intergenerational continuity in
perceptions of parenting received. If such a trend can be established and, if reports of
parenting experiences can be associated with reports of problem behavior, then these
Intergenerational Transmission 11
connections may help to explain further the process by which problem behavior is
transmitted across generations.
Parenting Influences on Adolescent Problem Behavior
Problem behavior research has extensively documented the concordance between
harsh, inconsistent, and unresponsive parenting and adolescent problem behavior
(Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989; Hanson, Myers and Ginsburg, 1987; Kovach and
Glickman, 1986; Miller, McCoy, Olson & Wallace, 1986; Moore, Peterson and
Furstenberg, 1986; Rees & Wilborn, 1983; Shedler & Block, 1990). Although most
studies have not been longitudinal, and so have not been able to show causal
relationships, this research has delineated some specific qualities of parenting which
seem likely to be important in the causal matrix. Some of the most frequently cited
qualities of parenting presumed to be associated with adolescent problem behaviors are
attachment, communication, acceptance (versus rejection and alienation), firm control,
and mutual trust (providing for autonomy and preventing over-protection). Interventions
based on this research have been implemented with some success, supporting the
importance of such parenting qualities (Patterson, 1986). Cross-sectional examination of
the influence of these parenting qualities on the intergenerational transmission of problem
behavior should provide us with a final set of parenting qualities that warrant
longitudinal follow-up.
Since researchers have found indications of intergenerational consistency in
representations of attachment, it is a promising aspect to consider when examining
continuity in parent-child relationships and problem behavior. Furthermore, adolescents'
attachment to parents has shown a consistent positive association with adjustment and
development (Rice, 1990). Specifically, attachment has been positively correlated with
self-esteem, ego-identity, social competence, and emotional adjustment (Rice, 1990), and
Intergenerational Transmission 12
negatively correlated with initiation of drug use (Brook, Whiteman & Finch, 1993;
Hawkins, Lishner, Catalano & Howard, 1986; Vicary & Lerner, 1986) and adolescent
girls' delinquency (Campbell, 1987). Armsden and Greenberg (1987) have developed a
pencil and paper measure of adolescents' models of parenting. Their Inventory of
Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) is thought to capture not only proximity and support
seeking attachment behaviors, but affective/cognitive expectancies that are part of the
internal working model as well (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). The Inventory of
Parent and Peer Attachment does not yield attachment classifications, but evaluates
subjects' representations of attachment relationships in terms of three subscales: degree
of mutual trust, quality of communication, and extent of anger and alienation. Other
measures have been utilized to reveal an association between each of these constructs
and adolescent problem behavior. For example, Jessor and Jessor (1977) found that
adolescents' poor communication with parents was correlated with early onset of sexual
activity, smoking and alcohol use. The correspondence of these three constructs with
adolescent problem behavior in previous research suggests that the Inventory of Parent
and Peer Attachment's subscales should also statistically predict teenage problem
behavior. Armsden and Greenberg (1987) have shown the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment to be highly valid in predicting self-esteem, life-satisfaction, depression,
and affective status. However, this inventory has not yet been examined with respect to
problem behaviors, and most importantly for the purposes of this study, it has not been
examined with respect to consistency in perceptions of parenting across generations.
Parental rejection and over-protection have also been associated consistently with
adolescent problem behaviors such as drug and alcohol use (Hawkins, Lishner, Catalano
& Howard, 1986; Hays, Stacy, Widaman, DiMatteo & Downey, 1986; Shedler &
Block, 1990; Vicary & Lerner, 1986; Walsh, 1992), early onset of sexual activity and
Intergenerational Transmission 13
sexual permissiveness (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989; Miller, McCoy, Olson &
Wallace, 1986), and delinquency (Cohen, Brook, Cohen, Velez & Garcia, 1990;
Loeber & Dishion, 1983; Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey, 1989; Patterson &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984). Epstein's (1983) Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP) assesses
representations of parenting received on three subscales including independence-
encouragement versus overprotection, acceptance versus rejection and idealization. The
Mother-Father-Peer Scale has shown relations with ego strength, self-esteem, and
psychopathology (Epstein, 1983). Furthermore, investigations employing the Mother-
Father-Peer Scale have shown strong associations of mothers' responses on the MFP
with their children's Strange Situation classifications (Ricks, 1985; Tronick, Ricks &
Cohn, 1982), and with their parenting behavior as assessed by Ainsworth, Blehar,
Waters and Wall's (1978) Maternal Sensitivity Scale (Biringen, 1990). Turner, Irwin,
Tschann and Millstein (1993) recently used the Mother-Father-Peer Scale to reveal
correlations between adolescents' perceptions of their parents as accepting and
encouraging of their independence and later onset of sexual activity, less fighting, and
less drug abuse in adolescence. Although use of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale has
suggested intergenerational continuity of representations of parenting, it has not been
directly applied (i.e., by obtaining two generations' reports) to an intergenerational
consistency hypothesis.
Family Composition Influences
Research examining the effects of divorce on adolescent substance abuse has
similarly shown the important influence of parenting on problem behavior (Block, Block
& Gjerde, 1986; Brody & Forehand, 1993; Forehand, Middleton & Long, 1987;
Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1982; Selnow, 1987; Turner, Irwin & Millstein, 1991).
For example, Brody and Forehand (1993) found that, regardless of family type, conflict
Intergenerational Transmission 14
with and acceptance-rejection from mothers prospectively predicted adolescent substance
use. While the research on family composition influences on adolescent problem
behavior tends to show the negative impact of marital disruption, it also suggests that the
parent-adolescent relationship may be the more important predictor of substance use than
family composition itself (Block, Block & Gjerde, 1986; Brody & Forehand, 1993;
Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey, 1989; Selnow, 1987).
When considered together, this research suggests that specific parenting
behaviors might protect adolescents from engaging in health and life jeopardizing
activities. In particular, this research demonstrates the importance of parenting
behaviors which foster communication, autonomy, relatedness, acceptance, consistent
discipline and limit-setting. Assessment tools, which have been developed and validated
by concurrent relations, are available for investigating the intergenerational continuity of
parenting. However, there is little research which integrates the findings of parenting
influences on adolescent problem behavior with the research on the intergenerational
transmission of problem behavior and the research on the intergenerational transmission
of parenting to describe long-term family processes. This integrative research effort
should provide a more comprehensive contextual illustration of the family processes that
require improvement through intervention.
Integrating Intergenerational Influences of Parenting and Problem Behavior
The few research efforts which consider intergenerational familial influences on
problem behavior provide valuable models for future work. Patterson and Dishion's
(1988) study of the families of antisocial boys and Elder, Caspi and Downey's (1986)
examination of the Berkeley Guidance sample are such singular investigations which
integrate these different bodies of research.
Patterson and Dishion's Study
Intergenerational Transmission 15
As would be expected from their interest in antisocial behavior, Patterson and
Dishion (1988) only examined a male sample. They found mothers' and fathers'
memories of negative discipline (defined as nagging, threatening and hitting) accounted
for most of the variance in their own antisocial behavior (defined by scores on the
MMPI and driving violations from Motor Vehicle Department records, as well as state
records of arrests for fathers). Fathers' antisocial behaviors only indirectly contributed
to that of their sons' (as assessed by parent, teacher, peer and self-reports) through an
irritable discipline style, whereas mothers' antisocial behavior contributed directly to
their sons' antisocial behavior, as well as through the effects of their discipline (Patterson
& Dishion, 1988). The authors determined that both a Product Model (unidirectional
effect) and a Co-determinant model (bidirectional effects) fit the relationship between
parental acceptance and adolescents' antisocial behavior. The Co-determinant model
signifies a relationship whereby the variables maintain each other, meaning that they
may be less susceptible to intervention efforts (Vuchinich, Bank & Patterson, 1992).
This research is significant in that it examines the importance of the relationship between
perceptions of parenting and problem behavior, although only within a single
generation. It also astutely considered a control systems model (Bell & Chapman, 1986)
by examining both parents' effects on their teens, as well as adolescents' abilities to
influence their parents.
Elder and Caspi's Work
Integration of research on the intergenerational transmission of problem
behavior, the intergenerational transmission of parenting, and the influence of parenting
behaviors on children's problem behavior was also demonstrated by Elder, Caspi and
Downey's (1986) report on the Berkeley Guidance study. Retrospective reports showed
aversive styles of interaction between parents and children predicted unstable
Intergenerational Transmission 16
personalities in the second generation with poor marital relations and non-optimal
parenting in adulthood. These processes demonstrated heterotypic continuity in
relationships through the third generation's behavior with their spouses and children.
They did note a protective factor involving females who "'managed to escape' the
probabilistic trap of marrying non-assertive men" (Caspi & Elder, 1988, p. 235), and
males "who achieved some control over their adult lives" (Elder et al., 1986, p. 335) in
their ability to break a cycle which yielded undercontrolled children.
Both the longitudinal research program by Elder and colleagues and Patterson
and Dishion's (1988) study demonstrate the intergenerational consistency of parenting
behaviors and problem behaviors. However, neither one is complete in terms of
examining intergenerational influences of representations of parenting received, gender
differences in routes of transmission, buffering and protective effects, and influences of
family composition on the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. The
present study examines such influences, separately analyzing the important gender
differences in the mother-son, mother-daughter, father-son, and father-daughter dyads
(Campbell, 1987; Silverberg & Steinberg, 1987). This project also investigates the
possible buffering effects of representations of parenting received, for example, testing
whether the potential alcohol abuse of an adolescent whose father is an alcoholic, can be
prevented by having an accepting relationship and good communication with the mother.
Furthermore, this study considers these relationships during the period of adolescence.
Because a change occurs during adolescence, in which adolescents attempt to
differentiate themselves from their parents in order to find their own identity (Shedler &
Block, 1990), this developmental stage provides the optimal conditions for teens to try to
separate themselves from the generations of problems that have preceded them.
The current study integrates data with respect to the intergenerational influences
Intergenerational Transmission 17
of parenting and problem behavior in an attempt to provide a more detailed description
of the role parenting plays in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors.
By considering protective effects of specific perceptions of parenting received, as well as
gender and family composition differences in the process whereby parenting provides
conditions conducive to problem behavior in adolescence, this work will attempt to
consolidate and enhance further the existing research on intergenerational effects of
parenting on the transmission of problem behaviors. The following hypotheses are
addressed:
1) There is a relationship between some self-reported problem behaviors of
parents and their adolescents, such as smoking, and alcohol and drug use, which
demonstrates intergenerational consistency.
2) There is a relationship between the representations (i.e., reported experiences)
of parenting received by parents and the representations of parenting received by
their adolescents which demonstrates cross-generational consistency in the
following areas: attachment, communication, acceptance (versus rejection and
alienation), trust, and encouragement of independence and autonomy (versus
overprotection).
3) There are specific representations of parenting behavior received, namely
attachment, communication, acceptance, trust, and overprotection, which
influence individuals' levels of engagement in problem behaviors.
4) There are specific representations of parenting behavior received which foster
vulnerabilities or which act as protective factors, distinguishing those adolescents
and their families who continue to engage in problem behaviors, generation after
generation, from those who do not.
In addition, the following research questions are also considered:
Intergenerational Transmission 18
5) There are gender differences in the representations and effects of parenting
received across generations.
6) There are family composition differences in the representations and effects of
parenting received across generations.
Methods
Participants
135 adolescents and their families were recruited through the city and county
public school systems in Charlottesville, Virginia. The adolescents were selected to be
moderately at risk of future academic and social difficulties based upon the presence of
any of the following low-level risk factors obtained from school records: the presence of
one failing grade in one semester, 10 or more absences in one semester (regardless of
reason for absence), any grade retention in their educational history, or attendance at an
alternative school. These criteria are patterned after the characteristics of the "forgotten
half" of America's youth who are unlikely to advance beyond a high school education
level and so are at greater risk for unemployment and poverty as adults (W.T. Grant
Commission, 1988). These criteria are used to attain a population of youth who are
currently engaging in problem behaviors or who are currently at moderate risk to do so.
Although it was not assumed that all the youth in this study would ultimately be
engaging in problem behaviors, this group was selected to represent one which would
be easily distinguished and appropriately targeted by an intervention effort.
The average age of the 135 teenage participants was 16 years (SD = .74), with
a range from 14 to 18 years. Thirty-four percent were in ninth grade, 65% were in
tenth grade, and the rest in eleventh grade. Sixty-four were female; 71 were male.
Sixty-eight percent were white, 31% were African American and 1 was Native
Intergenerational Transmission 19
American. Sixty percent of the adolescents' mothers were married (not necessarily to
the adolescents' biological fathers) at the time of the interview. The average age of the
adolescents' mothers was 42 years (SD = 5.39); the average age of the fathers was 45
years (SD = 7.19). Sixty-two percent of the mothers and 78% of the fathers were
white. Thirty percent of the mothers and 11% of the fathers were African American.
The remainder were Hispanic and Native American. Most fathers (49%) and many
mothers (28%) had college degrees or education beyond an undergraduate degree.
Only 15% of the mothers and 18% of the fathers had not graduated from high school.
Most of the mothers (56%) and many of the fathers (33%) had graduated high school
and had some college or technical training. The annual family incomes comprised a
wide range from $2,500 to $70,000 (M = $33,583, SD = $20,412).
Measures
Representations of Parenting Received
The Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP, Epstein, 1983) was used to assess parents'
and adolescents' representations of parenting received (See Appendix A). Participants
responded to 30 items using a five-point Likert scale to describe the extent to which
statements described their childhood relationships with each parent. The MFP Scale
measures the degree to which parents are reported to have been independence-
encouraging versus overprotecting, the degree to which parents have been reported to
be accepting versus rejecting and the degree to which offspring are idealizing by
unrealistically describing perfect parents (Epstein, 1983). Increasing scores indicate
memories of greater acceptance, independence-encouragement, and more idealization.
