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2007 11: 421Journal of Studies in International EducationFutao Huang

Countries: A Focus on Transnational Higher Education in AsiaInternationalization of Higher Education in the Developing and Emerging

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Author’s Note: Please address all correspondence to Futao Huang, Research Institute for HigherEducation, Hiroshima University, Higashi Hiroshima Kagamiyama 1-2-2, Japan 739-8512; phone:0081-82 4 246242; fax: 0081-82 4 227104; e-mail [email protected].

Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 11 No. 3/4, Fall/Winter 2007 421-432DOI:10.1177/1028315307303919© 2007 Nuffic

Internationalization of Higher Education in the Developing and Emerging Countries: A Focus on Transnational HigherEducation in Asia

Futao Huang

This article begins with an introduction to the context and general situation of transna-tional higher education (TNHE) in Asia, especially in East and Southeast Asia. It thenexamines development of TNHE in some selected Asian countries from different per-spectives and provides a detailed description of TNHE in China. The article concludesby discussing challenges and opportunities for the development of TNHE in Asia.

Keywords: transnational higher education; Asia; China

INTRODUCTIONSince the early 1990s, aside from the traditional forms typically characterized by

mobility of students, scholars, and researchers; academic cooperation; and jointresearch between different countries, transnational higher education (TNHE) hasbecome an increasingly important and integral part of internationalization of highereducation in many countries. Compared with other parts of the world, and especiallysince the 1990s, there has been a rapid development of TNHE in Asia. Issues con-cerning importing and exporting higher education activities or services have becomeone of the major aspects of debates on higher education reform in many countriesin this region at both policy and institutional levels. In a major sense, Asia is themost important and active region for participation in TNHE.

There are many ways to define the term TNHE. For example, according toUNESCO, the term “transnational education” is generally defined as that “in which

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the learners are located in a country different from that where the awarding institutionis based” (UNESCO-CEPES, 2000). Accordingly, if TNHE is regarded as a part ofpostsecondary and tertiary education and training, it may take one of many forms,such as branch campuses, franchises, articulation, twinning, corporate programs,online learning and distance education programs, and study abroad (Global Alliancefor Transnational Education, 1999). Moreover, Knight (2002) argues that “transna-tional,” “borderless,” and “cross-border” education are terms that are being used todescribe both real and virtual movement of students, teachers, knowledge, and educa-tional programs from one country to another. Although there may be some conceptualdifferences between these terms, they are often used interchangeably (Knight, 2002).

In this article, the term TNHE is mainly concerned with any cross-border orinter-regional higher education activities or services in a broad sense: its major formrefers to the movement of educational programs and institutions from one countryor region to another country or region either physically or virtually. Just as the def-inition of TNHE varies widely, it can take different forms according to individualcountries and regions. Because many non-English-speaking countries in this regionhave no term identical in meaning to TNHE, this article uses the term TNHE todenote all the equivalent usages adopted by individual countries in Asia.

This article begins with an introduction to the context and general situation ofTNHE in Asia, especially in East and Southeast Asia. It then considers the develop-ment of TNHE in some selected Asian countries from different perspectives, fol-lowed by a detailed description of TNHE in China. It concludes by discussingchallenges and opportunities for the further development of TNHE in Asia.

CONTEXT OF TNHE IN ASIAInternationalization of higher education is not a completely new phenomenon in

Asia. As early as the latter part of the 19th century, many countries in Asia hadalready made various endeavors to establish modern higher education systems by dis-patching students and members of faculty abroad for advanced studies or research.The higher education systems adopted by these countries conformed to foreign aca-demic patterns, notably those Western models provided by Germany, France, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States. China and Japan provide typical examples.In these two countries especially—although internationalization of their higher edu-cation took its major form from the one-way process of importing Western ideas, aca-demic norms, and standards—they were not colonized. But elsewhere, many Asiancountries and areas were colonized by Western countries: countries such asIndonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. As Altbach showed, the colonial impactexpresses itself in important issues such as the language of instruction, the lack ofattention to science, and the importance of expatriates among academic staff (Altbach& Selvaratnam, 1989).

422 Journal of Studies in International Education Fall/Winter 2007




From 1945 to the 1980s, internationalization of higher education in thisregion was influenced by the Cold War, and individual countries in this regionwere divided into two big groups. One group accepted the models of the formerSoviet Union, and countries in the other group followed the American models.In general, the internationalization of higher education in these two groups wasmainly characterized by mobility of people between individual countries andbasically stimulated national programs of cooperation, development, and tech-nical assistance.

