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Traditional - trust what is familiar, supportestablished groups and methods, honor precedents.

Original - values initiative and enterprising,inventive, and novel solutions. Often mistrustsconventional wisdom.

Thinking Feeling

Critical - comfortable making distinctions,categorizing, making win/lose choices, being inadversarial situations. 

Accepting - tolerant towards human failings, seepositive side of others, instinctually seeks win/winresolutions of problems.

Tough Minded - results oriented, ends justify themeans, stick on task. Firm

Tender Hearted - use gentle persuasion toinfluence, reluctant to force compliance..

Questionning - intellectually indpendent, resistantto influence, self confident.

Accomodating - seeks consensus, deferential,conflict avoiding, seeks harmony.

Logical - values and trusts detached, objective, andlogical analysis.

Affective - trusts emotions and feelings, valueshuman considerations, in touch with feelings.

Reasonable - is clear-thinking, objective, reasoned,and logical in everyday decision-making.

Compassionate - makes decisions on overallimpressions, patterns, and feelings (includingemotional likes and dislikes).

Judging Perceiving

Early Starter - focused. Structure activities to workon one thing at a time, allowing adequate time for proper completion. 

Pressure Prompted - prefers variety and multi-tasking. Most effectively energized when workingclose to deadlines.

Systematic - prefers orderly, structured andprogrammed responses. Likes formal contingency

planning.

Casual - comfortable making adjustments assituation requires. Prefers informal guidelines vs.

structured rules. Adaptable.Scheduled - creates and easily followsstandardized and familiar routines.

Spontaneous - dislikes repeatedly following thesame routines. Seeks variety and change.

Planful - likes to schedule future commitments far inadvance, uses dates and deadlines to organize their energies.

Open-ended - strongly values preserving flexibilityand freedom, dislikes being tied down by long rangeplans. Makes flexible plans.

Methodical - implements projects in a planned,organized, and step-by-step manner. Self programming.

Emergent - ad hoc planner. Moves quickly intoaction without detailed plans, plans on the go. Risktaking.

Nearly everyone has a preference for each of these personality “traits”. Afterweighing the subjective results of the test a dominant personality “type” can usuallybe identified. These types are differentiated by combining the letters for eachpreferred “trait” into a composite “type”. One example would be ENFP which is,Extroverted, iNtuitive, Feeling and Perceiving. With this method 16 differentpersonalities can be identified. For descriptions of each of the four preferences youcan click here. For descriptions of all 16 personalities you can click here. For a free

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personality assessment test you could go here. While it costs $5 I would recommendinstead taking the test here.

Apparently, most people including those very familiarwith the MBTI don’t really know what each of the traits is

describing. The “traits” being identified by the MBTI aremostly based on externalized behavior and environmentalpreferences. Isabel Briggs Myers was an INFP and CG Jungwas an INTP. Each of these “types” gathers information inthe same manner and the same sequence (i.e. Ne Si).However, they judge and interpret the information verydifferently, (Fi Te vs. Ti Fe). INFPs have cognitive strengthsthat allow them to understand people in terms of observedand preferred “externalized” behaviors. INTPs havecognitive strengths that allow them to understand people interms of abstract conceptual patterns and language usage.

By combining both forms of identification, personality traitsare more quickly identified. For example, by watchingsomeone’s behavior exhibited by body language, verbalintonation/inflection, energy level and conceptuallanguage, logic/reasoning preference, and word choice andthen relating these behaviors to the “environmental” orsituational context will give a more complete perception ofthe individual’s personality preferences. (The "Population Breakdown"

chart on the right is from Wikipedia.)

Here is a table listing each of the 16 types grouped by function/trait. Next to eachis a rough percentage of the US population that can be identified having eachpersonality type. (These percentages are from the MBTI Manuel – A Guide to theDevelopment and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Third Edition 1998. The F isfor Female and the M is for Male.)

  ST SF NF NT  

I ISTJ – F 6.9% M

16.4%

ISFJ – F 19.4% M

8.1%

INFJ – F 1.6% M

1.3%

INTJ – F 0.8% M

3.3%J

I ISTP – F 2.4% M 8.5% ISFP – F 9.9% M7.6%

INFP – F 4.6% M4.1%

INTP – F 1.8% M4.8%

P

E ESTP – F 3.0% M

5.6%

ESFP – F 10.1% M

6.9%

ENFP – F 9.7% M

6.4%

ENTP – F 2.4% M

4.0%P

Population

Breakdown

ISTJ11.6%

ISFJ13.8%

INFJ1.5%

INTJ2.1%

ISTP5.4%

ISFP8.8%

INFP4.4%

INTP3.3%

ESTP4.3%

ESFP8.5%

ENFP8.1%

ENTP3.2%

ESTJ

8.7%

ESFJ

12.3%

ENFJ

2.4%

ENTJ

1.8%

By using inferential

statistics an estimate of

the preferences found in

the US population has

been gathered.

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E ESTJ – F 6.3% M

11.2%

ESFJ – F 16.9% M

7.5%

ENFJ – F 3.3% M

1.6%

ENTJ – F 0.9% M

2.7%J

 

What Are the Big Five Dimensions of Personality?

Personality researchers have proposed that there are five basic dimensions of personality.

Evidence of this theory has been growing over the past 50 years, beginning with the research of 

D. W. Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers including Norman (1967),

Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).

 The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant

body of literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't

always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these fivecategories are usually described as follows:

1. Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability,friendliness, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotionalexpressiveness.

2. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust,humanity, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.

3. Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levelsof thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors.

 Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

4. Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotionalinstability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

5. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination andinsight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that these

groupings of characteristics tend to occur together in many people. For example, individuals who

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are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these traits do not always occur together. Personality 

is a complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across several of these

dimensions.

Big Five personality traitsthe "Big Five" factors (or Five Factor Model; FFM) of personality are five broad domains or 

dimensions of  personality which are used to describe human personality.

The Big five factors are

Openness,

 Conscientiousness,

 Extraversion,

 Agreeableness,

and  Neuroticism 

traits that correlate together. For example, extraversion includes such related qualities as

sociability, excitement seeking, impulsiveness, and positive emotions.