Test-retest reliabilities of these subscales (with a sample of college students) range from
alpha = .88 to .91. As previously discussed, external validity for the MFP Scale has
been shown by association with the Self-Esteem Inventory, the Primary Emotions and
Intergenerational Transmission 20
Traits Inventory, Baron's Ego Strength Inventory, Eysenck's Neuroticism/Extroversion
Assessment, and the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (Epstein, 1983).
The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA, Armsden & Greenberg,
1987) was used to assess adolescents' affective/cognitive and behavioral representations
of their attachment relationships with their parents (See Appendix B). Participants
responded to 32 items about their relationships with each of their parents using a five-
point Likert scale. The IPPA evaluates attachment to each parent for degree of mutual
trust (with 10 items), quality of communication (with 10 items), and degree of anger and
alienation (with eight items). Increasing scores indicate perceptions of greater trust of
parents, better communication with parents, and more alienation from parents. Three
week test-retest reliability (with a sample of 18 to 21 year olds) of the composite
measure of attachment (which combines the subscales) was .93 (Armsden & Greenberg,
1987). As previously discussed, validity has been shown by association of IPPA scores
with scores on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Bachman's Affective States Index, and
to most subscales from Moos' Family Environment Scale (Armsden & Greenberg,
1987).
Problem Behaviors
Potentially problematic alcoholism and drug use by parents was assessed by a
short, structured interview using the CAGE scale (Mayfield, McLeod & Hall, 1974,
cited in Smart, Adlaf, & Knoke, 1991). Participants were asked the four questions of
the CAGE (See Appendix C), which is a screening test used to identify alcoholics, plus
four more which were adapted for drug use. The questions are concerned with the
extent to which participants have tried to Cut down on drinking (or drug use), have
been Annoyed by criticism of their drinking, have ever felt Guilty about something they
did when they were drinking, and have ever used alcohol as a morning Eye-opener.
Intergenerational Transmission 21
Two or more positive answers to the questions are believed to identify a heavy drinker
who consumes about four drinks per day (Smart, et al., 1991). The CAGE has
demonstrated validity by correctly identifying 89% to 97% of clinically defined
alcoholics in clinical samples, and significantly correlating with frequency of drinking (r
= .28, p < .001), and with frequency of consuming five or more drinks per day (r =
.45, p < .001) in general populations (Smart, et al., 1991). An ordinal variable for
parents' drinking was created from this scale by summing the number of affirmative
responses to each of the four questions regarding drinking, and another was created in
the same way for parents' drug use. Therefore, with greater values for each of these
variables, parents are reporting more problems associated with alcohol or drug use.
Parents' smoking was assessed by written responses to two questions subsumed
within a questionnaire about demographic characteristics. These questions were taken
from the annual National Institute on Drug Abuse survey of national trends of drug use
among high school and college students (Johnston, Bachman, O'Malley, 1979). The
first question distinguished ever from never and past smokers. The second question
established frequency of smoking. These two pieces of information were combined to
create an ordinal variable of parents' frequency of smoking during the past 30 days,
such that 1=not at all, 2=less than one cigarette per day, 3=one to five cigarettes per
day, 4=about one-half pack per day, 5=about one pack per day, 6=about one and one-
half pack per day, and 7=two packs or more per day. Adolescents' smoking was
assessed by written response to the second question, at the start of a questionnaire about
drug use. Sixty-eight percent of the mothers, 71% of the fathers and 63% of the
adolescents reported that they had never smoked during the past month.
The Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire (ADUQ) is a self-report questionnaire
which assesses adolescents' previous and current alcohol and drug use (Moore, 1993).
Intergenerational Transmission 22
It is based on the "Monitoring the Future" surveys of high school and college students
(Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 1987, cited in Moore, 1993). Johnston and
colleagues' survey has shown construct validity by relatedness of respondents' self-
reported drug use to their attitudes, beliefs and related behaviors (Moore, 1993).
Moreover, research has shown that when self-reports of problem behavior are collected
in a sensitive fashion, they significantly correlate with reports from independent
observers (Fagan, Langner, Gersten, & Eisenberg, 1977, cited in Patterson &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984). Adolescent respondents to the ADUQ answered questions
regarding frequency and quantity of alcohol and drug use, as well as alcohol and drug
dependence (See Appendix D). Several variables summarizing adolescent substance use
were examined. The variables examined include: whether or not a teen has ever
smoked cigarettes, or has ever used alcohol or marijuana; the number of occasions a
teen has used alcohol or marijuana during the past year; the total number of different
types of problems associated with alcohol or drug use; and the school grade during
which a teen first got drunk.
Procedure
Letters were sent home to adolescents and their families, by the school districts,
describing the study as being concerned with teenagers' development. The families
were asked to return a postcard, supplying their names, addresses and phone numbers,
if they were interested in participating in the study. Upon receipt of the postcards, the
family would be called and invited to come to the laboratory for their first of two three-
hour visits. Each family was paid $45 for their first visit ($30 in a check to the parents,
and $15 in a check to the teenager). Interviews were conducted at the University of
Virginia, in private rooms, by interviewers who were receiving graduate training in
psychology. At the start of the visit, the family sat together in one room where the
Intergenerational Transmission 23
procedures of the study were explained. The interviewers assured the family of the
confidentiality of the information they were supplying, noting that parents would not
even be permitted access to any of their teenagers' information and visa versa. Parents'
and adolescents' informed consent was obtained, then interviewers took each member of
the family to a separate room. In their own private rooms, participants completed a
series of questionnaires, including the Mother-Father-Peer Scales. Interviewers offered
to read questionnaires to all participants so that literacy would not preclude participation
or comfort for some participants. Adolescents completed the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment and the Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire. Parents were
administered the CAGE. Participants were frequently reminded that they could refuse
to answer any question that made them feel uncomfortable.
Results
The general progression for the data analyses begins with an initial evaluation of
the psychometric characteristics of variables, followed by an examination of the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. Representations of parenting were
then considered as a mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted across
generations by: a) examining the potential intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting; and b) evaluating the correspondence of representations of
parenting with problem behaviors. Finally, specific representations of parenting were
investigated as possible moderators or mediators to the intergenerational transmission of
problem behaviors.
The analysis of each hypothesis begins with descriptive correlational analyses of
parents' and adolescents' reports, and is followed by regression analyses to evaluate
intergenerational relationships. Since only sixty percent of the mothers in this sample
were married at the time of their interview (thus restricting sample size for analyses with
Intergenerational Transmission
24
fathers), mothers' influences on their adolescents were investigated primarily. However,
parallel exploratory analyses, regarding fathers' influences, were also conducted.
Exploratory analyses evaluating gender effects (i.e., the differential relationships
between the mother-daughter, mother-son, father-daughter, and father-son dyads as
described in the fifth hypothesis) and family composition influences were also performed
throughout the analyses.
Data Transformations
Independent and dependent variables were checked for normality and outliers.
Transformations were made on variables that were not dichotomous, had non-normal
distributions, and for which the scale metric was not intrinsically meaningful, in an
attempt to achieve greater normality (i.e., skewness and kurtosis below one). The
specific transformations used were selected to maximize the normality of the resulting
variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). Both teens' and mothers' frequency of cigarette
smoking during past month were log transformed. Fathers' frequency of smoking
during the past month was transformed by computing the inverse of its log. The
number of occasions teens used alcohol or marijuana during the past year was
transformed with the square root function. Fathers' reports of their mothers as
accepting versus rejecting was transformed by taking the log of the reflect.
Data Reduction
There were strong, significant interrelationships between mothers' drinking and
drug use behaviors; mothers' affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking
correlated with those regarding drug use r=.54, p<.001. Therefore, the two items
were added together to construct a sum variable representing the total number of
affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use.
There were parallel, significant interrelationships between fathers' drinking and
Intergenerational Transmission
25
drug use behaviors as there were with mothers' behaviors. Fathers' affirmative
responses to the CAGE regarding drinking correlated with those regarding drug use
r=.33, p<.01. Correspondingly, the two items were added together to construct the
same sum variable representing the total number of affirmative responses to CAGE
questions about drinking and drug use.
Adolescent problem behaviors were also strongly interrelated, with significant
correlations ranging from r=.35 to .70, p<.001. A sum variable representing whether
teens have ever tried alcohol or marijuana was constructed to afford data reduction
(these two variables correlate r=.35, p<.001).
To provide background regarding gender differences, a comparison of the
means, standard deviations, minima and maxima for male versus female teens' smoking,
drinking and drug use are shown in Table 1. T tests revealed that female teens reported
significantly more problems associated with drug and alcohol use than male teens did.
No significant differences were found between male and female teens' reports of
parenting received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale or on the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment (see Table 2).
Intergenerational Transmission
26
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Male and Female Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Teens' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) for Males Mean (SD) for Females Minimum-Maximum for Males Minimum-Maximum for Females Ever smoked cigarettes* 63.08% 69.49% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana* 72.22% 76.19% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems** 1.31 (1.87) 2.16 (3.02) 0 - 6 0 - 11 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year 1.32 (1.03) 1.19 (0.99) 0 - 3.16 0 - 3.46 Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month 0.47 (0.63) 0.38 (0.55) 0 - 1.61 0 - 1.61 Grade during which first got drunk 2.48 (2.35) 2.62 (2.16) 0 - 6 0 - 6 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented.
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Male and Female Teens' Representations of Parenting Received on the MFP and the IPPA Mother-Father-Peer Subscales Mean (SD) for Males Mean (SD) for Females Minimum-Maximum for Males Minimum-Maximum for FemalesTeen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 45.11 (7.27) 44.81 (7.39) 29 - 61 31 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 41.10 (7.35) 40.27 (8.50) 25 - 50 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 21.51 (5.33) 20.38 (5.54) 9 - 30 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 49.00 (8.36) 43.88 (7.25) 26 - 62 27 - 64 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.31 (7.65) 36.71 (10.03) 25 - 50 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature 20.82 (5.96) 18.08 (7.31) 9 - 32 7 - 34 IPPA Subscales Teen report of mothers: degree of mutual trust 38.18 (9.13) 37.51 (8.59) 18 - 50 15 - 50
Intergenerational Transmission
27
Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behavior
Mothers' Effects
First, the existence of a relationship between the self-reported problem behaviors
of mothers and their adolescents was investigated. Descriptive statistics for mothers'
self-reported problem behaviors and teens' self-reported problem behaviors are shown in
Table 3.
Intergenerational Transmission
28
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Mothers' and Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Mothers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days** 2.15 (1.80) 1.02 (0.49) 1 - 7 0.69 - 2.08 Ever used alcohol* 86.2% Ever used drugs* 43.9% Number of "yes" responses to CAGE questions re: alcohol 0.66 (0.93) 0 - 4 Number of "yes" responses to CAGE questions about drugs 0.28 (0.78) 0 - 4 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use 0.93 (1.53) 0 - 8 Teens' Reported Behaviors Ever smoked cigarettes* 66.1% Ever used alcohol* 76.9% Ever used marijuana* 25.8% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana* 73.9% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems 1.73 (2.50) 0 - 11 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana, past year* 2.52 (2.95) 1.26 (1.01) 0 - 12 0 - 3.46 Frequency of cigarette smoking in past month** 0.84 (1.29) 0.43 (0.59) 0 - 4 0 - 1.61 School grade during which first got drunk 2.54 (2.25) 0 - 6 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented. **Variable was not normally distributed, and thus was transformed before use in further analyses. Original means, standard deviations, minima and maxima are reported above with transformed versions below.
Intergenerational Transmission
29
To investigate the existence of an intergenerational relationship for problem
behaviors between parents and their adolescents, correlations were examined between
mothers' and adolescents' problem behaviors. A matrix is presented in Table 4. The
only adolescent problem behavior significantly related to mothers' cigarette smoking for
the past month was adolescents' cigarette smoking for the past month, while several teen
behaviors were significantly related to mothers' reports of drinking and drug use.
Intergenerational Transmission
30
Table 4 Intercorrelations of Mothers' and Teens' Substance Use --------------------------------------------------------- Mom cigarette Mom CAGE Teen ever Teen ever Teen drug- Teen alcohol Teen cigarette School grade smoking drinking & smoked a tried alcohol influenced or marijuana smoking when teen past month drug use cigarette or pot beh. problemsuse, past year past month first drunk --------------------------------------------------------- Mothers' Substance Use 1) Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days -.- .14 .11 .10 .05 -.00 .21* .09 2) Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use -.- .11 .12 .30** .27** .18* .28** Teen's Substance Use 3) Ever smoked a cigarette -.- .52*** .40*** .44*** .52*** .35*** 4) Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or pot -.- .54*** .70*** .49*** .61*** 5) Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems -.- .59*** .45*** .50*** 6) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.- 7) Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month 8) School grade during which first got drunk Note: *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
31
Regression analyses were used to examine the association of mothers' smoking,
drinking and drug use with several adolescent problem behaviors. Results are presented
in Table 5. The regression equations simultaneously admitted two independent
variables: mothers' smoking during the past month and mothers' number of affirmative
responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use. The only significant effect of
mothers' smoking was seen in the equation for adolescent smoking (ß=.19, p<.05).
Mothers' number of affirmative responses regarding drinking and drug use was the
significant factor in models for all other teen drug use, save cigarette smoking. The
combined influence of mothers' smoking, drinking and drug use accounted for
approximately 7 percent of the variance in teens' smoking, frequency of alcohol and
marijuana use, drug-influenced behavioral problems, and the school grade during which
teens first got drunk. Thus, it seems that mothers' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use behaviors are associated with adolescents' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use behaviors.