Since the 1990s, various new factors, especially the rapidity of economic global-ization and advancement of IT as well as introduction of market-oriented mechanisms,are exerting an increasingly significant influence on the internationalization of highereducation in many countries. Asia provides no exception. As in many other regions,compared with what had happened prior to the 1990s, the recent internationalizationof higher education in this region is driven much more strongly by economic factorsin a more competitive global environment. One of the important reasons for this is thatsince the 1990s in many developed countries, particularly in English-speaking coun-tries in Europe and in the United States, internationalization of higher education ismore driven by a commercial and entrepreneurial spirit. This is evident, for example,in policies adopting full-cost tuition fees for international students and profit-orientedtransnational programs undertaken in the United Kingdom and Australia. As a result,internationalization of higher education is now characterized by a transition fromtechnical assistance to the third world by these countries prior to the 1980s to agrowing global competition and from personal mobility and transplantation ofnational higher education models or systems within some designated countries orareas to programs, degrees, diplomas, campuses, and quality assurance at a globallevel. In this process, aspects of the internationalization of higher education havegone beyond simple mobility of international students and members of faculty. Theyhave come to include activities such as internationalization of curricula, TNHE in itswider sense, establishment of international organizations, and consortia of universitiesat both regional and global levels. The driving forces, policies, and practices concern-ing internationalization of higher education in individual nations are not only affectedby their national policy, character, and identity, but also are influenced by calls andpressures from international, regional, or global organizations. As indicated above, inrecent years policies and strategies concerning TNHE have gained increased attentionand visibility, especially in many countries and areas in Asia.

CURRENT SITUATION OF TNHE IN ASIA

Definitions and Forms of TNHEBecause there is no equivalent term for TNHE in many non-English-speaking

countries in this region, many of these countries adopt other usages to denote a

Huang / Internationalization of Higher Education 423




similar meaning. In fact, even in an English-speaking country such as Australia,which exerts a substantial influence on TNHE in Asian countries, TNHE is definedin a much broader sense. It denotes “any education or training at higher educationlevel provided beyond national or regional borders through mobility of people,program or institution” (Sugimoto, 2006). Accordingly, this definition includes the so-called international education (often referred to as “onshore education” in Australia)provided to international students coming to Australia; and it also covers distancelearning or e-learning delivered to students living outside Australia. Furthermore,a variety of terms similar to transnational, such as “offshore,” “cross-border” and“borderless,” are sometimes used interchangeably.

Although TNHE inevitably involves cross-border movement of programs, infor-mation, materials, and/or staff, different forms can be found in individual countriesand areas in Asia. For example, TNHE activities in Taiwanese higher education existin three forms: study abroad, twinning programs, and online learning. In Singapore,there are “external” distance education programs and foreign university branch cam-puses, whereas in Japan, student exchange or movement is the most developed. Incontrast, in Hong Kong and China, there has been an export flow of students to pro-grams in other countries.

Major types of TNHEBased on the characteristics of TNHE in this region, which seem applicable also

to other regions, at least three distinguishing types of transnational higher educationcan be identified: an Import-Oriented Type; an Import & Export Type; and aTransitional Type. To illustrate, developing countries like Vietnam and Indonesia arethe major examples of countries that are importing educational programs and insti-tutions from other countries, and in particular from Western countries. They arecharacterized by seeking and accepting Western academic norms, conventions, andstandards by introducing programs and institutions. Emerging countries and somespecial regions, such as Singapore and Hong Kong, are on the one hand importingforeign higher education activities from Australia, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States, and on the other hand they are also exporting their higher educationactivities to other Asian countries such as mainland China. These countries andregions are importing English-language products to enhance the quality of learningand research and exporting educational programs with distinctive characteristics.China and Japan predominantly import more foreign higher education services thanthey export, but in more recent years both countries have been making great effortsto export their own higher education services to other countries. These two countriescan be categorized as the Transitional Type.