The Five Factor Model is a purely descriptive model of personality, but psychologists have

developed a number of theories to account for the Big Five.

The Big Five factors and their constituent traits can be summarized as follows:

• Openness – (inventive / curious vs. consistent / cautious). Appreciation forart, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.

•

Conscientiousness – (efficient / organized vs. easy-going / careless). Atendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement;planned rather than spontaneous behavior.

• Extraversion – (outgoing / energetic vs. shy / reserved). Energy, positiveemotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.

• Agreeableness – (friendly / compassionate vs. cold / unkind). A tendency tobe compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

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• Neuroticism – (sensitive / nervous vs. secure / confident). A tendency toexperience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression,or vulnerability.

The Big Five model is a comprehensive, empirical, data-driven research finding. Identifying the

traits and structure of human personality has been one of the most fundamental goals in all of 

 psychology. The five broad factors were discovered and defined by several independent sets of researchers (Digman, 1990).[1] These researchers began by studying known personality traits and

then factor-analyzing hundreds of measures of these traits (in self-report and questionnaire data,

 peer ratings, and objective measures from experimental settings) in order to find the underlyingfactors of personality.

The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Cristal[2], but failed to reach an

academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five factor model of 

 personality, which Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization (Goldberg, 1993).[3]

These five over-arching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known

 personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits.

These five factors provide a rich conceptual framework for integrating all the research findingsand theory in personality psychology. The Big Five traits are also referred to as the "Five Factor

Model" or FFM (Costa & McCrae, 1992),[4] and as the Global Factors of personality (Russell &

Karol, 1994).[5]

At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem andhave identified generally the same Big Five factors: Tupes & Cristal were first, followed by

Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute,[6][7][8][9][10] Cattell at the University of Illinois,[11][12][13][14]

and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health.[15][16][17][18] These four sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five

factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly

inter-correlated and factor-analytically aligned.[19][20][21][22][23]

Because the Big Five traits are broad and comprehensive, they are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous lower-level traits. Many

studies have confirmed that in predicting actual behavior the more numerous facet or primary

level traits are far more effective (e.g. Mershon & Gorsuch, 1988 [24]; Paunonon & Ashton,2001[25])

When scored for individual feedback, these traits are frequently presented as  percentile scores.

For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th percentile indicates a relatively strong sense

of responsibility and orderliness, whereas an Extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an

exceptional need for solitude and quiet. Although these trait clusters are statistical aggregates,exceptions may exist on individual personality profiles. On average, people who register high in

Openness are intellectually curious, open to emotion, interested in art, and willing to try newthings. A particular individual, however, may have a high overall Openness score and be

interested in learning and exploring new cultures but have no great interest in art or poetry.

The most frequently used measures of the Big Five comprise either items that are self-descriptive

sentences[26] or, in the case of lexical measures, items that are single adjectives. [27] Due to the

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length of sentence-based and some lexical measures, short forms have been developed and

validated for use in applied research settings where questionnaire space and respondent time are

limited, such as the 40-item balanced International English Big-Five Mini-Markers[28] or a very brief (10 item) measure of the Big Five domains. [29]

[edit] Openness to experienceMain article: Openness to experience

Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination,

curiosity, and variety of experience. The trait distinguishes imaginative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious,

appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more

creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold unconventional beliefs.

People with low scores on openness tend to have more conventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They

may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion or even view these endeavors as uninteresting.

[edit] Sample openness items

• I have a rich vocabulary.• I have a vivid imagination.• I have excellent ideas.• I spend time reflecting on things.• I use difficult words.• I am not interested in abstractions. (reversed )• I do not have a good imagination. (reversed )

• I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed )[30]

[edit] Conscientiousness

Main article: Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.

The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. It influences the way

in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch).

[edit] Sample conscientiousness items

• I am always prepared.• I am exacting in my work.• I follow a schedule.• I get chores done right away.• I like order.• I pay attention to details.• I leave my belongings around. (reversed )

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• I make a mess of things. (reversed )• I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed )• I shirk my duties. (reversed )[30]

[edit] Extraversion

Main article: Extraversion and introversion

Extraversion is characterized by positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek out

stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the

external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, and are often perceived as full of energy.

They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let'sgo!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw

attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the social exuberance and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to seem quiet,low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement

should not be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation thanextraverts and more time alone. They may be very active and energetic, simply not socially.

[edit] Sample extraversion items

• I am the life of the party.• I don't mind being the center of attention.• I feel comfortable around people.• I start conversations.• I talk to a lot of different people at parties.• I am quiet around strangers. (reversed )

• I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed )• I don't talk a lot. (reversed )• I have little to say. (reversed )[30]

[edit] Agreeableness

Main article: Agreeableness

Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and

antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social

harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate,friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable

 people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,decent, and trustworthy.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generallyunconcerned with others’ well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people.

Sometimes their skepticism about others’ motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and

uncooperative.

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[edit] Sample agreeableness items

• I am interested in people.• I feel others' feelings.• I have a soft heart.•

I make people feel at ease.• I sympathize with others’ feelings.• I take time out for others.• I am not interested in other people’s problems. (reversed )• I am not really interested in others. (reversed )• I feel little concern for others. (reversed )• I insult people. (reversed )[30]

• I like being isolated. (reversed )

[edit] Neuroticism

Main article: Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or 

depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability. Those who score high in neuroticism areemotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary

situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional

reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a badmood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high

on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and

are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent

negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience alot of positive feelings.

[edit] Sample neuroticism items

• I am easily disturbed.• I change my mood a lot.• I get irritated easily.• I get stressed out easily.• I get upset easily.• I have frequent mood swings.•

I often feel blue.• I worry about things.• I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed )• I seldom feel blue. (reversed )[30]

[edit] History

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[edit] Early trait research

Sir Francis Galton was the first scientist to recognize what is now known as the LexicalHypothesis. This is the idea that the most salient and socially relevant  personality differences in

 people’s lives will eventually become encoded into language. The hypothesis further suggests

that by sampling language, it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits.