Intergenerational Transmission
32
Next, the impact of adolescents' gender on the association of mothers' and
Table 5 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens'
Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .09 .08 .02 (2,87) Ever smoked a cigarette .11 .08 .02 (2,113) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .02 .24** .06* (2,101) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.02 .26** .06* (2,109) Frequency of smoking during past month .19* .17 .07* (2,111) School grade during which first got drunk .06 .27** .08** (2,115) Note: Each row represents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
33
adolescents' problem behaviors was examined. Mothers' smoking, drinking and drug
use were simultaneously entered into a regression equation with adolescents' gender,
and interactions of mothers' smoking by teens' gender and mothers' drinking and drug
use by teens' gender (see Table 6). As suggested by the T tests in Table 1 where
adolescent females reported more drug-influenced behavioral problems than did males, a
direct effect of gender was found for the equation examining the number of drug-
influenced behavioral problems (ß=.26, p<.01). The only significant interactions of
mothers' problem behaviors by teens' gender were for a model regarding adolescents'
use of alcohol or marijuana during the past year. For this equation, the interaction of
mothers' smoking during the past month with teens' gender was significant (ß=-.19,
p<.05) and accounted for 4% more variance than did the equation before the
interaction terms were added (R squared=.10, p<.05). Analyzing models separately
for girls and boys shows that mothers' smoking is inversely related to girls', but directly
related to boys', alcohol and drug use during the past year. However, as shown in
Table 7, neither effect of mothers' smoking during the past month significantly explained
boys' or girls' drug use, rendering this interaction difficult to interpret.
Intergenerational Transmission
34
Table 6 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use with Interactions by Teen Gender Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' Teen Mothers' smoking during the past affirmative answers to CAGE Gender during the past month questions regarding alcohol ß month by teen ß and drugs gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .08 .08 .06 -.06 Ever smoked a cigarette .10 .08 .13 -.04 Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.00 .26** .26** -.12 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .01 .24** .01 -.19* Frequency of smoking during past month .19* .17 -.02 .01 School grade during which first got drunk .05 .27** .09 -.04 Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 7 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens'
Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use by Teens' Gender Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Boys: Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .17 .16 .07 (2,57) Girls: Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.21 .33* .15* (2,51) Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05.
Intergenerational Transmission
35
Fathers' Effects
Although only 40% of our teen participants had participating fathers, the
influence of paternal problem behaviors on adolescents' problem behaviors was also
explored. Descriptive statistics for fathers' self-reported problem behaviors are shown
in Table 8.
Intergenerational Transmission
36
Table 8 Descriptive Statistics for Fathers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Fathers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days** 2.16 (1.96) -0.52 (0.11) 1 - 7 -0.59 - -0.32 Ever used alcohol* 96.4% Ever used drugs* 45.3% Number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about alcohol use 1.55 (1.44) 0 - 4 Number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drug use 0.43 (0.95) 0 - 4 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use 2.00 (1.98) 0 - 8 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented. **Variable was not normally distributed, and thus was transformed before use in further analyses. Original means, standard deviations, minima and maxima are reported above with transformed versions below. Note: N ranges from 53 to 55.
Table 9 Intercorrelations of Fathers' and Teens' Substance Use Frequency of Fathers' Total number of affirmative cigarette smoking responses to CAGE questions during past month about drinking and drug use r r Fathers' Substance Use 1) Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days -.- .26 2) Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use -.- Teen's Substance Use 3) Ever smoked a cigarette .26 -.10 4) Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or pot .05 -.01 5) Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems -.04 .03 6) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 -.15 7) Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month .12 .00 8) School grade during which first got drunk .08 .02
Intergenerational Transmission
37
The existence of intergenerational influences on problem behaviors were further
investigated by examining fathers' and adolescents' problem behaviors, using simple
correlation and multiple regression analyses. Intercorrelations among fathers' and
adolescents' problem behaviors are presented in Table 9. The matrix shows a lack of
correspondence of fathers' reported behaviors to teens' reported problem behaviors for
our small group of 55 fathers.
Intergenerational Transmission
38
Regression analyses also did not show significant paternal effects, as shown in
Table 10 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Substance Abuse from their Fathers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Fathers' smoking Total Number of Fathers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.05 .04 .00 (2,22) Ever smoked a cigarette .25 -.15 .06 (2,37) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.11 .07 .01 (2,30) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.09 -.11 .03 (2,34) Frequency of smoking during past month .08 .05 .01 (2,36) School grade during which first got drunk .07 -.06 .01 (2,37) Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation.
Intergenerational Transmission
39
Table 10. Since 20% of the participating males in father roles were neither biological
parents, nor adoptive parents of the adolescent participants, equivalent regression
analyses were run excluding these 11 fathers. Results correspondingly showed that the
biological and adoptive fathers' problem behaviors still had no relation to adolescents'
problem behaviors. Following the same pattern of analyses used for mothers and teens,
regression equations including interaction effects of gender were run in exploratory
fashion. No significant interaction effects were found, nor any direct effects of gender.
Repeated measures analyses also suggest the lack of influence of fathers'
problem behaviors on adolescents' problem behaviors. Equations which associated each
parents' problem behaviors with adolescents' problem behaviors indicated a significant
parent effect for parents' reported drinking and drug use problems, as shown in Table
11. This analysis confirms that maternal behaviors were significantly better predictors
of adolescent problem behaviors than were paternal behaviors.
Intergenerational Transmission
40
Family Composition Effects
Next, family composition was considered as a potential influence in the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors from parents to adolescents.
Analyses were run comparing the two largest groups: single-parent families (biological
Table 11 Repeated Measures Analyses Predicting Parents' Drinking and Drug Use from Teens' Substance Abuse Wilks' Lambda Statistic F Statistic p (df) for Parent Effect of Total Number of affirmative answers to CAGE questions regarding alcohol and drugs Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .93 2.40 .131 (1,30) Ever smoked a cigarette .88 6.05 .018 (1,43) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .82 8.52 .006 (1,38) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .83 8.29 .006 (1,41) Frequency of smoking during past month .87 6.36 .016 (1,42) School grade during which first got drunk .78 12.22 .001 (1,44)
Intergenerational Transmission
41
mothers living with their adolescents, N=70) and families in which biological mothers
and fathers live together with their adolescents (N=34). The former group will be
referred to as "mother-headed" families, and the latter group as "dual-parent" families.
Descriptive statistics for mothers' and adolescents' self-reported problem
behaviors are shown in Table 12 for both types of families. T-tests comparing means
show no significant differences between the two groups on any adolescent variables.
However, mothers who run their families alone reported significantly more problems
with alcohol and drugs than mothers who live with their adolescents' fathers.
Intergenerational Transmission
42
Table 12 Descriptive Statistics for Mothers' and Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mothers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days 0.92 (0.43) 1.02 (0.49) 0.69 - 1.79 0.69-2.08 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use** 0.79 (1.19) 0.94 (1.72) 0 - 6 0 - 8 Teens' Reported Behaviors Ever smoked cigarettes* 71.87% 56.72% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana** 79.17% 69.09% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems 1.66 (2.55) 1.63 (2.50) 0 - 11 0 - 9 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year
Intergenerational Transmission
43
To further analyze whether or not family type affects the process whereby
mothers' problem behaviors influence those of their teenagers, regression equations
were constructed separately across family type as for those with gender above.
Mothers' smoking, mothers' total problem behaviors, family composition and
interactions of family composition with mothers' smoking and problem behaviors were
entered as independent variables with each of the adolescent problem behaviors as
dependent variables. None of the interactions with family composition were significant.
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting Representations
Next, the potential for a cross-generationally consistent relationship between the
representations (i.e., reported experiences) of parenting received by parents and those of
their adolescents was investigated.
Descriptive statistics for parent and adolescent reports on the Mother-Father-Peer
Scale (MFP) and the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) are shown in
Table 13 and Table 14, respectively.
Intergenerational Transmission
44
Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale Mother-Father-Peer Subscale N Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Teen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 121 45.19 (7.15) 29 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 122 40.71 (7.86) 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 122 20.69 (5.73) 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 101 46.40 (8.22) 26 - 64 as accepting vs. rejecting 101 37.29 (9.44) 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature 101 19.30 (6.90) 7 - 34 Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging 114 41.22 (9.83) 13 - 61 as accepting vs. rejecting 113 35.68 (10.87) 10 - 50 is idealizing in nature 113 16.30 (6.62) 7 - 33 Mother report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging
Table 14 Descriptive Statistics for Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) IPPA Subscale Mean (SD) Minimum- Maximum Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust 38.20 (8.56) 15 - 50 quality of communication 33.95 (8.55) 14 - 50 extent of anger and alienation 18.60 (6.42) 8 - 37 overall attachment 90.77 (19.23) 36 - 125 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust 37.02 (9.84) 10 - 50 quality of communication 30.84 (10.62) 10 - 50 extent of anger and alienation 18.68 (7.24) 8 - 36 overall attachment 86.50 (23.06) 30.21 - 125
Intergenerational Transmission
45
Mothers' Effects
Correlational analyses. There was inter-individual consistency in teens' and
mothers' reports across measures as shown in the correlation matrix in Table 15. Teens
who demonstrated an idealizing quality in responses about their mothers, had mothers
who were idealizing in their reports of parenting received from grandmothers and
grandfathers. Mothers' idealizing reports about grandmothers were also inversely
related to adolescent characterizations of angry and alienating relationships with their
mothers. Other inverse relationships between mothers' and teens' reports of parenting
received were revealed as well. Mothers' reports of independence-encouraging
grandfathers were inversely related to teens' mutual trust with mothers and with their
overall attachment to mothers. Thus, mothers who perceived grandfathers as having
promoted their independence, had teenagers who perceived their mothers less positively.
Intergenerational Transmission
46
Table 15 Intercorrelations of Mothers' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received ------------------------------------------------------------- Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------------------------------------------------------------- Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of mother: 1. degree of mutual trust -.- .82*** -.66*** .94*** .40*** .66*** .60*** -.14 .10 .15 -.20* -.02 .05 2. quality of communication -.- -.70*** .93*** .27** .60*** .49*** -.19 .08 .11 -.16 -.01 -.01 3. extent of anger and alienation -.- -.81*** -.33*** -.49*** -.42*** .01 -.14 -.26** .17 -.09 .02 4. overall attachment -.- .37*** .64*** .57*** -.15 .10 .18 -.20* .01 .01 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of mother: 5. as independence-encouraging -.- .38*** .20* -.11 -.13 -.13 -.15 -.07 -.07 6. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .62*** -.10 .06 .05 -.08 -.02 .01 7. as idealizing in nature -.- .01 .18 .23** .13 .17 .28** Mother report of grandmother: 8. as independence-encouraging -.- .36*** .31*** .47*** .28** .16 9. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- 10. as idealizing in nature Mother report of grandfather: 11. as independence-encouraging 12. as accepting vs. rejecting 13. as idealizing in nature Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
47
Regression analyses. Next, the association of adolescents' representations of
parenting received with that of their mothers' was examined. First models which
considered a "global" representation of parenting were constructed. The "global"
grouping of variables suggests that representations of parenting are an aggregate of
thoughts and feelings. Thus, mothers' reports of parenting received from grandmothers
in each of the domains measured on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP:
independence-encouraging, accepting versus rejecting and idealizing) were
simultaneously entered as independent variables with adolescent reports of parenting
received from mothers as dependent variables. Results are shown in Table 16. Nearly
ten percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of alienation from mothers and overall
attachment to mothers is accounted for by the global model. Similarly, as seen in Table
17, mothers' global views of parenting received from grandfathers accounted for
approximately ten percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of alienation from
mothers and adolescents' idealizing reports of mothers. However, these two tables also
show that in more than half of the regression equations examined, mothers'
representations of parenting were not associated with their adolescents' representations
of parenting.
Intergenerational Transmission
48
Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Acceptance Independence-encouraged Idealization from Grandmother by Grandmother of Grandmother ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .08 -.14 Independence encouraged by Mother -.06 -.07 Idealization of Mother .06 -.07 Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .06 -.22* Alienation from Mother .04 .12 Communication with Mother .10 -.26** Overall Attachment to Mother .05 -.23* Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. Table 17 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Acceptance Independence-Encouraged Idealization of from Grandfather by Grandfather of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother -.01 -.09 .06 .01 (3,100) Independence encouraged by Mother .05 -.16 -.04 .02 (3,99) Idealization of Mother -.12 .06 .35* .09* (3,100) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .05 -.28* .14 .06 (3,102) Alienation from Mother -.43** .33** .20 .10* (3,101)
Table 18 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .09 -.03 .01 (2,98) Independence encouraged by Mother -.08 -.03 .01 (2,97) Idealization of Mother .15 .22* .10** (2,98) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .18 -.04 .03 (2,100) Alienation from Mother -.35** .16 .09** (2,99) Communication with Mother .13 -.07 .01 (2,100) Overall Attachment to Mother .21 -.08 .04 (2,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
49
Next, a different grouping of representations of parenting was explored to
determine whether it better explained intergenerational associations of parenting
perceptions. Models were constructed which accounted for both grandmothers' and
grandfathers' influences within the same domain. The domain specific grouping of
variables would show whether mothers' reports of parenting received from
grandmothers and grandfathers on each of the subscales of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale
was more closely associated with adolescents' reports about mothers on that same
subscale. Such domain specific models were constructed and tested.
A strong relationship was shown between mothers' idealizing reports of
parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers, and adolescents' idealization in
their reports of parenting received from their mothers (see Table 18). However, these
independent variables also accounted for nine percent of the variance in adolescents'
reports of alienation from mothers, a finding which does not support a domain
specificity postulate. Neither the domain specific model regarding mothers' reports of
acceptance from grandmothers and grandfathers, nor the domain specific model
regarding mothers' reports of independence-encouraged by grandmothers and
grandfathers accounted for a significant amount of variance in adolescents' reports of
parenting received from their mothers in any domain.
Nevertheless, associations were found between mothers' reports of parenting
received from grandparents and three of seven adolescent reports of parenting received
from mothers. Thus, the results of these analyses do indicate the existence of
intergenerational transmission for some representations of parenting.