Driving Forces for and Approaches to THNEExisting case studies of TNHE in this region reveal that various factors have sig-

nificantly impacted the policies and strategies for TNHE in Asia (Huang, 2006). Forexample, the main rationale for Hong Kong consumers in choosing transnational pro-grams is to gain an international education, which is particularly valued for its repu-tation for quality. In mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia, one of the importantdriving forces for introducing foreign higher education activities is increasing highereducation enrollments and increasing the pace of massification of their higher edu-cation systems. However, it should be emphasized that enhancement of competitive-ness and academic quality in the context of a globalizing economy are two commonfactors affecting all these countries and areas in seeking the provision or importationof TNHE activities. Thus, the major concerns regarding TNHE in this region, such asthose concerning how the quality of TNHE can be assured and how a national iden-tity and character can be maintained, are shared by many countries.

Because of the differing national policies and strategies in individual countriesand areas, three distinguishing approaches toward TNHE can be perceived in thisregion: a government-regulated approach, a market-oriented approach, and a tran-sitional approach characterized by transfer from a state-controlled approach to afree-market approach. China, Malaysia, and Korea provide striking examples ofthe government-regulated approach. Policies concerning TNHE in Hong Kong rep-resent a typical free-market approach. Currently, Japan and Taiwan are attemptingto introduce a free-market approach and to implement deregulation. In the nearfuture, as higher education is influenced by further marketization and increasedglobalization, increasingly more countries and areas in Asia are likely to changetheir strict national policies, based on territorial principles, to policies acceptingand recognizing incoming foreign educational programs or institutions.

Legal Status and Roles of TNHE in National Higher Education Systems

There exists a great diversity in the legal status of TNHE activities among the dif-ferent countries and areas in Asia. In most cases, incoming foreign institutions areregarded as part of the private sector. Malaysia and Korea offer clear examples. Bylaw in Malaysia, foreign providers wanting to offer transnational courses can eitherapply to be licensed as a private higher educational institution and open a branchcampus or deliver courses through a local partner licensed as a private higher edu-cational institution (Morshidi, 2006). In contrast, in China there is no available doc-ument that clearly defines the legal status of incoming foreign programs, especiallyjoint degree programs in cooperation with foreign partners on Chinese campuses.Also, current government policy documentation does not show whether these pro-grams belong to the public sector or the private sector. These joint degree programs





are provided exclusively in the Chinese public sector, more specifically in prestigiousChinese national universities, but in many respects they are operated in a totally dif-ferent way from normal programs even in the same institution. As a new form ofhigher education activity, deciding how to legally position the programs remains a bigissue for the central government (Huang, 2006, p. 30). Similarly, in Japan, until 2005,education authorities had approved none of the branch campuses of foreign institu-tions as formal higher education institutions, so it was not possible for them to acquirethe status of a “corporate school” like private higher education institutions in Japan.The vast majority of these branch campuses were established as “corporations”instead of “educational organizations.” It was not until early 2005 that incomingforeign higher education programs and institutions, including branch campuses ofAmerican institutions, finally received official recognition from Japan’s Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) as foreign uni-versities in Japan. This new status makes it possible for credits earned at the branchcampuses of American universities to be recognized by Japanese universities andallows their graduates to apply for admission to the graduate schools of Japanesepublic universities. However, it is still unclear whether foreign institutions, includ-ing the branch campuses of American institutions, can be included within any ofthree designated sectors—national, public, or private—or alternatively be approvedas constituting a new sector in Japan.

The role of TNHE in national higher education systems is closely connected tothe differing legal arrangements for TNHE in individual countries. For practical pur-poses, two major types of incoming foreign higher education services in Asia can beidentified: an incorporated/domestic-oriented type and an extracurricular/overseas-ledtype. In the former, incoming foreign educational activity has the ability to cater tothe domestic market and it is better able to contribute to national economic devel-opment and internationalization of higher education in the host country. It consti-tutes an integral part of the national higher education system and is officiallyincorporated into national provision of university education, contributing more aca-demic and professional programs. It is also strictly monitored and regulated bynational legislation and policy in the host country. A majority of countries, includ-ing China, Malaysia, and Vietnam, clearly conform to this type. In the second cate-gory, incoming TNHE services are not recognized as an integral part of the nationalhigher education system of the host country, they are merely regarded as extrauni-versity activities, totally separated from the national higher education educationalactivity. This category is responsive to market forces and primarily operates throughmarket mechanisms. Because this type of incoming TNHE activity is not consideredto be part of the national higher education system, it can only provide preparativeeducation or general study for local students that may facilitate their subsequent pursuit of higher education either at home campuses or abroad. Until early 2005,Japan was a typical representative of this type.