In 1936, Gordon Allport and H. S. Odbert put this hypothesis into practice.[31] They worked

through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the English language available at the time

and extracted 17,953 personality-describing words. They then reduced this gigantic list to 4,504adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits.

Raymond Cattell obtained the Allport-Odbert list in the 1940s, added terms obtained from

 psychological research, and then eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171.[32] He then

asked subjects to rate people whom they knew by the adjectives on the list and analyzed their 

ratings. Cattell identified 35 major clusters of personality traits which he referred to as the"personality sphere." He and his associates then constructed personality tests for these traits. The

data they obtained from these tests were analyzed with the emerging technology of computerscombined with the statistical method of  factor analysis. This resulted in sixteen major personality

factors, which led to the development of the 16PF Personality Questionnaire.

In 1961, two Air Force researchers, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal, analyzed personality

data from eight large samples. Using Cattell's trait measures, they found five recurring factors,which they named "Surgency", "Agreeableness", "Dependability", "Emotional Stability", and

"Culture".[33] This work was replicated by Warren Norman, who also found that five major 

factors were sufficient to account for a large set of personality data. Norman named these factors

Surgency, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Culture.[34]

RaymondCattell viewed these developments as an attack on his 16PF model and never agreed with the

growing Five Factor consensus. He refers to "...the five factor heresy" which he considers "...is

 partly directed against the 16PF test". Responding to Goldberg's article in the AmericanPsychologist, 'The Structure of Phenotypic Personality Traits', Cattell stated, "No experienced

factorist could agree with Dr Goldberg's enthusiasm for the five factor personality theory". This

determined rejection of the FFM challenge to his 16 factor model is presented in an article published towards the end of his life and entitled 'The fallacy of five factors in the personality

sphere', Cattell, R. B. (1995), The Psychologist , The British Psychological Society, May Issue pp

207–208.

[edit] Hiatus in research

For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality research

difficult. In his 1968 book  Personality and Assessment , Walter Mischel asserted that personalitytests could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists like

Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation.

Predicting behavior by personality tests was considered to be impossible.

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Emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to

 predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could

 predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations. As a resultcorrelations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that

“personality” did in fact exist. Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that both

 personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. Trait theories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area.

By 1980, the pioneering research by Tupes, Christal, and Norman had been largely forgotten by

 psychologists. Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, independently found the five

factors once again, and gradually brought them back to the attention of psychologists.[35] He later coined the term "Big Five" as a label for the factors.

[edit] Validity of the Big Five

In a 1981 symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg,  Naomi

Takemoto-Chock , Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personalitytests of the day. They concluded that the tests which held the most promise measured a subset of 

five common factors, just as Norman had discovered in 1963. This event was followed bywidespread acceptance of the five factor model among personality researchers during the 1980s.

In 1984 Peter Saville and his team included the five-factor “Pentagon” model with the original

OPQ. Pentagon was closely followed by the  NEO five-factor personality inventory, published byCosta and McCrae in 1985.

One of the most significant advances of the five-factor model was the establishment of a

common taxonomy that demonstrates order in a previously scattered and disorganized field.

What separates the five-factor model of personality from all others is that it is not based on the

theory of any one particular psychologist, but rather on language.

A number of  meta-analyses have confirmed the predictive value of the Big Five across a wide

range of behaviors. Saulsman and Page examined the relationships between the Big Five

 personality dimensions and each of the 10 personality disorder categories in the Diagnostic and 

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Across 15 independent samples, the

researchers found that each disorder displayed a unique and predictable five-factor profile. The

most prominent and consistent personality predictors underlying the disorders were positiveassociations with Neuroticism and negative associations with Agreeableness.[36]

In the area of job performance, Barrick and Mount reviewed 117 studies utilizing 162 samples

with 23,994 participants. They found that conscientiousness showed consistent relations with all performance criteria for all occupational groups. Extraversion was a valid predictor for occupations involving social interaction (e.g. management and sales). Furthermore, extraversion

and openness to experience were valid predictors of training proficiency criteria. [37][38]

[edit] Selected scientific findings

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Ever since the 1990s when the consensus of psychologists gradually came to support the Big

Five, there has been a growing body of research surrounding these personality traits (see for 

instance, Robert Hogan's edited book "Handbook of Personality Psychology" (Academic Press,1997).

 personality by blood type:

Type O:

Type O's are outgoing, and very social. They are initiators, although they don't always finish

what they start. Creative and popular, they love to be the center of attention and appear very self 

confident.

Type A:

While outwardly calm, they have such high standards (perfectionists) that they tend to be balls of nerves on the inside. Type A's are the most artistic of the blood groups. They can be shy, are

conscientious, trustworthy, and sensitive.

Type B:

Goal oriented and strong minded, type B's will start a task and continue it until completed, and

completed well. Type B's are the individualists of the blood group categories and find their own

way in life.

Type AB:

Type AB's are the split personalities of the blood groups. They can be both outgoing and shy,confident and timid. While responsible, too much responsibility will cause a problem. They are

trustworthy and like to help others.

Compatability by Blood Groups:A is most compatible with A and AB

B is most compatible with B and AB

AB is most compatible with AB, B, A and O

O is most compatible with O, and AB

To learn about the science of blood types, please visit the link on the top right "Blood Groupsand Anthropology" "Craig Medical" or "The Franklin Institute."

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Personality Types A B C

Different Personality Types - A B and C

Human behavior is not only a complex subject to understand, but it is also cursed with theelement of unpredictability. Every one tries to fathom what the next guy is thinking about or how

he or she will act in a certain environment such as the work place.

The advances in the field of psychology and the deeper understanding of the psyche of men, too,

have come up with personality types A B C D. People in a work place such as an office or factory, can be grouped under any one of the personality types a,b,c, based on the their behavior 

and personality traits as follows. If the world is full of people of personality types A B C only,

then it will be a very bleak place to live in. You will be extremely lucky to find a true specimenof the personality type A B C as described below. Read more on personality traits list.