Gender effects with respect to mothers. Next the influence of adolescents'
gender on the association of mothers' and teens' representations of parenting was
examined. First the global model of parenting received by mothers from grandmothers
Intergenerational Transmission
50
was examined: mothers' reports of acceptance from grandmother, independence-
encouraged by grandmother and idealization of grandmother were simultaneously
entered into a regression equation with adolescents' gender, and interactions of mothers'
reports of parenting received from grandmother by teens' gender. None of the
interaction terms significantly contributed to models which explain a significant amount
of variance in teens' reports of parenting received. Secondly, a global model of
parenting received from grandfathers was examined which included teens' gender as an
independent variable, as well as interactions of mothers' reports of parenting received
from grandfathers by teens' gender (see Table 19). A significant interaction term
(mothers' idealization of grandfathers by teens' gender) contributed toward explaining a
substantial amount of variance in teens' reports of mutual trust with mothers and teens'
overall attachment to mothers. Examination of separate regression equations by gender
(see Table 20), revealed that only boys' reports of trust with mothers was significantly
influenced by their mothers' idealization of grandfathers. Mothers' acceptance from
grandfathers demonstrated a trend toward significant association with girls', but not
boys', overall attachment to mothers.
Intergenerational Transmission
51
Table 19 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers' Global View of Parenting Received from Grandfathers with Interactions by Teen Gender Acceptance Independence- Idealization of Teen Acceptance Independence- Idealization of R2 (df) from Encouraged by Grandfather Gender from Encouraged by Grandfather Grandfather Grandfather ß ß Grandfather Grandfather with Teen ß ß with Teen with Teen Gender Gender Gender ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother -.04 -.10 .05 -.13 .17 -.12 -.15 .04 (7,100) Independence encouraged by Mother .08 -.17 -.06 -.02 .01 -.13 -.04 .04 (7,99) Idealization of Mother -.14 .06 .33* -.13 .07 .10 -.14 .11 (7,100) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .03 -.27* .08 -.11 .29 -.03 -.38** .14* (7,102) Alienation from Mother -.43** .34** .24 .19* -.12 .02 .23 .16* (7,101) Communication with Mother .13 -.22 -.06 -.05 .22 -.02 -.34* .09 (7,102) Overall Attachment to Mother .16 -.30** -.03 -.12 .26 -.04 -.36* .13* (7,102) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 20 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Representations of Parenting Received from their Mothers' Global View of Parenting Received from Grandfathers by Teens' Gender Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Grandfather Encouraged of Grandfather ß by Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Mutual Trust with Mother -.20 -.24 .44** .14** (3,52) Girls' Mutual Trust with Mother .40 -.31 -.32 .11 (3,49) Boys' Overall Attachment to Mother -.07 -.27 .33 .11 (3,52) Girls' Overall Attachment to Mother .49** -.32 -.40 .14* (3,49) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.08. **p<.05.
Intergenerational Transmission
52
Finally, the influence of teens' gender on the domain-specific model for
idealization, which demonstrated significance above, was examined. The model was
modified by adding adolescents' gender and interactions of adolescents' gender by
mothers' idealizing reports of parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers.
Although the equation examining teens' idealizing reports of mothers remained
significant, neither of the interaction terms was significant, nor was the direct effect of
gender. However, mothers' idealization of grandmother by teen gender significantly
explained a substantial amount of variance in the models regarding teens' mutual trust
with mothers and teens' overall attachment to mothers. This interaction contributed an
additional 10 percent of explained variance to the model examining adolescents' overall
attachment to mothers, and an additional 12 percent of explained variance to the model
examining adolescents' mutual trust with mothers (see Table 21).
Intergenerational Transmission
53
As shown in Table 22, separate analysis of models for girls and boys showed
Table 21 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific View of Idealizing Parenting Received by their Mothers with Interactions by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization Teens' Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of of Gender of of Grandmother Grandfather ß Grandmother Grandfather ß ß with Teen with Teen Gender Gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .10 -.07 -.11 -.22 .02 .06 (5,98) Independence encouraged by Mother -.09 -.03 -.01 -.08 -.07 .02 (5,97) Idealization of Mother .15 .19 -.11 -.16 .02 .13* (5,98) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .19 -.08 -.09 -.33** -.03 .15** (5,100) Alienation from Mother -.35** .19 .20* .16 .02 .16** (5,99) Communication with Mother .14 -.10 -.03 -.27* -.04 .09 (5,100) Overall Attachment to Mother .22* -.12 -.09 -.29** -.03 .14** (5,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
54
that mutual trust with mothers and overall attachment to mothers are significantly
associated with mothers' idealization of grandmothers for boys, but not for girls.
Fathers' Effects
Correlation analyses. To further explore the intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting, the influence of fathers' representations of parenting
received on adolescents' representations was also examined. Intercorrelations of teens'
and fathers' reports of parenting received are presented in Table 23. Notably, teens'
reports of parenting received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA)
Table 22 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific Model of Parenting Received by Their Mothers by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Mutual Trust with Mothers .50** -.06 .22** (2,50) Girls' Mutual Trust with Mothers -.16 -.11 .05 (2,49) Boys' Overall Attachment to Mothers .53*** -.10 .23** (2,50) Girls' Overall Attachment to Mothers -.09 -.15 .04 (2,49) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
55
did not significantly correlate to any of their fathers' reports on the Mother-Father-Peer
Scale (MFP). However, teenagers' reports of independence-encouraged by fathers, did
significantly inversely relate with fathers' idealizing reports of parenting received from
grandmothers. Thus, the only notable correspondence of fathers' and teens'
representations of parenting was one which is consistent with associations between
mothers' and teens' representations of parenting; fathers who idealized in their reports
on their parents (i.e., the grandparents) had adolescents who perceived the fathers more
positively.
Intergenerational Transmission
56
Table 23 Intercorrelations of Fathers' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received ------------------------------------------------------------ Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ------------------------------------------------------------ Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of father: 1. degree of mutual trust -.- .86*** -.64*** .95*** .59*** .55*** .46*** .12 .13 -.02 .04 2. quality of communication -.- -.65*** .95*** .44*** .59*** .48*** -.03 .02 -.03 -.17 3. extent of anger and alienation -.- -.78*** -.43*** -.59*** -.55*** .12 .04 .05 .16 4. overall attachment -.- .54*** .61*** .53*** .01 .05 -.04 -.10 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of father: 5. as independence-encouraging -.- .40*** .27** .06 .00 -.40** .18 6. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .71*** -.07 -.18 -.13 -.21 7. as idealizing in nature -.- -.18 -.13 -.01 -.26 Father report of grandmother: 8. as independence-encouraging -.- .58*** .29 .53*** 9. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .41** .41** 10. as idealizing in nature -.- .36* Father report of grandfather: 11. as independence-encouraging -.- 12. as accepting vs. rejecting 13. as idealizing in nature Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
57
Regression analyses. The association of adolescents' representations of
parenting received with that of their fathers' was evaluated. First models which
examined a global representation of parenting were constructed. The global grouping of
representations of parenting examines the impact of perceptions of parenting as an
aggregate. Fathers' reports of parenting received from grandmothers on each of the
MFP subscales (independence-encouraging, accepting versus rejecting and idealizing)
were simultaneously entered as independent variables with adolescent reports of
parenting received from fathers as dependent variables. Consistent with correlational
data in Table 23, the only global model which was significantly associated with
adolescents' reports of parenting received was that regarding independence-encouraged
by fathers (see Table 24). Twenty percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of
independence-encouraging fathers was explained primarily by fathers' idealization of
grandmothers (ß=-.48, p<.01). Models depicting fathers' global views of parenting
received from grandfathers were not significantly associated with any adolescent reports
of parenting received from fathers.
Intergenerational Transmission
58
Next, paralleling the statistical analysis for mothers, models were constructed
which accounted for both grandmothers' and grandfathers' influences within the same
domain of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale. There was no support found for the domain
specificity postulate for the reports of fathers and their adolescents; none of the domain-
specific models was significantly associated with teenagers' reports of parenting received
Table 24 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Global View of Parenting Received by their Fathers from Grandmothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandmother Grandmother Grandmother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Father -.17 .03 -.07 .04 (3,40) Independence encouraged by Father .13 .11 -.48** .20* (3,40) Idealization of Father -.06 -.16 .06 .04 (3,40) Degree of Mutual Trust with Father .12 .08 -.09 .03 (3,42) Alienation from Father -.06 .15 .03 .02 (3,42) Communication with Father .07 -.06 -.04 .00 (3,42) Overall Attachment to Father .09 -.03 -.07 .01 (3,42) Note: Each row represents a separate regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
59
from fathers.
The single strong relationship of fathers' idealizing reports of grandmothers and
teens' reports of independence-encouraging fathers further supports the existence of
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting. However, six of the
seven adolescent representations of parenting received were not associated with fathers'
representations of parenting. Therefore, although there was indication of the
transmission of representations of parenting, there was also indication that
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting is not absolute, as most
adolescent reports of parenting received were unrelated to those of their fathers.
Gender effects with regard to fathers. As with the analyses for mothers, the
influence of adolescents' gender on the intergenerational transmission of representations
of parenting was examined. Neither main effects for gender, nor interaction effects by
gender were found when adolescents' gender was added to the global models of reports
of parenting received from grandmothers. Likewise, for analogous global models of
reports of parenting received from grandfathers, no direct effects or interaction effects
by teens' gender significantly influenced adolescent reports of parenting received from
fathers.
Although there were no significant main effects for the domain-specific models
with the sample of fathers, analyses analogous to those conducted with the sample of
mothers were performed. The interaction of fathers' idealization of grandmothers by
teens' gender significantly contributed to a model examining teens' reports of
independence-encouraged by fathers (ß=-.48, p<.01) (see Table 25). Analyzing
models separately for boys and girls revealed that the significant association of
independence-encouraged by fathers was found only for girls (see Table 26). There
were no other domain-specific models where interactions by adolescents' gender
Intergenerational Transmission
60
substantially explained variance in teen reports of parenting received.
Intergenerational Transmission
61
Table 25 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific View of Idealizing Parenting Received by their Fathers with Interactions by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization Teens' Idealization of Grandmother of Grandfather Gender of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß ß with Teen Gender ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Father -.43* .29 .18 -.53** Independence encouraged by Father -.37 .37* -.17 -.48** Idealization of Father -.09 -.08 .08 -.14 Degree of Mutual Trust with Father -.14 .26 .01 -.54** Alienation from Father .22 -.29 .14 .53** Communication with Father -.18 .29 -.05 -.51** Overall Attachment to Father -.20 .30 -.05 -.55** Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 26 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific Model of Parenting Received by Their Fathers by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Independence Encouraged by Fathers .10 .35 .14 (2,19) Girls' Independence Encouraged by Fathers -.87** .39 .43* (2,15) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
62
Family Composition Effects
The influence of family composition on the intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting was examined. Again, analyses were run on the two
largest groups: "mother-headed" and "dual-parent" families.
Descriptive statistics for mothers' and adolescents' reports of parenting received
on the Mother-Father-Peer (MFP) Scale and the Inventory of Parent and Peer
Attachment (IPPA) are shown in Tables 27 and 28 for both types of families. T-tests
comparing the means show dual-parent families' teens idealized more in their reports on
their fathers. However, mothers from dual-parent families tended to idealize less in their
reports on grandfathers than did those from mother-headed families. There were no
significant differences between the two groups on any of the adolescent reports on the
IPPA.
Intergenerational Transmission
63
Table 27 Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reports of Parenting Received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Teen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 44.91 (8.53) 44.99 (6.65) 31.42 - 62 29 - 58 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.91 (8.11) 41.08 (7.84) 25 - 50 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 20.83 (5.33) 21.01 (5.28) 9 - 30 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 46.33 (8.65) 46.46 (7.96) 27 - 64 26 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.31 (7.80) 37.14 (9.64) 21 - 50 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature* 20.23 (5.28) 18.92 (7.59) 9 - 32 7 - 34 Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging 42.18 (10.86) 40.93 (9.82) 13 - 61 20 - 59 as accepting vs. rejecting 36.31 (11.33) 36.43 (10.51) 14 - 50 10 - 50 is idealizing in nature
Table 28 Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reports of Parenting Received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust 36.37 (9.02) 38.58 (8.70) 21 - 50 15 - 50 quality of communication 31.79 (8.65) 34.88 (8.44) 19 - 49 14 - 50 anger and alienation 18.71 (6.08) 18.37 (6.79) 9 - 37 8 - 36 overall attachment 87.05 (19.42) 92.00 (19.53) 47 -120 36 - 125 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust 35.97 (10.98) 39.49 (8.34) 10 - 50 19 - 50 quality of communication 28.52 (10.48) 34.39 (9.22) 10 - 47 10 - 50 anger and alienation 19.76 (7.06) 15.98 (6.47) 9 - 33 8 - 33 overall attachment
Intergenerational Transmission
64
Regression analyses. Next, regression analyses were conducted to further
examine the influence of family composition on the association between mothers' and
teens' representations of parenting. There were no significant main effects of family
type, nor interactions of mothers' reports of parenting received by family type, for the
global model of parenting received by mothers from grandmothers and for the global
model of parenting received from grandfathers.
Associating Problem Behaviors with Parenting Representations
The hypothesis that there are representations of parenting behavior received
which influence individuals' levels of engagement in problem behaviors was examined.
First the problem behaviors of parents and adolescents were correlated with their own
reports of parenting received. Correlation matrices for adolescents, mothers and fathers
are shown in Tables 29, 30 and 31, respectively.