Although efforts are made to import higher education services from foreigncountries, especially from English-speaking Western countries, in many Asian coun-tries and areas these activities are still strictly monitored and regulated by the central or local government. In individual countries and areas many limitations andconstraints are imposed on the forms and levels as well as administrative patterns ofincoming foreign educational programs and institutions. In some countries, foreigninstitutions are not allowed to provide programs of military, religious, or politicalsciences. Most host countries insist on maintaining leadership of the administrativearrangements of incoming or joint programs and institutions by limiting the numberof non-nationals in governing bodies.

TNHE IN CHINAIn a major sense, a case study of China can provide an illuminating example of

TNHE changes in both emerging and developing countries. In comparison withmany other countries in Asia, China, with its rapid economic growth and variouspolitical reforms over the past decades, has experienced the radical transformationfrom a developing country to an emerging nation.

The term TNHE in China refers to the joint operation of higher education insti-tutions with foreign partners and collaborative delivery of educational programs. Itcovers two aspects: incoming foreign programs that are provided jointly by Chineseuniversities and foreign partners in Chinese universities and outgoing programsoffered by Chinese universities in other countries. At present, the transnational pro-grams that are provided by foreign institutions in China consist of two types: non-degree-conferring programs and degree programs leading to degrees of foreignuniversities or universities of Hong Kong (a special administrative district of China).

Normal growth and progress of TNHE in China developed from an incidental,informal and laissez-faire phase that lasted until 1995 into the more structured, sys-tematic, well-supported, and regulated current phase.

In the initial stage, the development of transnational programs, and in particulareducational programs leading to foreign or Hong Kong degrees, were strictly con-trolled and regulated by government. After the statement on “ContemporaryRegulation on Operation of Higher Education Institutions in Cooperation withForeign Partners,” issued by the former State Commission of Education in 1995,there was a surprisingly rapid expansion in the number of these joint programs,especially those with authority to confer foreign degrees. For example, in 1995,there were only two joint programs that could lead to foreign degrees; by 2004, thenumber of joint programs provided in Chinese higher education institutions in col-laboration with foreign partners had reached 745, and by June 2004 joint programsqualified to award degrees in foreign or Hong Kong universities amounted to 169(MOE, 2005). In general, these joint programs, and in particular programs leading





to qualification for a degree from a foreign or Hong Kong university charge tuitionfees of up to or even greater than five times those of local institutions. However,there exists an enormous market for these programs and, even more importantly,they are strongly supported by the Chinese government.

One of the striking characteristics of transnational programs in Chinese universitycampuses is that the vast majority are concerned with professional education. Forexample, although there are numerous programs in engineering, computing, infor-mation science, and English language, the majority belong to the fields of businessand management studies that prepare professionals for work in multinational corpo-rations or in firms engaged in international commerce. Almost all of them are pro-vided in China’s most prestigious universities. This may be one of the most importantreasons that these joint programs have been able to attract a steady increase in students over the last decade. With a rapid expansion of joint programs, more andmore research universities from foreign countries, and particularly prestigious uni-versities from the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, have partici-pated actively in offering various degree programs in cooperation with Chineseinstitutions. This has been a major factor in attracting more students into the jointprograms in China. By 2004, joint programs with Australian universities especially,had surpassed those with U.S. institutions (Huang, 2003a).

Several factors have led to the substantial increase in the number of TNHE pro-grams in Chinese universities (Huang, 2003b). Two reasons are of particular impor-tance. First, it is widely expected that integrating foreign educational programs intoChinese campuses will provide a practical and also a very efficient way to improveacademic quality and standards, as well as facilitating internationalization of Chinesehigher education. By undertaking joint programs with prestigious foreign partners,individual higher education institutions in China can obtain a full and direct under-standing of current educational missions, standards, ideas, curriculum management,and delivery of educational programs in foreign universities. Second, by introducingthose programs that are urgently needed but cannot be provided by Chinese institu-tions, China can train more graduates with international perspectives in a faster andmore efficient way.