Personality Type AThe individuals that come under personality type A are of a highly independent nature. These arethe bulldozers in the personality types a, b, c. Their ambition to leave their mark in the world

singles them out from the rest. They are self driven and know the importance of goal setting,

 positive thinking and motivation. If you are interested in studying one of the specimens of  personality type A, choose one from the ranks of  business leadership. They are competitive in

nature, in fact they thrive on it as if it is the fuel of their life. They are well known for their 

sharpness in getting to the heart of the matter in no-nonsense and blunt terms. Individuals of  personality type A are risk takers which characterize an entrepreneurial spirit or mind. They do

have the ability to put on the veil of practicality to solve a problem as and when required. You

will find that open minded individuals of personality type A are the ones who welcome changes

in technology and practices and who don't baulk under the requirements and necessity of changeand success.

Personality Type B

These people can be described as the "bombers" among the personality types A, B and C. These

characters are extroverts to the soles of their boots and think that life is nothing but getting under 

the spotlight and spell binding the rest. Individuals that fall under the personality type B arehuman magnets that can attract the attention of the rest in a gathering, effortlessly. This makes

their type seem special among the various other personalities. These individuals have a very

engaging personality and when it comes to conversations they are as sleek as eels. Individuals of  personality type B are the people who can sell a fridge to an Eskimo who, after the sale, thanks

all his departed ancestors and the snowman for bestowing the honor of buying something from

this wonderful man. Because of their ability to get tuned in with the people, others find them a

fountain of entertainment and charisma. Turn and focus your microscope to sales and  marketingor to those people in the field of entertainment and you will find them in no time (aren't they in

the limelight too?). Persons of personality type B thrive on the interaction with the rest. Your act

of ignoring them or their efforts is as good as you sticking a knife in their back, for them. Not being able to to attract your attention or making you sway to their tune, will hurt these people.

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Personality Type C

The apt term to describe these individuals in personality types A, B and C is "seekers". If you are

searching for a promising heir to your microscope, you can choose any person of personalitytype C. These are introverts who are interested in details which separates them from the rest of 

the types in personality types A, B, C. They could turn heaven and hell upside down or inside-

out, depending on their mood, to find the detail or fact they are interested in, before taking it to pieces in order to restart the process. These people tend to shrink from social or human

interaction. Arranging facts (these include women and their behavior, how foolish!) around

them, in logical order is what drives these people to no end. This type of a person can live withan individual of personality type B, as happily as a meditative pound of matter with an outgoing,

 bubbling, jesting and noisy pound of antimatter. Yes, personality type C is as exactly opposite of 

the personality type B as an electron with the left spin is the antithesis of the one with the right

spin. You can find specimens of personality type C personified in accountants, computer  programmers etc. These people find it difficult to get out of their shell and communicate with

other people, but are tigers when it comes to numbers and logic. Reservedness is a mark of 

 personality type C and they are cautious, too. Risk taking is not a very attractive option for these

 people who tend not to venture into something until they have gone over all the facts with a finetoothed comb.

Personality Type D

These gentlemen really believe in inertia which they have no shortage of. These people prefer to

stick to the trodden paths and established routines over the uncertainty of change. You will find,

don't train your microscope or binoculars on a stage bathed under a a flood of spotlight, a truespecimen of this type are people engaged as clerks. These are followers of the spent actions and

executors of the direct commands. You will find them doing their best not to stretch their neck 

out when it comes to taking responsibility and risk. With the help of professionals in the field of  personality development and through sheer power of self motivation or  self improvement, these

individuals can overcome their handicap to some extent.

It is found that the lifestyles led by individuals of personality types A B C makes them prone to

diseases such as heart attacks and cancer. In reality, an individual is a mixture of personality

traits characterizing personality types A B C. Won't you agree with me that, this makes menmore complex, women more mysterious to understand and the world more colorful? This is why,

a layman, has to work real hard and over a long period of time to know a person in depth. The

 personality types A, B and C which can unveiled with the help of a  personality test, are justguidelines to follow in order to know a man and not the absolute truth.

Levinson's Theory of Adult Life StagesDaniel Levinson proposed that the personality development of an individual progresses with age. Thistheory was different from other popular theories of the time which held that personality development isassociated with events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. Initially, Levinson believed that anindividual's development took place uniformly throughout the adult years. However, he later theorized thatthe years of uniform progress are punctuated by (four) periods of stability during which no developmenttakes place.

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According to Levinson's theory, the four periods of stability occur between the following ages:

1. Twenty-two to twenty-eight (during which an individual steps into the adult stage)

2. Thirty-three to forty (during which an individual is in the process of settling down)

3. Forty-five to fifty (during which an individual enters middle adulthood)

4. Fifty-five to sixty (a stage where middle adulthood terminates and an individual approaches old age.)

Chris Argyris

Immaturity / Maturity Theory

The fact that bureaucratic/ pyramidal values still dominate most organizations, according to

Argyris, has produced many of our current organizational problems.

While at Yale, he examined industrial organizations to determine what effect management practices have had on individual behavior and personal growth within the work environment.

Personality changes

According to Argyris, seven changes should take place in the personality of individuals if they

are to develop into mature people over the years.

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• First, individuals move from a passive state as infants to a state of increasingactivity as adults.

• Second, individuals develop from a state of dependency upon others asinfants to a state of relative independence as adults.

•  Third, individuals behave in only a few ways as infants, but as adults they arecapable of behaving in many ways.

• Fourth, individuals have erratic, casual, and shallow interests as infants butdevelop deeper and stronger interests as adults.

• Fifth, the time perspective of children is very short, involving only thepresent, but as they mature, their time perspective increases to include thepast and the future.

• Sixth, individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they move toequal or superior positions with others as adults.

• Seventh, as children, individuals lack an awareness of a "self," but as adultsthey are not only aware of, but they are able to control "self."

Argyris postulates that these changes reside on a continuum and that the "healthy" personality

develops along the continuum from "immaturity" to "maturity.

These changes are only general tendencies, but they give some light on the matter of maturity.