Intergenerational Transmission
65
Correlational Analyses
As seen in Table 29, for adolescents' reports on the Inventory of Parent and
Table 29 Intercorrelations of Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Teen Problem Behavior Ever tried Ever Drug- Alcohol Cigarette School Alcohol or Smoked influenced and Smoking Grade Marijuana a Behavioral Marijuana During Past First Cigarette Problems Use Past Year Month Drunk ------------------------------------ Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust -.16 -.18* .04 -.13 -.11 .01 quality of communication -.09 -.10 .01 -.07 -.08 -.03 anger and alienation .21* .16 .25** .21* .15 .13 overall attachment -.15 -.16 -.07 -.13 -.12 -.03 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust -.09 -.20* -.02 -.03 -.20 -.09 quality of communication .05 -.14 .11 .07 -.06 .01 anger and alienation .05 .08 .14 .05 .15 .09 overall attachment .01 -.17 .02 .03 -.14 -.05 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of mother as: independence-encouraging .01 -.17 .00 .07 -.08 .17 accepting vs. rejecting -.05 -.12 .07 .02 -.09 -.01 idealizing in nature -.15 -.14 -.18 -.12 -.14 -.08 Teen report of father as: independence-encouraging .11 -.13 .02 .09 -.11 .09 accepting vs. rejecting -.10 .05 .10 .01 .08 -.03 idealizing in nature -.09 -.03 -.07 -.06 .04 -.17 Note. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 30 Intercorrelations of Mothers' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Problem Behavior Mothers' Cigarette Total Number of Mothers' Smoking affirmative answers to During Past CAGE questions regarding Month alcohol and drugs ------------------------------------ Mother-Father-Peer Scale Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging .04 -.18* as accepting vs. rejecting .00 -.23* is idealizing in nature -.00 -.29** Mother report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging .04 -.28** as accepting vs. rejecting .04 -.28** is idealizing in nature .15 -.19* Note. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 31 Intercorrelations of Fathers' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Problem Behavior Fathers' Cigarette Total Number of Fathers' Smoking affirmative answers to During Past CAGE questions regarding Month alcohol and drugs ------------------------------------ Mother-Father-Peer Scale Father report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging -.06 .08 as accepting vs. rejecting .13 .09 is idealizing in nature -.00 .12 Father report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging -.33 -.10 as accepting vs. rejecting -.20 -.17 is idealizing in nature -.08 .06 Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
66
Peer Attachment (IPPA), extent of anger and alienation toward mothers was related to
alcohol and marijuana use, as well as the number of self-reported drug-influenced
behavioral problems. Having ever tried a cigarette was negatively related to mutual
trust with mothers and mutual trust with fathers. No significant relationships were found
between the subscales of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP) and adolescent problem
behaviors.
As shown in Table 30, all of the MFP subscales regarding mothers' reports of
parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers were significantly related to
mothers' reports of drinking and drug use on the CAGE, but were unrelated to their
reports of cigarette smoking. Alternatively, fathers' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use were unrelated to any of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers or
grandfathers, as shown in Table 31.
Adolescent Problem Behaviors
Global regression models. Next, regression equations were constructed to
determine the relationship between representations of parenting received and various
problem behaviors for teens. The representations of parenting received from mothers
on each of the MFP subscales was incorporated into a global model of parenting. The
number of drug-influenced behavioral problems reported by teens was significantly
explained by this global model (see Table 32 for details). Adolescents who idealized
more in their reports of parenting received from their mothers were likely to report less
drug-influenced behavioral problems, whereas teens who reported feeling more
acceptance than rejection from their mothers were likely to report more drug problems.
Intergenerational Transmission
67
The analogous global equation for parenting received from fathers was
constructed and tested. Reports of parenting received from fathers were not associated
with any teen problem behaviors.
Table 32 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Mother Encouraged of Mother ß by Mother ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .07 .03 -.20 .03 (3,92) Ever smoked a cigarette -.01 -.15 -.10 .04 (3,116) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .28* -.03 -.34** .08* (3,104) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .09 .07 -.18 .03 (3,114) Frequency of smoking during past month .01 -.06 -.13 .02 (3,114) School grade during which first got drunk .01 .19 -.13 .04 (3,119) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
68
In a similar manner, each of the subscales from the IPPA regarding mothers was
entered as an independent variable to make another version of the global model. Again,
only the number of drug-influenced behavioral problems reported by teens was
significantly explained. Table 33 shows that teens who reported more anger and
alienation toward mothers and better quality of communication with mothers reported
higher numbers of drug-influenced behavioral problems. This global model explained
almost twice as much variance as did the model which utilized the MFP subscales.
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The analogous global equation for IPPA reports of parenting received from
fathers was examined. As shown in Table 34, approximately ten percent of the
variance in adolescents' reported number of drug-influenced behavioral problems and
Table 33 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers Degree of Extent of Anger Quality of R2 (df) Mutual Trust and Alienation Communication with Mother toward Mother with Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.20 .27 .27 .06 (3,96) Ever smoked a cigarette -.29 .12 .22 .05 (3,120) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .03 .52*** .35* .14** (3,107) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 .28* .22 .06 (3,118) Frequency of smoking during past month -.11 .15 .12 .03 (3,118) School grade during which first got drunk .16 .24 .01 .03 (3,123) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
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their frequency of smoking during the past month was explained by this equation. As
with mothers, alienation from fathers was directly related to adolescents' reports of
drug-influenced behavioral problems. Quality of communication with fathers was
directly related to teen reported smoking and drug problems, whereas degree of mutual
trust with fathers was inversely related to frequency of cigarette smoking.
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Domain-specific models. Domain-specific models were examined as well. Each
of the subscales of the MFP for mothers and for fathers was entered as an independent
variable into an equation (e.g., teens' reports of acceptance from mothers and from
fathers). None of these domain-specific models was significantly associated with teen
Table 34 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Fathers Degree of Extent of Anger Quality of R2 (df) Mutual Trust and Alienation Communication with Father toward Father with Father ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.31 .11 .39 .04 (3,72) Ever smoked a cigarette -.31 -.06 .09 .05 (3,92) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.30 .29* .55** .11* (3,82) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.33 .11 .43* .05 (3,90) Frequency of smoking during past month -.48* .12 .42* .09* (3,90) School grade during which first got drunk -.33 .11 .36 .04 (3,94) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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problem behaviors. Then each of the subscales from the IPPA for mothers and for
fathers were similarly entered into domain-specific equations; they also were not
associated with adolescent smoking, drinking or drug use. Thus, the domain-specific
grouping of representations of parenting failed to improve upon the explanations of teen
problem behaviors provided by global models.
The above analyses seem to show that there are some representations of
parenting received which are associated with adolescent problem behaviors. However,
the majority of the models tested were only significantly associated with adolescents'
reports of drug-influenced behavioral problems, with virtually no models explaining
frequency of drug use, or timing of drug use. Thus, while there is some indication of a
relationship between representations of parenting and adolescent problem behaviors, it is
noticeably limited.
Gender effects on adolescent problem behaviors. Next, we examined the
influence of adolescent gender on the association between representations of parenting
received and problem behaviors. First teen gender and interactions of each subscale of
the MFP Scale for mothers by gender were entered into the global model. Neither main
effects for gender, nor significant interaction effects were found. Similarly, no gender
effects, nor interaction effects were found in global models for subscales of the MFP for
fathers. Global models constructed from the subscales of the IPPA for mothers, and
global models comprised of the IPPA subscales regarding fathers, also showed no
significant influence of interactions and direct effects of teen gender on adolescent
problem behaviors.
Although the domain-specific models did not show a significant relationship
between adolescents' representations of parenting received and their problem behaviors,
models were constructed which examined the influence of adolescent gender on this
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potential relationship. Reports about mothers and fathers on the same subscales of the
MFP were entered into equations with teen gender and interactions of the subscales by
teen gender. None of these models presented a significant main effect, nor any
interaction effects, for gender. In the same way, subscales of the IPPA regarding
mothers and fathers were entered as independent variables along with adolescent gender
and interactions of the subscales with gender. The amount of alcohol and marijuana
teens used during the past year was negatively related to an interaction of alienation
towards mothers and teen gender (see Table 35). As seen in Table 36, separate
regression analyses by teen gender shows that boys', but not girls' alcohol and
marijuana use during the past year is directly related to anger and alienation toward
mothers. Thus, there was very limited influence of teen gender on the relationship
between representations of parenting received and problem behaviors.
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74
Mothers' Problem Behaviors
Global models. Regression equations were constructed to determine the
association between representations of parenting received and various problem behaviors
Table 35 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Domain-Specific View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Alienation Subscale of the IPPA Anger Anger Teen Anger Anger R2 (df) toward toward Gender toward toward Mother Father ß Mother Father ß ß by Teen by Teen Gender Gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .25 -.08 -.05 -.10 -.03 .06 (5,72) Ever smoked a cigarette .08 .02 .16 -.13 .02 .05 (5,91) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .21 .03 .10 -.19 .04 .10 (5,81) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .25* -.03 -.06 -.25* -.03 .13* (5,89) Frequency of smoking during past month .07 .13 -.09 -.20 -.05 .09 (5,89) School grade during which first got drunk -.01 .11 .03 -.27** -.00 .08 (5,93) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 36 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received in a Domain-Specific Model of Alienation by Teen Gender Alienation Alienation R2 (df) toward Mother toward Father ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year .47*** .00 .22** (2,50) Girls' number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year -.02 -.07 .01 (2,38) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
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for mothers. The representations of parenting received from grandmothers on each of
the MFP subscales was entered to create the first global model of parenting. Like
adolescents, mothers' number of affirmative responses about drinking and drug-
influenced problems on the CAGE was significantly explained by this global model.
However, this global equation did not explain mothers' smoking during the past month.
The analogous global equation for parenting received from grandfathers was also
significantly associated with mothers' number of affirmative responses to the CAGE, but
did not account for smoking during the past month (see Table 37).
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Table 37 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Grandmothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandmother Grandmother Grandmother ß ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.00 .04 -.01 .00 (3,105) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.04 -.10 -.23 .10** (3,109) Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandfather Grandfather Grandfather ß ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.17 .00 .28 .03 (3,98) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.22 -.17 .04 .10* (3,101) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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Domain-specific models. Next, domain-specific models where mothers' reports
on each of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers and for grandfathers was entered
as an independent variable into an equation were examined. As shown in Table 38,
each of these domain-specific models was significantly associated with mothers' number
of affirmative responses to the CAGE, yet again, none were associated with amount of
smoking during the past month.
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Table 38 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from Domain-Specific Models of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Grandmothers and Grandfathers Independence- Independence- R2 (df) Encouraged Encouraged by Grandmother by Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month .11 -.01 .01 (2,97) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.11 -.23* .09** (2,100) Acceptance Acceptance R2 (df) from from Grandmother Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.02 .04 .00 (2,96) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.16 -.24* .11** (2,99) Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.09 .19 .03 (2,96) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.24* -.09 .08* (2,99) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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Fathers' Problem Behaviors
Global models. In parallel fashion, regression analyses were conducted to
determine the relationship between representations of parenting received from
grandmothers and grandfathers and various problem behaviors for fathers. A global
model was created using the representations of parenting received from grandmothers on
each of the MFP subscales as an independent variable. Unlike mothers and teens,
neither fathers' smoking during the past month, nor their number of affirmative
responses about drinking and drug-influenced problems on the CAGE was significantly
explained by this global model. The analogous global equation for parenting received
from grandfathers also did not significantly explain fathers' number of affirmative
responses to the CAGE, nor smoking during the past month.
Domain-specific models. Domain-specific models, where fathers' reports on
each of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers and for grandfathers were entered as
independent variables, were examined. Again, none of the domain-specific models
significantly explained fathers' number of affirmative responses to the CAGE, nor
amount of smoking during the past month.
Family Composition Influences
Regression analyses were conducted to examine the influence of family
composition on the association of adolescents' representations of parenting received to
their problem behaviors. Again, analyses were run on the two largest groups: "mother-
headed" and "dual-parent" families.
The global model of parenting comprised of teen reports about mothers on each
of the subscales of the MFP was revised to include family composition as an independent
variable, along with the interactions of family composition and each of the subscales of
the MFP about mothers. An interaction effect of family composition and teens'
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idealizing reports about mothers was directly related to the frequency of adolescent
cigarette smoking during the past month (see Table 39). Analyzing equations separately
by family composition showed that adolescents' cigarette smoking during the past month
was explained by this global model for teens from dual-parent households, but not for
teens from mother-headed households (see Table 40).
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81
Interactions and direct effects of family composition were added to the global
model of parenting received from mothers on of the IPPA subscales. Again, the
Table 39 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Mothers with Interactions by Family Composition Accept Indep- Ideal Family Accept Indep- Ideal R2 (df) from Enc by of Type from Enc by of Mother Mother Mother ß Mother Mother Mother ß ß ß with with with Family Family Family Type Type Type ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .06 .01 -.23 -.13 .15 -.30 .28 .10 (7,74) Ever smoked .01 -.14 -.11 -.12 .06 -.08 .23 .10 (7,93) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .24 -.07 -.32* -.00 .13 -.30* .04 .13 (7,85) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year .07 .06 -.19 -.12 .09 -.25 .15 .07 (7,93) Frequency of smoking during past month .01 -.05 -.20 -.19 .19 -.23 .32* .17* (7,91) School grade during which first got drunk .08 .12 -.20 -.02 -.12 -.08 .29* .10 (7,96) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
Table 40 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global Model of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers by Family Composition Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Mother Encouraged of Mother ß by Mother ß ß Teen Reports of: Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in dual-parent families .31 -.30 -.59* .27* (3,29) Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in mother-headed families -.16 .08 .03 .02 (3,61) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
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frequency of adolescents' cigarette smoking during the past month was related to an
interaction of family composition; this time family type interacted with adolescents'
mutual trust with mothers (see Table 41). Separate regression analysis by family type
showed, once again, that frequency of adolescent cigarette smoking was only
significantly explained by the IPPA global model for teens from dual-parent families (see
Table 42).
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Table 41 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Mothers with Interactions by Family Composition Mutual Anger Comm Family Mutual Anger Comm R2 (df) Trust toward with Type Trust toward with with Mother Mother ß with Mother Mother ß ß ß Mother Mother with with with Family Family Family Type Type Type ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.35 .13 .28 -.14 .22 .09 -.16 .09 (7,78) Ever smoked cigarettes -.28 .03 .14 -.13 .11 .32* .21 .13 (7,97) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .17 .50** .13 -.00 .14 -.06 -.17 .13 (7,88) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 .34* .27 -.13 -.07 .01 .21 .11 (7,97) Frequency of smoking during past month -.02 .17 -.03 -.17 .53** .13 -.22 .19** (7,95) School grade during which first got drunk .14 .27 .05 -.03 .22 .06 -.03 .06 (7,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 42 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global Model of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers by Family Composition Trust Anger Communication R2 (df) with toward with Mother Mother Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in dual-parent families -.71* -.02 .26 .25* (3,30) Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in mother-headed families .38 .30 -.20 .08 (3,64) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
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Although the analyses for our small sample of fathers did not show the same, the
analyses for adolescents and mothers did show that there were some representations of
parenting received which were associated with problem behaviors. However, only
reports of problems associated with alcohol and drug use tended to be associated with
representations of parenting for mothers and for adolescents. Amount of cigarette
smoking, alcohol consumption, soft drug use, as well as initiation behaviors were not
generally related to perceptions of parenting received. Thus, although representations of
parenting demonstrated some relation to problem behaviors, this relationship was quite
limited.