Currently, establishment of branch campuses by foreign universities or corpora-tions is not permitted. At present, the sole example in China is the University ofNottingham Ningbo, China. This was established by the University of Nottingham(United Kingdom) in partnership with Zhejiang Wanli University. This case showsthat the Chinese government is prepared to allow a partnership with a foreign insti-tution to create a higher education establishment with the status of a corporation inChina. It is strongly emphasized however that the University of Nottingham Ningbo,China, which is considered one of China’s most admired new model universities withthe status of corporation, is not a branch campus of the University of Nottingham inthe United Kingdom but a completely independent university owned by Zhejiang





Wanli University. A majority of the programs are to be imported and taught by faculty members from the University of Nottingham (United Kingdom), but therewill be China-based degree programs also taught entirely in English. Students willreceive the same diplomas as those conferred by the University of Nottingham(United Kingdom) at graduation.

The most important reason joint programs on Chinese campuses do not receivethe status of a corporation is that most of them, and particularly the degree-conferring programs, are usually provided in partnership with foreign institutions atthe faculty, school, or departmental level. For the degree programs, both the localinstitutions and their foreign partners are required to be accredited with authority toaward degrees. Because only very few private institutions in China are accredited todeliver degree programs, in effect only the national and public institutions are quali-fied in this way. So, except for the University of Nottingham Ningbo, China with itsstatus of a corporation, incoming foreign higher education activity in China is notregarded as constituting an independent part of the higher education system such asthe national, public, or private institutions. Rather, because TNHE in China takes asits major form joint programs at faculty or departmental level, it is considered merelya supplementary part of the curriculum of Chinese higher education institutions.

As in many other Asian countries, there are also some limitations on incomingforeign programs in China. For example, it is emphasized that transnational educa-tion cannot be provided absolutely and solely by foreign institutions themselveswithout any form of cooperation with or involvement of Chinese institutions locatedin China. In addition, strong leadership by the Chinese side is repeatedly stressed inmany government documents. Even more significantly, it is emphasized that noprofit can be pursued in such transnational programs, though in practice, muchhigher tuition and fees are charged. However, the strong regulative powers anddirect leadership by both central government and local authorities in China do notimply that at a policy level importation of joint programs, including foreign degree-conferring programs, is discouraged or rigidly restricted in its expansion in China.On the contrary, provision of foreign higher education services and joint degree pro-grams is strongly encouraged and identified as an important complementary com-ponent of Chinese higher education.

It is also important to note that in recent years, a great effort has been made by theChinese government to provide a Chinese higher education service for local studentsin foreign countries. Although the number of degree-conferring programs offeredoutside China is much smaller than the number of TNHE degree programs providedon Chinese campuses, rapid progress has been made recently. For example, FudanUniversity in Shanghai and Singapore National University have agreed to establishbranch campuses in their respective universities and to undertake cooperation witheach other in recruiting students and by mutual recognition of some curricula, cred-its, diplomas, and degrees. Such external education activities are undertaken not only





in countries such as Japan, Korea, and some Southeast Asian countries, which usedto be greatly influenced by Chinese culture, but can also be found in some Westerncountries such as Germany, the United Kingdom, and Spain. Furthermore, in com-parison with the situation prior to the 1990s, transnational programs exported byChinese universities are no longer confined to studies in the Chinese language butnow also include professional programs such as international trade, management,science, and engineering.

Differing fundamentally from practices in many other countries in Asia, theimportation of foreign higher education programs in China is characterized by Sino-foreign partnerships in educational programs. These programs are permitted toaward foreign degrees on Chinese campuses and they are officially regarded as animportant part of national higher education. These joint programs, especially thoseawarding foreign degrees, are normally provided in the public sector and are mainlyoffered in the leading institutions: In practice, they cater more to a limited numberof elite students rather than provide a step to massification of higher education.Although these programs are strictly regulated by government, their rapid andsteady expansion is directly related to the supportive policy of central government,and this is incorporated as a component of internationalization of China’s highereducation. But issues such as how to position these transnational programs legallyand, even more importantly, to what extent government should regulate and controltheir growth need to be given serious consideration (Huang, 2006).

CONCLUSIONAs in many other regions, an increased impact from globalization and marketi-

zation has created new forms and wider dimensions in internationalization of highereducation in many Asian countries. The effects are readily illustrated through thearrival of imported foreign higher education services and the export of educationalprograms abroad. In facing the challenges of a global competitive environment,along with transferring from a government-regulated approach to a market-orientedapproach, more and more countries and areas have realized the importance of intro-ducing excellent foreign institutions and educational programs to facilitate massifi-cation and enhance the quality of their higher education.