 Norms of the individual's culture and personality inhibit and limit maximum expression andgrowth of the adult, yet the tendency is to move toward the "maturity" end of the continuum with

age.

Argyris would be the first to admit that few, if any, develop to full maturity.

Holland Code Career Models

The Models match jobs into job codes, interest clusters, work personality environments, or 

 personality types. The Occupational Codes are -

• Realistic• Investigative• Artistic• Social• Enterprising and• Conventional

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Fire Fighter Video Clip

To view the video clip, you will need Windows Media Player installed on your computer. You

can get Windows Media Player at here. A new window will open so you can download it

without leaving this page.

Once the Windows Media Player is installed, click the link  to download and view the video

clip. When the clip has uploaded, click the PLAY button (at the bottom left side of the Media

Player) to begin viewing the video clip.

 Taken from the Center for Occupational Employment Information Career Video

Library

Realistic is one of the Holland Codes. Realistic types prefer to deal with Things.

• A person with a Realistic Personality tends to be frank, practical, focused,mechanical, determined, or rugged .

• Examples of Realistic  Abilities include manipulating tools, doingmechanical or manual tasks, or doing athletic activities.

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• Examples of Realistic Holland Code Careers include Craftsman, FitnessTrainer, Optician, Policemen, Fire Fighter, and Physical Education Teacher .

• Possible Realistic College Majors are Justice Studies, Fire Science, AthleticTraining, Martial Arts, Corporate Fitness, and Physical Education.

Investigative is one of the Holland Codes. Investigative types prefer to deal withThings and Ideas. 

• A person with a Investigative Personality tends to be analytical,intellectual, reserved, independent, and scholarly .

• Examples of Investigative Abilities include working with abstract ideas and intellectual problems.

• Examples of Investigative Holland Code Careers include Biologist,Chemist, Historian, Researcher, Doctor, and Mathematician.

• Possible Investigative College Majors are Botany , Engineering, Forestry Science, Physics, and Foreign Languages.

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 Artistic is one of the Holland Code Career Types. Artistic types prefer to deal with

Ideas and People. 

• A person with a Artistic Personality tends to be Complicated, Original,

Impulsive, Independent, Expressive, and Creative.• Examples of  Artistic Abilities include using imagination and feelings in

creative expression .• Examples of  Artistic Holland Code Careers include Artist, Musician, Actor/ 

 Actress, Designer, Writer, and Photographer .• Possible Artistic College Majors are Art, Theater, Graphic Design, Music,

 Journalism, and Communication.

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Social is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Social types prefer to deal with

People. 

• A person with a Social Personality tends to be Helping, Informing,Teaching, Inspiring, Counseling, and Serving.

• Examples of Social Abilities include interacting with people and concerned with the welfare of people.

• Examples of Social Holland Code Careers include Teacher, Clergy, Coach,Therapist, Nurse, Counselor, and Sociologist .

• Possible Social College Majors are Nursing, Christian Education,Counseling, Biblical Studies, Social Science, and Education.

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Enterprising is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Enterprising types prefer

to deal with Data and People. 

• A person with an Enterprising Personality tends to be Characteristics:

Persuasive, Energetic, Sociable, Adventurous, Ambitious, and Risk-taking.• Examples of Enterprising Abilities include leading, managing, and 

organizing.• Examples of Enterprising Holland Code Careers include Manager,

Producer, Lawyer, Business/ Marketing, Executive, Entrepreneur, andPrincipal.

• Possible Enterprising College Majors are Pre-Law, Business Management and Administration, International Business, and Political Science.

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Conventional is one of the Holland Occupational Codes. Conventional types

prefer to deal with Data and Things. 

• A person with a Conventional Personality tends to be Careful, Conforming,Conservative, Conscientious, Self-controlled, and Structured .

• Examples of Conventional Abilities include ordering activities payingattention to details.

• Examples of Conventional Holland Code Careers include Accountant,Banker, Editor, Office Manager, Librarian, and Reporter .

• Possible Conventional College Majors are Business, Accounting, and Management .

 johari window

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Ingham and Luft's Johari Window model diagrams and

examples - for self-awareness, personal development, group

development and understanding relationships

The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-

awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. The Johari Windowmodel can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. The

Johari Window model was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in

1955, while researching group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The model

was first published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in GroupDevelopment by UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was later expanded by Joseph Luft.

Today the Johari Window model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on, and influence

of, 'soft' skills, behaviour, empathy, cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonaldevelopment.

The Johari Window concept is particularly helpful to understanding employee/employer 

relationships within the Psychological Contract.

Over the years, alternative Johari Window terminology has been developed and adapted by other  people - particularly leading to different descriptions of the four regions, hence the use of 

different terms in this explanation. Don't let it all confuse you - the Johari Window model is

really very simple indeed.

free johari window model diagram (pdf - landscape)

free johari window model diagram (pdf - portrait)

(The Johari Window diagram is also available in MSWord format from the free resources

section.)

Luft and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' after combining their first names, Joeand Harry. In early publications the word appears as 'JoHari'. The Johari Window soon became a

widely used model for understanding and training self-awareness, personal development,

improving communications, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, team development andinter-group relationships.

The Johari Window model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self awareness',

and by some people an 'information processing tool'. The Johari Window actually represents

information - feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills, intentions, motivation, etc - within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four perspectives, which are described below.

The Johari Window model can also be used to represent the same information for a group in

relation to other groups. Johari Window terminology refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means

oneself, ie, the person subject to the Johari Window analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team.

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 N.B. When the Johari Window model is used to assess and develop groups in relation to other 

groups, the 'self' would be the group, and 'others' would be other groups. However, for ease of 

explanation and understanding of the Johari Window and examples in this article, think of themodel applying to an individual within a group, rather than a group relating to other groups.

The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of theseregions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known about the

 person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether theinformation is known or unknown by others in the group.