Parenting Preventing Problem Behaviors
Finally, the hypothesis that there are specific representations of parenting
received which influence the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors from
one generation to the next was investigated. Since father's problem behaviors
demonstrated no association with adolescents' problem behaviors, only the
intergenerational influence of mothers' problem behaviors was tested with the effects of
parenting behaviors on teens' problem behaviors.
Moderator Effects
Fathers' parenting as a buffer. First, the ability of fathers' parenting behaviors
to inhibit the influence of mothers' problem behaviors on teens' behaviors was
examined. Interaction effects where teens' representations of parenting received from
fathers influenced the transmission of mothers' problem behaviors to adolescents were
examined. Regression equations were developed such that the global model of
parenting received from fathers on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale along with mothers'
self-reported problem behaviors and interactions of mothers' problem behaviors with
reports of parenting received from fathers on the MFP subscales were entered as
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85
independent variables with teen problem behaviors as dependent variables. The six
interaction terms were tested in one block. No blocks of interaction effects of mothers'
problem behaviors with teens' representations of parenting received from fathers were
significantly related to adolescents' problem behaviors. Analogous models for mothers'
problem behaviors and teens' reports of parenting received from fathers on the
Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment were examined. Again, no significant blocks
of interaction effects were found. The association of mothers' problem behaviors with
teens' problem behaviors were not statistically influenced by representations of parenting
received from fathers in this study.
Mothers' parenting as a buffer. Next, the potential for positive relationships
with mothers to influence the intergenerational transmission of their own problem
behaviors to adolescents was considered. Global models were constructed from teens'
responses to the subscales of the MFP regarding mothers, along with mothers' problem
behaviors and interactions of mothers' problem behaviors and the MFP subscales.
Again, no significant blocks of interaction effects were found. Similarly, for the
comparable model associating teens' reports of parenting received from mothers on the
IPPA subscales along with mothers' problem behaviors, no blocks of interaction effects
significantly affected adolescents' problem behaviors.
This examination of interaction effects showed that representations of parenting
received do not seem to moderate the intergenerational transmission of problem
behavior. Neither adolescents' representations of mothers, nor their representations of
fathers interacted with mothers' problem behaviors to statistically influence adolescents'
problem behaviors. Since a moderator effect was not supported by these analyses, a
potential mediator effect was examined.
Mediator Effects
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Another potential role that representations of parenting may play in the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors is as a mediator. Since some
maternal problem behaviors have been related to adolescents' problem behaviors, and
since some indication of a relationship between representations of parenting and problem
behaviors was found, there is also indication that perceptions of parenting may play a
mediating role. To examine whether representations of parenting completely mediate the
intergenerational relationship between mothers' and adolescents' problem behaviors,
teens' representations of parenting were added to the models which demonstrated
significant associations.
First, global groupings of adolescents' responses about mothers on the Mother-
Father-Peer (MFP) scale were added to the models where mothers' smoking, alcohol
and drug reports were independent variables and teens' problem behaviors were
dependent variables. If representations of parenting completely mediate the effects of
mothers' problem behaviors on adolescents problem behaviors, mothers' problem
behaviors should no longer significantly be associated with teens' problem behaviors in
these new models. As shown in Table 43, for the two models that remained statistically
significant, mothers' problem behaviors were significantly associated with teens'
problem behaviors. Consequently, adolescents' representations of parenting received
from mothers as reported on the MFP did not appear to mediate the transmission of
problem behaviors from mothers to teens.
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Table 43 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Mothers as Reported by Adolescents on the MFP on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Indepen- Acceptance Idealization R2 (df) Total number Encouraged from of Mother of drug and by Mother ß alcohol problems Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .26** -.13 .31** -.30** .15** (4,96) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .25* -.00 .08 -.14 .08 (4,104) Frequency of smoking during past month .19 -.13 -.03 -.09 .07 (4,104) School grade during which first got drunk .26** .10 .07 -.14 .11* (4,108) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 44 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Mothers as Reported by Adolescents on the IPPA on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Mutual Alienation Communication R2 (df) Total number Trust from with of drug and with Mother Mother alcohol problems Mother ß ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .23** -.03 .47*** .33* .18*** (4,99) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .30*** -.20 .25* .23 .15*** (4,108) Frequency of smoking during past month .19* -.21 .12 .12 .07 (4,108) School grade during which first got drunk .29** .09 .18 -.05 .12** (4,112) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001. Table 45 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Fathers as Reported by Adolescents on the IPPA on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Mutual Alienation Communication R2 (df) Total number Trust from with of drug and with Father Father alcohol problems Father ß ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .23* -.29 .32* .54** .15* (4,73) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .16 -.33 .14 .48* .08 (4,79)
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The other two groupings of representations of parenting received which showed
some association with adolescents' problem behaviors were the global grouping of
representations of mothers reported on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment
(IPPA) and the global grouping of representations of fathers as reported on the IPPA.
Representations of parenting received from mothers on the IPPA were thus added to the
models examining transmission of problem behaviors. As shown in Table 44, mothers'
problem behaviors remained highly significant in all equations that showed an
association with adolescents' problem behaviors. Similarly, when the global grouping of
representations of parenting received from fathers as reported on the IPPA were added
to models examining transmission of problem behaviors, mothers' problem behaviors
continued to show a strong relationship with adolescents' problem behaviors (see Table
45).
From these analyses, it can be seen that adolescents' inheritance of their parents'
problem behaviors does not seem to be completely mediated by their representations of
parenting. However, the association found between adolescents' problem behaviors and
their representations of parenting implies that it may have a partial mediating effect.
Discussion
The purpose of this project was to integrate three areas of research to better
explain the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. First, was a probe for
evidence of the heritability of problem behaviors that many other researchers have
found. This project found indications of an intergenerational transmission of smoking,
drinking and drug use from mothers to adolescents. Next, was an investigation of
whether the intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting may serve as
one possible mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted. Adolescents'
representations of parenting received were found to relate to some of their parents'
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representations of parenting received. Furthermore, for both mothers and adolescents,
representations of parenting received were significantly related to problems with alcohol
and drug use. Finally, was an examination of whether relationships with parents may
moderate or mediate the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. No
support for a moderator role was found, but evidence implying that representations of
parenting received may play a partial mediating role was found. However, when
representations were examined as completely mediating the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors, substantial unmediated effects remained.
Intergenerational Prediction of Problem Behavior
The first endeavor was to replicate the findings of numerous other studies which
have demonstrated the heritability of cigarette smoking, alcohol and other substance use
(Cadoret, Troughton and O'Gorman, 1987; Carmelli, Swan, Robinette & Fabsitz, 1992;
Collins, 1990; Devor & Cloninger, 1989; Hughes, 1986; Rowe, Chassin, Presson,
Edwards & Sherman, 1992; Sigvardsson, Cloninger and Bohman, 1985).
Mothers' Effects
Between second and third generation mother and adolescent participants in this
study, both homotypic continuity in smoking behaviors, and heterotypic continuity in
reports of drug use and associated problems were detected. Thus, reports of the
participants replicated those found in many other studies.
Mothers' reports of problems related to their alcohol and drug use, such as
feeling guilty about something they had done while drinking, were associated with
reports of adolescent drinking and drug problems, but not with reports of teen initiation
to drug use (i.e., whether or not adolescents have ever smoked a cigarette, or tried
alcohol or marijuana). Specifically, mothers' smoking during the past month and
mothers' affirmative responses regarding problems with alcohol and drug use on the
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90
CAGE questionnaire were associated with adolescents' total number of drug-influenced
behavioral problems, adolescents' frequency of alcohol and marijuana use during the
past year, adolescents' frequency of smoking during the past month, and the school
grade during which adolescents first got drunk. It is interesting that intergenerational
relationships were found only between mothers' and teens' problems with alcohol and
drugs, but not between mothers' problems with alcohol and drugs and teens' initiation to
smoking and drug use. Kandel (1980) also found that parents' use of alcohol and drugs
did not predict adolescents' initiation to drug use. Perhaps mothers' responses to the
CAGE reflect a construct which differs from simple drug use behavior; instead, it might
indicate an ability to recognize the negative effects associated with alcohol and drug use
that is transmitted intergenerationally. Or maybe the relationship between mothers'
problems with drugs and teens' drug use initiation was not found simply because the
effects were too weak to be significantly demonstrated among the participants in the
study.
Finding that mothers' smoking was associated with teens' smoking, and not with
their alcohol or drug use problems was unusual, since teen smoking was correlated with
teen drug use in this study, and since research has consistently shown the relation of
smoking to other drug use (Collins, 1990). However, since the intergenerational
transmission of smoking and alcohol use have generally been studied separately, it has
not been determined that smoking behavior generalizes to other drug using behaviors
across generations. Nevertheless, since evidence of an intergenerational transmission of
problem behaviors was shown in this group, further investigation of the role of
representations of parenting on this transmission of problem behavior was conducted.
Gender differences with regard to mothers' problem behaviors. The only
differences found in the transmission of problem behaviors from mothers to daughters
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versus mothers to sons was for the amount of soft drug (alcohol and marijuana) use
during the past year. Mothers' reports of problems with drinking and drugs was only
significantly associated with boys' soft drug use during the past year. This gender
difference is similar to one seen throughout the literature on the heritability of alcohol
abuse. Devor and Cloninger's (1989) review of the research on the heritability of
alcoholism discussed how similar to their parents, serious, Type II alcoholism is usually
seen only in the male children of alcoholics. Alternatively, females tend to demonstrate
unusually high levels of low-frequency somatization disorders. Thus, the finding of the
influence of mothers' problems with drug use only on sons' marijuana and alcohol use
was consistent with previous research on the intergenerational transmission of problem
behaviors.
Family composition effects. No effects of family composition on the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors were found. However, mothers in
single-parent families reported more problems associated with drug use than mothers in
dual-parent families. One possible explanation is that the stress of handling multiple
family responsibilities alone may cause these mothers to engage in more drug and
alcohol use, and consequently to have more alcohol and drug-related problems, or to
simply perceive their alcohol and drug use as more problematic. Since parents were not
asked for an estimate of quantity of drug use, this study cannot determine the existence
of an actual discrepancy between the drug use of mothers in dual- versus single-parent
households, consequently, this issue remains for future studies to explore.
Fathers' Effects
The exploratory analyses with participating fathers did not show the same
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors to their adolescents. This null
finding may be due to the limited number of participating fathers (only 40% of the
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families had participating father figures), or the actual lack of influence of these father
figures. Twenty percent of the men in these "father" roles were neither biological
parents, nor adoptive parents of the adolescents in this study. Thus, it was conjectured
that these men's actual parental influence over the adolescents as "mothers' partners"
might be truly limited. However, examination of biological and adoptive fathers'
problem behaviors and adolescents' problem behaviors continued to show a lack of
association. This finding is consistent with other research that has shown fathers'
influences on their children's behavior problems to be more limited in comparison to
maternal influences (Tschann, Johnston, Kline & Wallerstein, 1990).
General Conclusions Regarding Heritability of Problem Behaviors
As in other studies, this examination of the problem behaviors of mothers and
their adolescents indicated the existence of intergenerational transmission. Given that
indication of heritability of problem behaviors was demonstrated by these participants,
next, evidence was sought that representations of parenting might provide a mechanism
by which problem behaviors are passed from one generation to the next. First
heterotypic or homotypic continuity in representations of parenting received between
parents and adolescents was investigated, then the relationship between representations
of parenting and exhibition of problem behaviors was appraised. The existence of these
two connections would provide support for the idea that representations of parenting
may act as a mechanism by which problem behaviors are passed between generations
(although it would not actually prove the existence of such a mediating role for
representations of parenting).
Intergenerational Prediction of Parenting Representations.
This investigation of the intergenerational transmission of representations of
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parenting showed indication of such a transmission: some representations of parenting
received by parent participants were related to those of their adolescents. However, not
all representations of parenting received demonstrated transmissibility. Therefore,
although indication of the intergenerational transmission of representations was found, in
general, such a process may not always be effectual.
Mothers' Effects
Three specific representations of parenting received by mothers from
grandparents were measured: acceptance versus rejection, independence-encouragement,
and idealization. Seven representations of parenting received by adolescents from
mothers were reported: acceptance vs. rejection, independence-encouragement,
idealization, trust, anger and alienation, quality of communication, and overall
attachment. Regression analyses associated a global grouping of all the representations
of parenting received by mothers from one grandparent to individual perceptions of
parenting received by their adolescents.
Three of the total seven representations of parenting received by adolescents
were related to mothers' representations of parenting received from grandparents:
adolescents' anger and alienation toward mothers, idealization of mothers and overall
attachment to mothers. Associations of mothers' and teens' perceptions of parenting
received were found across measures. Mothers' reports on the Mother-Father-Peer
(MFP) scales regarding grandmothers were associated with adolescents' reports of
alienation and overall attachment to mothers reported on the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment (IPPA). Specifically, mothers who idealized in their perceptions of
grandmothers were likely to have adolescents' who did not report anger and alienation
toward their mothers. Mothers' reports regarding grandfathers were associated with
adolescents' reports of alienation and idealization of mothers. Specifically, mothers who
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94
idealized in their reports of grandfathers had teenagers with idealized perceptions of
their mothers. Mothers who reported feeling more acceptance than rejection from
grandfathers had teenagers who did not report feeling anger and alienation toward their
mothers.