In more and more Asian countries, TNHE and in particular incoming foreign pro-grams and institutions are being encouraged and supported, and TNHE is now rec-ognized in many countries as forming an integral part of the provision of nationalhigher education. However, central governments in many Asian countries still main-tain strong regulation and control of TNHE as a matter of policy and impose signif-icant limitations on it.

It appears that individual countries in Asia still import more programs or institu-tions from abroad than they export, especially from the United States and countries





in Europe. In this sense, it is appropriate to classify TNHE in Asian countries as oneof the three types: Import Type, Import & Export Type, or Transitional Type. To bemore precise, it is Western models and institutions that provide the foreign imports,a pattern that has continued from the colonial era into the contemporary period. Agrowing number of countries are still influenced by the English-language productsthat they use, though there are considerable variations. In most Asian countries, inter-nationalization of higher education, including TNHE, still maintains its basic char-acter of a process of catching up with advanced countries and approaching the levelsand provisions of the current centers of learning, mostly identified with the English-speaking countries in Europe and especially the United States. This phenomenonseems to have a significant link to the extent of national economic growth, the polit-ical system, and the stage of higher education development. But, more importantly,no Asian country has currently established centers of excellence in its own academicsystem that are universally recognized or maintains a quality of higher learning thatcan exert academic influence at an international or global level.

REFERENCES

Altbach, P. G., & Selvaratnam, V. (1989). From dependence to autonomy: Thedevelopment of Asian universities. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer AcademicPublishers.

Global Alliance for Transnational Education. (1999). Trade in transnational edu-cation services. Boston, MA: Author.

Huang, F. (2003a). Transnational higher education: A perspective from China.Higher Education Research & Development, 22(2), 193-203.

Huang, F. (2003b). Policy and practice of internationalization of higher educationin China. Journal of Studies in International Education 7(3), 225-240.

Huang, F. (2006). Transnational higher education in China: A focus on degree-conferring programs. In F. Huang (Ed.), Transnational higher education inAsia and the Pacific Region (International Publication Series 10; pp. 21-33).Hiroshima, Japan: Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University.

Knight, J. (2002). Trade in higher education services: The implications of Gates.London: The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Retrieved July 23,2005, from http://www.obhe.ac.uk/

MOE. (2005). List of joint programs leading to degrees of foreign universities anduniversities of Hong Kong. Retrieved September 16, 2005, from http://www.jsj.edu.cn/mingdan/002.html

Morshidi, S. (2006). Transnational higher education in Malaysia: Balancing bene-fits and concerns through regulations. In F. Huang (Ed.), Transnational highereducation in Asia and the Pacific Region (International Publication Series 10; p. 116). Hiroshima, Japan: Research Institute for Higher Education, HiroshimaUniversity.





Sugimoto, K. (2006). Australia’s transnational higher education in the Asia-Pacificregion: Its strategies and quality assurance. In F. Huang (Ed.), Transnationalhigher education in Asia and the Pacific Region (International Publication Series10; p. 3). Hiroshima, Japan: Research Institute for Higher Education, HiroshimaUniversity.

UNESCO-CEPES. (2000). Code of good practice in the provision of transnationaleducation. Bucharest, Romania: Author.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Futao Huang is professor in the research institute for higher education, HiroshimaUniversity, Japan. He earned his PhD in China. His major research interests include (a)a comparative study of university curricular development; (b) policy changes, organi-zations, structures and governance patterns relating to higher education in China andJapan; (c) internationalization of higher education in East Asia. He published widely inChinese, Japanese, and English. His recent publications include “Internationalization ofCurricula in Higher Education Institutions in Comparative Perspectives: Case Studiesof China, Japan and the Netherlands” (Higher Education, 2006); “QualitativeEnhancement and Quantitative Growth: Changes and Trends of China’s HigherEducation” (Higher Education Policy, 2005); “Internationalization of Higher Educationin an Age of Globalization—Historic and Comparative Perspectives” (Peking UniversityEducation Review, 2003, in Chinese); “A Comparative Study in University Curriculabetween China and Japan” (IDE, Gendai No Koutoukyouiku, 2002, in Japanese).





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