The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or perspectives) are as follows, showing the

quadrant numbers and commonly used names:

 johari window four regions

1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others -

open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena'2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know -

blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot'3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden

area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade'4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by

others - unknown area or unknown self 

 

 johari window four regions - model diagram

Like some other behavioural models (eg, Tuckman, Hersey/Blanchard), the Johari Window is based on a four-square grid - the Johari Window is like a window with four 'panes'. Here's how

the Johari Window is normally shown, with its four regions.

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 This is the standard

representation of the

 Johari Window model,

showing each quadrant

the same size.

 The Johari Window

'panes' can be changed

in size to reflect the

relevant proportions of 

each type of 'knowledge'

of/about a particular

person in a given group

or team situation.

In new groups or teamsthe open free space for

any team member is

small (see the Johari

Window new team

member example below)

because shared

awareness is relatively

small.

As the team memberbecomes better

established and known,

so the size of the team

member's open free area

quadrant increases. See

the Johari Window

established team

member example below.

 

 johari window model - explanation of the four regions

Refer to the free detailed Johari Window model diagram in the free resources section - print a

copy and it will help you to understand what follows.

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 johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public

area', or 'arena'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known

 by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').

The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person, because

when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the

group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the

space where good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust,

confusion, conflict and misunderstanding. 

Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members.

 New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledgeabout the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally

into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members can help a team

member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course. The size of the open

area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person'sdisclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group members. Also,

group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the

 person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating

feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving feedback to individualsabout their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a culture and

expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive communications, and thesharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top performing groups, departments,companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive communication, so

encouraging the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet

fundamental aspect of effective leadership.

 johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the

 person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reducethis area and thereby to increase the open area (see the Johari Window diagram below), ie, to

increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or 

groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in whichone is deluded. A blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding

from a person. We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works

well when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a

large 'blind area'.

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Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce

their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging

disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback, and groupresponse to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes to

happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback is

sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more resilient thanothers - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. The process of soliciting serious

and deep feedback relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy

of Needs development and motivation model.

 johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided

self/area' or 'facade'

Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to

others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person

knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area

could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, secrets - anythingthat a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and

 private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings andexperiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically,

a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and so is

 better positioned in the open area.

Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and

feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby

increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves we

reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better understanding,cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also

reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all

distract from and undermine team effectiveness.

Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members'

 preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and

therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie

known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve groupawareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness.

The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issueswhich are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace and depth

that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient than

others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. Also as with soliciting

feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates to the process of 'self-actualization' describedin Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.

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 johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity'

or 'unknown area'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that are

unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues

take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, whichcan be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper 

aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various degrees. Largeunknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience

or self-belief.

Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and

common, especially in typical organizations and teams:

• an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity,encouragement, confidence or training

• a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess• a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have• an unknown illness• repressed or subconscious feelings• conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and can

 be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through

collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can also uncover unknown issues, but this

would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.

Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends on

who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given asfeedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to

discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the process of 'self-actualization'

described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.

Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive one.The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings

must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than

others to do this.

Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused withdeveloping the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is not

so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with

no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and therebyreduce the unknown area.

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Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and to

 promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among team

members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization areat any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for 

self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to

contribute more to organizational performance.

A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can stay

unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should not be

used to address issues of a clinical nature. Useful references are Arthur Janov's seminal book ThePrimal Scream (read about the book here), and Transactional Analysis.

 

 johari window example - increasing open area through

feedback solicitation

 

 This Johari Window model

diagram is an example of 

increasing the open

area , by reduction of the

blind area, which would

normally be achieved

through the process of 

asking for and then

receiving feedback.

Feedback develops the

open area by reducing

the blind area.

 The open area can also

be developed through

the process of disclosure,

which reduces the hidden

area.

 The unknown area can be

reduced in different

ways: by others'

observation (which

increases the blind area);

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by self-discovery (which

increases the hidden

area), or by mutual

enlightenment - typically

via group experiences

and discussion - which

increases the open area

as the unknown area

reduces.

 

A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual understanding with

the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is, whose

members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas.

Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and toreduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas.

A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best

 potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's potential

too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free area, bydisclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will

reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area.

Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open freearea. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reducethe unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what,

or better still if known by the person and others, to the open free area.

 

 johari window model - example for new team member or

member within a new team

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 This Johari Window model

diagram is an example of 

a member of a new team

or a person who is new to

an existing team.

 The open free region is

small because others

know little about the new

person.

Similarly the blind area is

small because others

know little about the new

person.

 The hidden or avoided

issues and feelings are a

relatively large area.

In this particular example

the unknown area is the

largest, which might be

because the person is

young, or lacking in self-

knowledge or belief.

 

 johari window example - established team member example

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 This Johari Window model

diagram is an example of 

an established member

of a team.

 The open free region is

large because others

know a lot about the

person that the person

also knows.

 Through the processes of 

disclosure and receiving

feedback the open area

has expanded and at thesame time reduced the

sizes of the hidden, blind

and unknown areas.

It's helpful to compare the Johari Window model to other four-quadrant behavioural models,

notably Bruce Tuckman's Forming, Storming Norming Performing team development model;also to a lesser but nonetheless interesting extent, The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadershipteam development and management styles model (See both here). The common principle is that

as the team matures and communications improve, so performance improves too, as less energy

is spent on internal issues and clarifying understanding, and more effort is devoted to externalaims and productive output.

The Johari Window model also relates to emotional intelligence theory (EQ), and one's

awareness and development of emotional intelligence.

As already stated, the Johari Window relates also to Transactional Analysis (notably

understanding deeper aspects of the 'unknown' area, region 4).

The Johari Window processes of serious feedback solicitation, disclosure, and striving to

uncover one's unknown area relate to Maslow's 'self-actualization' ideas contained in the

Hierarchy of Needs.

There are several exercises and activities for Johari Window awareness development amongteams featured on the team building games section, for example the ring tones activity.

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exploring more ideas for using ingham and luft's johari

window model in training, learning and development

The examples of exercises using the Johari Window theory on this website which might begin to

open possibilities for you. The Johari Window obviously model provides useful background

rationale and justification for most things that you might think to do with people relating todeveloping mutual and self-awareness, all of which links strongly to team effectiveness and

harmony.