Analyses also indicated some unusual relationships regarding independence-
encouragement. For example, mothers who described grandmothers as encouraging
their independence had teenagers who did not report close attachments to their mothers.
Teenagers who reported feeling anger and alienation toward their mothers had mothers
who perceived grandfathers as encouraging their independence. At first glance the
direct relationships between independence-encouragement and negative reports of
parenting received appears perplexing. One possible explanation is that the items which
form the independence-encouragement subscale may in fact be tapping parenting
behaviors which discourage proximity-seeking behavior in offspring, and thus conveys
instead a cold, aloofness rather than warmth and support (See Appendix A for specific
examples). This type of relationship is consistently demonstrated throughout the
analyses, as described below.
The intergenerational relationships found between mothers' and adolescents'
reports of parenting received are consonant with attachment research and theory. While
attachment researchers have found that mothers' attachment classifications predict those
of their young children, this study extended this relationship to relate mothers'
perceptions of the parenting that they received from their parents (i.e., from the
grandparent generation) to those of their adolescents. Although mothers' internal
working models, as assessed by how their thoughts and feelings regarding attachment
are organized, were not examined in the present study, it may be that similar thoughts
and feelings about parenting received were being accessed by the measurement scales
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95
employed.
In 1991, Fonagy, Steele and Steele found significant association between
mothers' internal working models of relationships and infants' security of attachment.
By comparing mothers' and adolescents representations of parenting received, a similar
intergenerational link was sought here. For example, the following theoretical
explanation of the association found between mothers' idealization of grandfathers and
teens' idealization of mothers is provided by attachment theory. Dismissing states of
mind regarding attachment, which are characterized by idealization of parents,
derogation of attachment relationships, and lack of recall regarding attachment
relationships, have been postulated to stem from rejection and insensitive parenting in
infancy and early childhood (Main & Goldwyn, in press; Main, Kaplan & Cassidy,
1985). A dismissing state of mind employs denial of the need for attachment, so
mothers with dismissing states of mind regarding attachment may similarly deny their
children's needs for attention, may be insensitive to their needs and may reject them
(Fonagy, Steele & Steele, 1991), advancing the cycle another generation. This
transmission of dismissing states of mind also explains why mothers with idealized
perceptions of grandmothers were unlikely to have teenagers who reported feeling anger
and alienation toward them. If mothers' dismissing states of mind were carried on to
their teenagers, then the teenagers would also idealize in their reports of parenting
received and thus would be unlikely to report anger, alienation, or other negative
feelings about their mothers. The other intergenerational relationships found are also
consistent with theories about transmission of states of mind and adults' models of
attachment as described by Main and Goldwyn (in press).
Individuals with secure models of attachment are unlikely to have memories of
their parents rejecting them, and therefore are unlikely to have a preoccupation with
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96
anger at them (Main & Goldwyn, in press). When considered intergenerationally,
mothers who are not rejected, and are not angrily preoccupied with grandparents,
behave in sensitive ways toward their children, who are then likely to feel accepted and
unlikely to maintain angry states of mind regarding their parents. The inverse
relationship found between mothers' acceptance from grandfathers and teens' anger and
alienation is in accord with this theory.
If independence-encouragement is interpreted as parenting which tends to
discourage proximity seeking behaviors, it is reasonable that mothers' who have
working models of relationships with grandparents that discourage such proximity
seeking, are likely to behave in similar ways with their children, which should ultimately
result in the teenagers' alienation and insecure attachments to their mothers. Thus,
mothers with independence-encouraging grandparents should have teenagers who do not
feel strong affectional bonds to their mothers, as was found for the participants in this
study. Then, although attachment classifications of adults and teenagers have not been
examined, the results of this study which associate the representations of parenting
received by parents and adolescents seem to coalesce with the research and theory
regarding states of mind and working models of relationships described by attachment
theorists. This study also extended research within this tradition that had not previously
examined the intergenerational transmission of representations from parents to their
adolescents.
However, more than half of adolescents' representations of parenting received
were not associated with that of their mothers. One possible explanation for this
deficiency in transmissibility is that some representations of parenting received are
transmitted, while others are not, depending on their intensity. That is, more intense
memories may be more salient in one's life, and thus predominate upon one's behaviors
Intergenerational Transmission
97
in interactions with subsequent generations. Therefore transmission of anger, love and
idealization are found, but not transmissions of acceptance, encouragement, trust, and
communication. Alternatively, maybe the measures used in this study simply were not
as sensitive in measuring some representations as they were with others.
There were further null findings of an intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting depending upon grouping of variables. Two different
groupings of independent variables for intergenerational models were examined:
domain-specific and global. The global models, described above, suggest that
representations of parenting are an aggregate of thoughts and feelings, thus combinations
of each of the specific representations of parenting received by mothers was regressed
with adolescents' perceptions of the parenting they received. For the domain-specific
model of parenting, single representations of parenting received by mothers from
grandmothers and grandfathers were postulated to best predict adolescents' reports about
mothers for that same specific representation of parenting received. The domain-specific
results showed that mothers' idealizing reports of grandmothers and grandfathers were
associated with adolescents' idealizing reports of mothers. However, these idealizing
reports of parenting received from grandparents were almost as strongly associated with
adolescents' reports of alienation from mothers. Thus, a solely domain-specific model of
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting was not supported. In
fact, the results from the domain-specific grouping of variables were very similar to the
global grouping, and therefore did not improve upon an understanding of the
intergenerational transmission of representations.
Gender differences with regard to mothers' representations of parenting.
Representations of parenting received by mothers showed only limited interaction effects
with teen gender. Mothers who idealized in their reports of grandparents, had sons who
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98
reported more positive relationships with their mothers. Specifically, boys trust and
overall attachment to mothers was related to mothers' idealizing reports of grandmothers
and grandfathers. Thus, boys' positive reports of parenting received relate to maternal
idealizing representations as was described above.
Alternatively, it may be that the mothers who idealize grandparents use this
idealization to avoid thinking about attachment relationships, and behave in ways which
distance themselves from thinking about and engaging in affectionate relationships (like
those that might exist with their adolescents). Adolescent boys may perceive this
estrangement in a positive way, i.e., as their mothers exerting little control, and
permitting for their autonomy and their identity exploration. Positive outcomes for boys
have been related to provisions for autonomy (Allen, Hauser, Bell & O'Connor, in
press; Allen, Aber & Leadbeater, 1990; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986). For example,
Gecas & Schwalbe (1986) found that boys' self-esteem was promoted when parents did
not inhibit their sons' autonomy by exerting too much control over their lives. It is
possible that the boys participating in this study perceive their mothers' idealization of
grandparents and their distancing nature as providing space for self-exploration and
autonomous development; consequently, these boys' perceptions of parenting received
from mothers were positive.
Mothers' representations of parenting received from grandfathers was also
associated with daughters' greater affection for their mothers. That is, girls' overall
attachment to mothers was related to mothers' accepting representations of parenting
received from grandfathers. This relationship of girls' affinity for their mothers to
maternal representations of acceptance from grandfathers is consistent with the
description of secure models of attachment described above.
Family composition effects. Although there were some mean differences in
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99
reports of parenting received between different family types, no influence of family
composition on the intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting was
found. That is, there were no interactions which significantly contributed to models
predicting adolescents' reports of parenting received from their mothers' representations
of parenting received. This means that the reported intergenerational transmission
findings apply equally well to adolescents from dual-parent and mother-headed families.
Fathers' Effects
Further evidence of an intergenerational transmission of representations of
parenting was sought by regressing domain-specific models and global models of
parenting received by fathers against adolescents' reports of parenting received from
their fathers. Only fathers' reports of parenting received from grandmothers were
associated with adolescents' reports of parenting received from fathers. Specifically,
fathers who idealized grandmothers had adolescents who were less likely to report that
their fathers were independence-encouraging. These findings are similar to the findings
regarding independence-encouragement found for mothers and adolescents above where
connections were found between the MFP questionnaire items regarding independence-
encouragement and negative representations of parenting behaviors. This suggests that
the interpretation of adult attachment theory applied to maternal intergenerational
transmission of parenting representations may also apply to paternal transmission.
Grandparents' insensitive parenting may lead to fathers' avoidance of attachment, which
in turn, may lead to adolescents' denial and idealization of attachment relationships.
These idealizing adolescents are then unlikely to report that their fathers were
discouraging their proximity-seeking behaviors.
Gender differences with regard to fathers' representations of parenting. The
only gender difference found in the transmission of fathers' representations of parenting
Intergenerational Transmission
100
to sons' versus daughters' representations of parenting was for the domain-specific
model regarding idealization. Specifically, fathers who idealize in their reports of
parenting received from grandmothers have daughters, but not sons, who are unlikely to
report independence-encouragement (i.e., discouragement of proximity-seeking) from
their fathers. These findings regarding independence-encouragement are again
consistent with those found for mothers. The finding that fathers' idealizing
representations only affect their daughters is consistent with studies that show parents are
more responsive to their same-sexed child (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). It may be
that fathers' increased sensitivity to their sons could counterbalance the effect of fathers'
idealizing, dismissing states of mind regarding attachment; whereas with daughters, their
dismissing states of mind lead to discouragement of proximity-seeking behaviors. Thus,
evidence of continuity in insecure attachments between opposite sex generations is more
likely to be found than in same-sex generations.
General conclusions regarding heritability of representations of parenting
The results of this study showed some associations between the representations
of parenting received for parents and their adolescents, however not all representations
demonstrated transmissibility among this study's participants. The findings of
intergenerational relationships between parents' and adolescents' reports of parenting
received were consistent with attachment theory. While research has shown the
correspondence of mothers' attachment classifications to those of their young children,
this study augmented this relationship to relate mothers' perceptions of the parenting they
received from grandparents to their adolescents' representations of parenting received.
Prediction of Problem Behaviors from Parenting Representations
In order for representations of parenting to act as a mechanism by which
problem behaviors are transmitted from parents to children, not only must
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101
representations of parenting be transmitted between generations, but they must also show
an association with problem behaviors. To determine the existence of this final
connection, parents' and adolescents' problem behaviors were regressed on their reports
of parenting received.
Predicting Adolescent Problem Behaviors
Teenagers' perceptions of parenting received were associated with their reported
drug-influenced behavioral problems. However, representations of parenting received
were not related to adolescents' initiation of smoking, alcohol or drug use, nor
frequency of alcohol or drug use, nor the grade during which teens first became
inebriated. Thus, representations of parenting were generally unrelated to quantity of
drug use (save a single finding regarding perceptions of trust with fathers and
adolescents' cigarette smoking), while they were related to problems with drugs.
The global model of parenting received from mothers on the Inventory of Parent
and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was associated with the total number of drug-influenced
behavioral problems reported by adolescents. For this model, adolescents who reported
more anger and alienation toward mothers also reported more drug-influenced
behavioral problems. Adolescents who reported more anger and alienation toward
fathers also reported more drug problems. Alienation is a characteristic Shedler and
Block (1990) attribute to "frequent drug users". They believe these heavy users fall into
a vicious cycle where "feeling troubled and inadequate, these adolescents withdraw from
work and relationships, and alienated from work and relationships, they feel all the more
troubled and inadequate" (1990, p. 626). These adolescents attempt to "numb out"
their feelings of hopelessness with drugs, ultimately becoming frequent users.
Brook, Whiteman and Finch (1993) provide an alternative explanation why
adolescents who feel anger and alienation toward parents may report more drug
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102
problems. These authors believe that affinity to parents promotes adolescents'
identification with parental values, which inhibits teens from using drugs or engaging in
unconventional, antisocial behaviors. Therefore, the present adolescent participants,
who reported feeling anger and alienation toward their parents, would be unlikely to
adopt their parents' values, and might, in fact, rebel by engaging in drug using
behaviors, resulting in increased problems with drugs.
Teens who idealize in their reports of their mothers were likely to report less
problems with drugs. Much like individuals with dismissing states of mind regarding
attachment who idealize in their perceptions, Shedler and Block (1990) found that
teenagers who abstained from drug use led lives characterized by omission; they were
prone to deny themselves gratification from warm relationships and fulfillment of
personal potentials to contain feelings of vulnerability. Perhaps then, the adolescent
participants in this study, who idealized in their perceptions of parenting received, were
less likely to report drug-related problems, because they were abstaining from drug use.
Alternatively, teens' idealization of mothers may simply be persisting when they report
less drug-related problems.
Adolescents who perceived their mothers as more accepting reported more
problems with drugs. The global model of parenting received from mothers as reported
by adolescents on the Mother-Father-Peer scale was significantly associated with the total
number of drug-influenced behavioral problems reported by teens. Similarly, Shedler
and Block found that "experimenters" (adolescents who used no more than one drug
other than marijuana, and who used marijuana nor more than once a month) had
mothers who were warm, responsive, encouraging and accepting. Therefore, the teens
who felt more accepted than rejected by their mothers, and who were likely to report
more problems with drugs, may simply be experimenting with drugs in what Shedler
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and Block believe to be a normative part of adolescent development.
Experimenters' warm, responsive mothers are likely to have relationships with
their teens which are characterized by warm, open communication. The global model
of parenting received from mothers on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment
(IPPA) showed such a direct relationship between adolescents' communication with
mothers and teens' drug-influenced behavioral problems. As with mothers, quality of
communication with fathers was directly related to the number of adolescent reported
drug problems as well. Quality of communication with fathers was also directly related
to teen frequency of cigarette smoking. Thus, the direct relationship of communication
with parents to teens' cigarette smoking and drug problems may be attributed to the
explanation for "experimenters".
Cigarette smoking was also inversely related to mutual trust with fathers. Why
adolescents with more trusting relationships with their fathers would smoke less is
illustrated by Brook, Whiteman and Finch's (1993) proposal that teenagers who have
positive relationships with their parents are likely to internalize parental values and to
behave in parentally accepted ways. Accordingly, adolescents who share a trusting
relationship with their fathers are likely to accept paternal perceptions that smoking is
hazardous to health, and so will smoke less. An explanation of how representations of
parenting differ in their ability to predict cigarette smoking and general measures of drug
use may be found in the general conclusions for this section.
Representations of parenting were again analyzed in two separate ways. As
reported above, the global grouping of each of the specific representations of parenting
received demonstrated some associations with adolescents' problems with drugs,
however no domain-specific models significantly predicted adolescent drug use.
Gender differences. The only gender differences found in the prediction of
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104
adolescent problem behaviors from their reports of parenting received are for the
domain-specific model of alienation from parents. The number of occasions on which
boys, but not girls, used alcohol or marijuana during the past year is directly influenced
by anger and alienation toward mother. Since problem behavior literature has shown
that, in general, boys are more vulnerable to family stressors than are girls (Rutter,
1985), it is logical that boys' drug usage would be more likely influenced by poor
relationships with parents than would girls'.
Family composition effects. Literature regarding the effects of divorce on
adolescent drug use generally shows that teenagers engage in drug use only when
parenting skills are lacking, regardless of family composition (Brody & Forehand, 1993;
Forehand, Middleton & Long, 1987; Patterson, DeBaryshe & Ramsey, 1989; Selnow,
1987; Tschann, Johnston, Kline & Wallerstein, 1990; Velleman, 1992). Although no
differences in the intergenerational transmission of drug use by family composition were
found, and no differences in the intergenerational transmission of representations of
parenting by family composition were found, there were significant differences in the
influence of representations of parenting on teen drug use by family composition.
Adolescents' idealizing reports about their mothers were inversely related to
frequency of cigarette smoking during the past month for teens from dual-parent
families, but not for teens from single-parent families. Frequency of cigarette smoking
during the past month was negatively related to mutual trust with mothers only for
adolescents from dual-parent families. Both positive and negative perceptions of mothers
from dual-parent families, but not mother-headed families, seemed to influence teens'
smoking behaviors. Perceptions about mothers from dual-parent families may have
more influence over adolescents' smoking behaviors because research shows these
mothers monitor their children more, while mothers in single-parent families allow their
Intergenerational Transmission
105
children more autonomy and responsibility (Hetherington, 1989). Thus, mothers'
increased monitoring in dual-parent families may influence their adolescents' perceptions
of them, making them a more pronounced influence on their adolescents' behavior.
Consequently, teens' representations about parenting received from these mothers would
show relationships to their cigarette smoking behaviors. The family composition effects
found in this study substantiate this view.
Predicting Parents' Problem Behaviors
Further support for the influence of representations of parenting on problem
behavior are found in the second generation of mothers, but not fathers. Mothers'
global models of parenting received from grandmothers and from grandfathers, and all
domain-specific models were associated with mothers' problems with alcohol and drug
use. On the other hand, no models were able to predict mothers' smoking during the
past month, or any of the fathers' smoking, alcohol or drug problems.
General Conclusions Regarding Prediction of Problem Behavior
Why the global models of parenting received only predict the number of
reported problems with alcohol and drugs and not just drug use in both generations is an
interesting question. Earlier in this discussion, parents' responses to the CAGE
questionnaire and adolescents' number of drug-influenced problem behaviors were
proposed to represent constructs which differ from simple drug use behavior. They
were postulated instead, to indicate an ability to recognize negative effects associated
with alcohol and drug use. Such abilities would suggest a construct related to social
development and functioning, rather than to simple drug use. Since parental functioning
is also related to personality development and psychological well-being (Belsky, 1984),
the relationship found between representations of parenting and problems associated with
drugs may be tapping into a common construct regarding social development. Thus,
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106
this study generally associated representations of parenting with reported drug-influenced
behavioral problems, but not with general measures of quantity of cigarette smoking or
drug use. Finding this final link, and finding some indication of an intergenerational
transmission of representations of parenting, implies that perceptions of parenting play a
part in the transmission of problem behaviors between generations.
Parenting preventing problem behaviors
One possible role that representations of parenting might play in the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors is that of a buffer. The notion that
poor relationships with parents foster drug use, or positive relationships may inhibit drug
use in adolescents with a heritable predisposition toward drug use, was explored.
Teens' perceptions of parent-adolescent relationships had no interactive, moderating
effects in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. This result is
consistent with Brook, Whiteman and Finch's (1993) postulation that good relationships
with parents foster identification with that parents' values. If adolescents' parents are
drug users, then teens' identification will only serve to promote drug use, not to shield
them from this behavior. Thus, representations of parenting did not seem to play a
buffering role in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors.
Another possible role that representations of parenting might play is a mediating
role. Indication that some parents' problem behaviors are intergenerationally
transmissible to their adolescents was found. Some representations of parenting received
by adolescents were also found to be associated with adolescents' problem behaviors. If
the transmission of parents' problem behaviors to adolescents was completely mediated
by representations of parenting received by adolescents, then when teens'
representations of parenting were added to models predicting adolescents' problem
behaviors, parents' problem behaviors would no longer be statistically significant
Intergenerational Transmission
107
predictors of adolescents' drug-influenced problem behaviors (Darlington, 1990).
However, the effects of parents' problem behaviors on adolescents' problem behaviors
were still significant, therefore the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors
from parents to adolescents may only be partially mediated by teens' representations of
parenting. This finding is consistent with research and literature on the etiology of
problem behavior which report that heritability of smoking, alcoholism and drug use is
due, in part, to genetic influences. Therefore, representations of parenting received by
adolescents should not have demonstrated a comprehensive mediating effect.
Limitations and future directions
This investigation provided insight into the role of parent-adolescent relationships
in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. Indication of an
intergenerational transmission of smoking, drinking and drug use from mother to
adolescent participants was found. Evidence of an intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting which corresponds to those described by attachment theory
was uncovered. A relationship between representations of parenting received and
perceptions of problems associated with smoking, drinking and drug usage was also
found in two generations. It was determined that representations of parenting received
do not play a buffering role, nor a comprehensive mediator role, in the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors. However, representations of parenting received by
adolescents demonstrate evidence of a partial mediating effect in the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors.
This study's data cannot support causal interpretations since it was cross-
sectional. Specifically, direction of the relationships found between parents' and
adolescents' reports cannot be determined. That is, the intergenerational associations
revealed may be the result of adolescents' influences on parents, rather than parents'
Intergenerational Transmission
108
influences on adolescents. Findings are also limited by self-reporting of parents' and
adolescents' drug use. The investigation of the association of representations of
parenting received with problem behaviors is further limited by having the same source
report on the independent and dependent measures. Furthermore, it is unknown
whether the association of parents' and adolescents' representations of parenting is due
to actual parenting behavior experienced or to other explanations (e.g., genetic
transmission of proclivity for recalling and describing parents in certain ways).
Therefore, interpretation of representations of parenting as constructs associated with
parenting behaviors is limited.
Future research should examine developmentally longitudinal data, so that
parents' drug use when they were teenagers could be compared with their adolescents'
drug use, regardless of what parents' present day behaviors are. Huesmann, Eron,
Lefkowitz, and Walder (1984)'s study on the continuity of aggression showed the best
indicator of children's aggression ratings to be parents' scores obtained when they were
their children's age, regardless of parents' present dispositions. By accounting for a
developmental trajectory for aggressive behavior in their research design, Huesmann
and colleagues found that, although the age-specific manifestations of aggression might
change with development (Bell, 1986), the problems continued throughout the lifespan
and into future generations. More research needs to examine the precursors of problem
behaviors, considering that they might change in form and amount with age, to reveal
ultimately the pathways on which problem behaviors are developed, cultivated, and
transmitted to affect later generations.
Future research regarding intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors
should also consider for participant selection that not only adolescents, but parents as
well, must be "at risk". Most of the participating parents had no or only a single
Intergenerational Transmission
109
problem with drugs or with alcohol, thus there were few problems for their children to
inherit. This investigation also would have benefitted by questioning parents for an
actual amount of alcohol and drug use with which to compare to their teenagers.
Furthermore, because the adolescents were selected for their "at risk" status to assist in
the development of interventions, the findings are not generalizable to the common
population.
Finally, having more comprehensive descriptions of parenting received, such as
that available on the Adult Attachment Interview, would profit future research so that
truly idealizing responses may be distinguished from actual positive reports of parenting
received.
The evidence found for the intergenerational transmission of representations of
parenting and the association of representations to substance use necessitates that
research examining the influence of parenting representations on problem behaviors
continue. Only a preliminary understanding of the influence of parenting representations
on problem behaviors exists at present. Further understanding of why some
representations may be transmitted while others are not, and the specific role parenting
representations play in the transmission of problem behaviors would benefit intervention
efforts attempting to break the intergenerational cycles of alcoholism and drug abuse that
cost billions of dollars. By integrating these topics of research, this study has shown that
parenting representations are important to the transmission of smoking, drinking a drug
problems. Why and how they are influential has yet to be learned.
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110
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Appendix A: Epstein's Mother-Father-Peer Scale MFPF (Youth-13) Subject ID Interviewer Visit # Target ID Use the scale provided to indicate the extent to which the following statements describe your childhood relationship with the adult female indicated below. Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : 1) encouraged me to make my own decisions. 1 2 3 4 5 2) helped me learn to be independent. 1 2 3 4 5 3) felt she had to fight my battles for me when I had a disagreement with a teacher or a friend. 1 2 3 4 5 4) was close to a perfect parent. 1 2 3 4 5 5) was overprotective of me. 1 2 3 4 5 6) encouraged me to do things for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 7) encouraged me to try things for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 8) had not a single fault that I can think of. 1 2 3 4 5 9) did not let me do things that other kids my age were allowed to do. 1 2 3 4 5
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WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement 10) sometimes disapproved of specific things I did, but never gave me the impression that she disliked me as a person. 1 2 3 4 5 11) enjoyed being with me. 1 2 3 4 5 12) was an ideal person in every way. 1 2 3 4 5 13) was someone I found very difficult to please. 1 2 3 4 5 14) usually supported me when I wanted to do new and exciting things. 1 2 3 4 5 15) worried too much that I would hurt myself or get sick. 1 2 3 4 5 16) was never angry with me. 1 2 3 4 5 17) was often rude to me. 1 2 3 4 5 18) rarely did things with me. 1 2 3 4 5 19) didn't like to have me around the house. 1 2 3 4 5 20) and I never disagreed. 1 2 3 4 5 21) would often do things for me that I could do for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 22) let me handle my own money. 1 2 3 4 5 23) could always be depended upon when I really needed her help and trust. 1 2 3 4 5
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WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement 24) gave me the best upbringing anyone could ever have. 1 2 3 4 5 25) did not want me to grow up. 1 2 3 4 5 26) tried to make me feel better when I was unhappy. 1 2 3 4 5 27) encouraged me to express my own opinion. 1 2 3 4 5 28) never disappointed me. 1 2 3 4 5 29) made me feel that I was a burden to her. 1 2 3 4 5 30) gave me the feeling that she liked me as I was; she didn't feel she had to make me over into someone else. 1 2 3 4 5
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Appendix B: Armsden & Greenberg's Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment IPPAF (Youth-12) Subject ID Interviewer Visit# Target ID Interviewer: Please have the teen fill this out for his/her mother figure. This section asks about your feelings about your relationship with . Please read each of the following statements and put a circle around the response that best describes how you feel about .
NEVER TRUE
SELDOM TRUE
SOMETIMES TRUE
OFTENTRUE
ALMOST ALWAYS TRUE
1. She respects my feelings.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
2. I feel she is successful as a parent.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
3. I feel alone or apart when I am with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
4. I wish I had a different parent.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
5. I try to keep to myself when I am upset.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
6. She accepts me as I am.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
7. I have to rely on myself when I have a problem to solve.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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8. I like to get her point of view on things I'm concerned about.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
9. I feel it is no use letting my feelings show.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
10. She senses when I'm upset about something.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
11. Talking over my problems with her makes me feel ashamed or foolish.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
12. She expects too much from me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
13. I get upset easily when I'm with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
14. I get a lot more upset than she knows.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
15. When we discuss things, she considers my point of view.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
16. She trusts my judgement.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
17. She has her own problems, so I don't bother her with mine.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
18. She helps me to understand myself better.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
19. I tell her about my problems and troubles.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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20. I feel angry with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
21. I don't get much attention when I'm with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
22. She encourages me to talk about my difficulties.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
23. She understands me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
24. I feel as if I don't know whom I can depend on these days.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
25. When I am angry about something, she tries to be understanding.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
26. I feel like what she doesn't know won't hurt her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
27. I trust her. never seldom sometimes often almost always 28. I feel as if she doesn't understand what I'm going through these days.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
29. I can count on her when I need to get something off my chest.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
30. I feel that no one understands me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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31. If she knows something is bothering me, she asks me about it.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
32. I feel I need to be in touch with her more often.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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Appendix C: CAGE Interview CAGE (Adult-8) Subject ID# Interviewer Visit # Introduction: These are some questions about your use of alcohol and other drugs.
Please keep in mind that these questions, like all the others you have answered today, will be kept confidential. Your name is not attached to your answers, only a subject code is used to identify you. Please circle the answer to each question.
1. Have you ever used alcohol at all? Yes No (If NO, go to number 6) 2. Have you ever felt the need to cut down on your drinking? Yes No 3. Have you ever been annoyed by criticism of your drinking? Yes No 4. Have you ever felt guilty about something you've done when you've been drinking? Yes No 5. Have you ever had a morning eye-opener (a drink to get you going in the morning)? Yes No 6. Have you ever used any drugs at all? Yes No (If NO, stop here) 7. Have you ever felt the need to cut down on your drug use? Yes No 8. Have you ever been annoyed by criticism of your drug use? Yes No
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9. Have you ever felt guilty about something you've done when you've been high on drugs? Yes No 10. Have you ever taken drugs first thing in the morning to get going, or to treat withdrawal symptoms? Yes No
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Appendix D: Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire
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