There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development - much as using any

other theory such as Maslow's, Tuckman's, TA, NLP, etc. It very much depends on what you

want to achieve, rather than approaching the subject from 'what are all the possible uses?' whichwould be a major investigation.

This being the case, it might help you to ask yourself first what you want to achieve in your 

training and development activities? And what are your intended outputs and how will youmeasure that they have been achieved? And then think about how the Johari Window theory and

 principles can be used to assist this.

Researching academic papers (most typically published on university and learning institutionswebsites) written about theories such as Johari is a fertile method of exploring possibilities for 

concepts and models like Johari. This approach tends to improve your in-depth understanding,

instead of simply using specific interpretations or applications 'off-the-shelf', which inthemselves might provide good ideas for a one-off session, but don't help you much withunderstanding how to use the thinking at a deeper level.

Also explore the original work of Ingham and Luft, and reviews of same, relating to the

development and applications of the model.

Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply helping

people to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people. Explaining the

meaning of the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really properly understand it in their 

own terms, then empowers people to use the thinking in their own way, and to incorporate the

underlying principles into their future thinking and behaviour.

Relevant reading, (if you can find copies):

'Group Processes - An Introduction to Group Dynamics' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1963;

and

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'Of Human Interaction: The Johari Model' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1969.

In the books Joseph Luft explains that Johari is pronounced as if it were Joe and Harry, and that

is '...just what the word means'. He explains also that the Johari model was developed by him andHarrington V Ingham MD in 1955 during a summer laboratory session, and that the model was

 published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development for thatyear by the UCLA (University of California Los Angeles) Extension Office.

Holland's Theory of Career Choice and You

Choosing an Occupation, Training Program, Major, Career

Cluster or Pathway

The Career Key is based on John Holland's theory of career choice. The theory explains work-

related behavior – such as, which career choices are likely to lead to job success and satisfaction.

It also explains other human actions, like success and satisfaction in school and training

 programs. It is the best known and most widely researched theory on this topic and is used bymost career counselors.

Understanding Holland’s theory will help you make good choices – decisions about which

occupations, careers, majors, or training programs best fit you.

When you take the Career Key test you will receive What Your Test Scores Mean (sample page),

a booklet that explains Holland's theory and how your test scores are related to it and career 

choice.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Abraham Maslow developed a theory that humans have five sets of needs that are

arranged in a hierarchy. He contends that people start by trying to satisfy their

most basic or compelling needs and progress toward the most fulfilling. These

needs are as follows:

1.  Physiological needs: These include the need for food, water, shelter, clothing andmoney. Until an individual has access to these necessities, there can be no

further progress. These needs are very basic, and for the most part, society

and our social network have ensured that they are present. Intrinsic values

include personal comfort and satisfaction, while the extrinsic values are most

often provided by the organization, the community, or society.

2. Safety needs: These include security, stability, and a structured environment. Here, the

individual expects and pursues job security, a comfortable work environment,pension and

insurance plans, and freedom to organize in order to ensure continuation of 

these benefits. Individual’s main objective is to ensure that benefits are

protected or employment needs are being met rather than contributing to

long-term organizational goals. Again, we see a dependance on the external

environment to provide these supports. Personal motivation may include the

peace of mind that can be provided as a result of these needs being secured.

3.  Relationship needs: Relationship needs include socialization, affection, lovecompanionship, and friendship. The individual at this level participates for

personal or intrinsic rewards. Since no person can live for extended periods

without interaction with other people, the individual may be drawn to

participate simply to fulfill this need. Organizations that provide these

opportunities include social clubs, singles clubs, seniors clubs and service

clubs, depending on the level of personal need. The organization can assist

by ensuring that the opportunity for social and relationship expectations are

created and met.

4.  Esteem needs: These include feelings of adequacy, competence, independence,confidence, appreciation, and recognition by others. Again, the individual is

driven more by internal or intrinsic needs. The external environment is

needed more to provide recognition than to provide material rewards. At this

point, the intrinsic value is more important than that which can be provided

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by outside influences. The ego seems to take over here and the need is to

ensure that it is satisfied.

5. Self-actualization: This area is the most difficult to define and therefore, may be

the mostdifficult to explain. Why does the successful business person need to pursue

further wealth when they have already accumulated more than they will ever

need? The answer may lie in the fact that motivation is more internal and

therefore, even more individualistic. Different people have different ideas

about what they need to achieve in order to obtain true happiness. For the

wealthy person, money may no longer be the motivator, it may now be a

need to exercise power or the adventure and adrenalin rush created as a

result of playing “high stakes games”. This becomes the intrinsic motivation.

People who pursue self-actualization are more accepting of reality,

themselves, and others. Organizational requirements may include theopportunity for creativity and growth. Frequently, individuals aspiring to this

level often operate outside existing organizations and instead build their own

structures to suit their individual needs.

In discussing this theory, it appears that the further up the scale an individual

moves, the more the rewards or motivators move from the external environment to

an internal need. It also becomes more difficult to influence motivation, since

material rewards become less relevant and internal

rewards become more difficult to identify and address. In order to enhance

organizational performance, it is important that the organization recognize the

individual need and provide opportunities for satisfaction.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer developed another needs-based theory that supports in many

ways, the theory developed by Maslow, but consists of three rather than five basicneeds. Alderfer also sees his three levels which includes existence, relatedness,

and growth (ERG) needs as being hierarchical, and thus, influenced by personal

growth and extrinsic and intrinsic rewards.

1.  Existence needs: These include needs that are satisfied by material substances or 

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conditions. They correspond closely to the physiological needs identified by Maslow and

those safety needs that can be satisfied by material rather than interpersonal rewards or 

conditions. They include the need for food, shelter, pay, and safe working conditions.

2.  Relatedness needs: These are needs that may be satisfied by communication, or exchange and interaction with other individuals. There is a dependance on

feedback from other organizational or community members to fulfill these

needs. Thus, the motivation is provided by a combination of intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards. These rewards include accurate and honest feedback,

which may involve direction and advice rather than unconditional

pleasantness or agreement.

3. Growth needs: These are needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvementthat fully utilizes our skills, abilities, and creativity. They include Maslow’s

self- actualization as well as esteem needs that rely on intrinsic rewards.

Both theories are also similar because they are hierarchical, and individuals will

concentrate on the achievement of the lowest level of need that is not fully

satisfied. Maslow contends that the lowest level of need must be satisfied before an

individual can proceed to the next higher level. Alderfer theorizes that if a higher

level need is unsatisfied, the individual will regress to a desire to satisfy lower-level

needs. Maslow believes that once a need is met, it is no longer motivational.

Alderfer theorizes that while an individual may have met a higher-level need inone’s personal life, for example, they may still be operating much lower on the

scale where skills, aptitude, and knowledge may affect performance and

confidence.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Psychologist David McClelland contends that we develop a relatively stable

personality early in life that, once acquired, remains unchanged. McClelland,

therefore, does not see motivation as

hierarchical. He does not address the issue of growth, but has been more

concerned with the behavioural consequences of need. The three areas of need he

has identified include the need for achievement , the need for affiliation, and the

need for power .

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1.  Need for achievement :  Individuals in this category have a strong desire to

 performchallenging tasks well. They have a preference for situations where personal

responsibility can be taken for successful outcomes. The goals they set

provide for moderate and calculated risk, and the individual seeks

performance feedback to allow for modification and to ensure success.

2.  Need for affiliation: People in this category display a need to establish and maintainfriendly, compatible relationships. They have a need to like other people and

want others to like them. They have an ability to create social networks that

will result in meeting these needs.

3.  Need for power : People in this category have a strong need to have influence

over others. They wish to make a significant impact and impression on those with

whom they come in contact. This need for power corresponds in many ways

to Maslow’s esteem needs where power is used to get attention or to build

personal prestige.

Since this theory is non-hierarchical, the growth pattern between intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards that are a major part of the earlier theories, do not appear tocontain the same significance. McClelland contends that people will be motivated to

seek out and perform well in jobs that match their needs. These needs may include

either of the three categories identified above and are not contingent on any

progression from one category to another.

 The testing of these three theories has resulted in some conclusions that help us

identify the strengths and limitations of each approach. While Maslow’s theory is

complicated and contains more steps than the others, there is recognition of the

progression from one level to the other. Alderfer’s three levels seem to be simpler,

less rigid, and therefore, may be more satisfactory to those who wish to understand

and apply a model to individual behaviour. Results of McClelland’s research has

been applied in organizational settings and have been supportive of the idea that

particular needs are motivational. Our former theme, ‘when all else is consistent,

the individual is different’, suggests that the application of any theory of motivation

has strengths and weaknesses that allow insight into individual motivation and

provide escapes for those times when the theory will let us down. All theories

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contribute to a better understanding of human behaviour in general, but specific

application of theory depends on factors that respond to individual needs.

Motivational Goals

Carol Dweck theorizes that all goals a person might pursue fall into two distinct

categories: performance goals and learning goals. A performance goal is one in

which the individual is concerned with acquiring favorable judgement from his or

her peers, supervisors, or authority figures. A learning goal is one in which an

individual uses feedback to increase his or her competence.

If this theory is correct, it contains some further implications for motivation. Firstly,it provides for a much better understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in

relation to performance. While favorable judgement from peers provides extrinsic

rewards, the intrinsic rewards come from

both the acceptance of this judgement, and the direction that it provides for further

learning. The performer sees learning as a life-long process, thus creating even

greater levels of motivation.

Secondly, this theory provides a better understanding about failure and its impact

on the individual. Since we all fail sometimes, our ability to respond is an important

factor in motivation. A person with a learning goal will respond to failure by trying

even harder to succeed the next time. In contrast, a person with a performance

goal may respond to failure by concluding that they cannot complete the task and

may therefore, give up.

Dweck further theorizes that some people believe that personal qualities such as

intelligence and ability are fixed and unchangeable. This belief may lead people

with performance goals to conclude that they don’t have what it takes, and as a

result, give up, while others believe that intelligence and ability can change with

time, education, and experience. Their goal, therefore, is not to prove their

competence but to increase it, thus success and failure are learning experiences

that cause them to try even harder next time. Failure may even be seen as

creating a greater challenge.

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An organization (or organisation — see spelling differences) is a

social arrangement which pursues collective goals, controls its own performance,and has a boundary separating it from its environment. The word itself is derivedfrom the Greek word organon, itself derived from the better-known word ergon.

organizational behavior

Definition

Actions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and towards the organization as a whole,

and its effect on the organization's functioning and performance.

Personality Traits By Blood Type - A Japanese

Concept

Beginning in approximately 1930, the Japanese embraced the idea of matching personality traits

with one's blood type. This phenomenon is as popular in Japan as the idea of matching horoscopewith personality is in the States.

Almost all Japanese are aware of their blood type. The idea began when some in the west weretouting the idea that the asian peoples were more closely related to animals then humans, or 

lower on the evolutionary chain, since type B blood was the predominant blood type in asians

and animals. As ludicrous and unscientific as this idea was, it was insulting to say the least.

Modern science disproves this obviously faulted idea. In the 1930's Furukawa Takeji (1891– 1940) set out to disprove this notion and a new idea was born.

However, the idea of personality traits being influenced by blood type remains. Companies in

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Japan even had divided workers by blood type.

Here are the general ideas of each blood type. The Rh factor plays no role in the blood

The following is adapted from the work of David R. Saunders, Ph.D. who performed the initial psychometric research ontrait correlates of the MBTI from "test" questions that Myers employed over several years in her endless quest to broaden

the base of Type knowledge. Saunders research eventually resulted in the development of the "Type DifferentiationIndicator" and the "Expanded Analysis Report." His work was later extended by others, re-constituted, and updated intowhat is now known as the Step II and Step III MBTI Instruments published by CPP, Inc.

This is by necessity an abbreviated introduction to acquaint the reader with some of the broader implications of the MBTI ® 

model.