intro to stress

8/12/2019 Intro to stress

1/56

Job satisfactionor employee satisfactionhas been defined in many different ways. Somebelieve it is simply how content an individual is with his or her job, in other words, whetheror not they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work orsupervision.[1]Others believe it is not so simplistic as this definition suggests and instead thatmultidimensionalpsychologicalresponses to ones job are involved.[!]"esearchers have also

noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the e#tent to which they measure feelings aboutthe job affective job satisfaction.[$]or cognitions about the job cognitive job satisfaction.[%]

Job Satisfaction

& 'awthorne study was the one of biggest study of job satisfaction. (his study )1*!% +1*$$

was conducted by the -lton ayo of the 'arvard /usiness School to find out the effect of

various conditions of worker0s productivity. (hese studies ultimately showed that novel

changes in work conditions temporarily increase productivity. t is called the 'awthorne

-ffects. (his finding provided strong evidence that people work for purposes other than pay,

which paved the way for researchers to investigate other factors in job satisfaction.

Scientific management also had a significant impact on the study of job satisfaction.

2rinciples of Scientific anagement book )(aylor, 1*11 was argued that there was a single

best way to perform any given work task. (his book contributed to a change in industrial

production philosophies, causing a shift from skilled labor and piecework towards the more

modern approach of assembly lines and hourly wages. (herefore industries greatly increasedproductivity because workers were forced to work at a faster pace. 'owever, workers became

e#hausted and dissatisfied, thus leaving researchers with new 3uestions to answer regarding

job satisfaction. t should also be noted that the work of 4.5. /ryan, 4alter 6ill Scott, and

'ugo unsterberg set the tone for (aylor0s work.

Some argue that aslow0s hierarchy of needs theory, a motivation theory, laid the foundation

for job satisfaction theory. (his theory e#plains that people seek to satisfy five specific needs

in life physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self+esteem needs, and self+

actuali7ation. (his model served as a good basis from which early researchers could develop

job satisfaction theories.

2.3 Dimensions of Job Satisfaction

&ccording to the 5uthan !88!, there are three generally accepted dimensions of jobsatisfaction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Spector_1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Hulin.2C_C._L._2003_pp._255-276-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Thompson-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Moorman-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Spector_1997-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Hulin.2C_C._L._2003_pp._255-276-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Thompson-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Moorman-4


2/56

1. 9ob satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation.!. 9ob satisfaction is often determined by how well outcomes meet or e#ceed

e#pectations. :or e#ample, if organi7ational participants feel that they are working

much harder than others in the same organi7ation, but are receiving fewer rewards,

they will probably have a negative attitude towards the work.$. 9ob satisfaction represent several attitudes, they are;

a. 2ay

b. 2romotion opportunities

c. 4orking conditions

d.


3/56

need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self+confidence. t includes both

internal esteem factors like self+respect, autonomy and achievements and e#ternal esteem

factors such as states, recognition and attention.

Need for self-actualization ; aslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy.

t is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming= it includes growth, achieving one0s

potential and self+fulfillment. t is to ma#imi7e one0s potential and to accomplish something.

&s each of these needs is substantially satisfied, the ne#t need becomes dominant. :rom the

standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is ever fully gratified, a

substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if someone wants to motivate other one,

need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on and focus on satisfying thoseneeds or needs above that level. aslow0s need theory has received wide recognition,

particularly among practicing managers. (his can be attributed to the theory0s intuitive logic

and ease of understanding.

2.5 Factors Affectin Job Satisfaction

(here are > main factors influencing on 9ob Satisfaction clustered as physical, psychological

and environmental factors as below;

2.5.2 !sycholoical Factors and Job Satisfaction

Health and Safety ; anaging safe and healthy work environments is one of the

most important environmental challenges facing organi7ations. ?ood health and safety brings

more benefits that are healthy workers are more productive and can produce at a higher

3uality. &ccording to aslow0s0 'ierarchy, physiological needs are the first stage in job

satisfaction where as long are the work place is healthy and safe, it will create a pleasant and

secure impression in employee0s mind towards work.

Job Nature ; (he main source of satisfaction is, of course, job itself. "esearches,

dedicated to job characteristics and carried out in correlation with working place projecting,testify that the very content of work and autonomy by its implementation represent two most


4/56

important motivation factors correlated with labor. &s research indicated, other main

components of job satisfaction are interesting and difficult job without time for tedium and

job giving a man one certain status. @6ealing with a workload that is far too heavy and

deadlines that are impossible to reach can cause job satisfaction to erode for even the mostdedicated employee. :alling short of deadlines results in conflict between employees and

supervisors and raises the stress level of the workplace.0 )'ill, !88A.

Job Security ; 9ob security is the assurance that a particular employee will have their

job in long term due to the low probability of losing it potentially. 2ositive job security nature

also adds more value to the image and the reputation of an organi7ation as job offered has the

guaranteed security and reliable. &lso, job security has a great influence in increasing job

satisfaction of its employees where once the employee is confident about not losing the job, it

will create no mental stress where the employee has its own freedom to fully concentrate on

the work they perform. @&n employee with a high level of job security will often performs

and concentrates better than an employee who is in constant fear of losing a job. &lthough

this fear can increase motivation in certain situations, a lack of job security can be a source of

distraction and result in e#cess stress and low morale that hinders an employees overall

performance.0 )(hornton, B6.

Job promotion ;


5/56

-mployees more often perceive their salary0s level as a reflection of that how management

estimates their contribution to the company0s activity. f employees have an opportunity to

choose themselves to some e#tend independently indulgences from the whole package

rendered by the company then they receive greater satisfaction from indulgences receivablesand the job in the whole.

Working groups ; 6irect affect on job satisfaction makes the very nature of work

groups. 4orking group serves for a single worker is a source of support, comfort, advice and

enjoyment from the very job. & GgoodH working group fosters a gaining of a greater joy and

pleasure from job. On another hand, when the opposite situation is observed, when it is hard

to get along with the people, the given factor imposes negative impact on job satisfaction

Welfare Services : 4elfare includes anything that is done for the comfort and

improvement of employees and is provided over and above the wages. 4elfare helps in

keeping the morale and motivation of the employees high so as to retain the employees for

longer duration.5abor welfare includes various facilities, services and amenities provided to

workers for improving their health, efficiency, economic betterment and social status.

se of skills and abilities; -veryone has skills and abilities. Some are uni3ue aptitudesand talents, which may include musical abilities )singing, playing an instrument, composing

music, artistic skills )drawing, painting, sculpting, athletic skills )running, jumping,

throwing, or any other ability that comes easily and naturally. Some skills and abilities are

used in daily work life. (he company should identify which skills and abilities are available

in the employee and should give opportunities for improve them.

2.5.3 #n$ironmental Factors and Job Satisfaction

Working conditions ; One more factor imposing moderate impact on job satisfaction

is working conditions. f conditions are good )e.g. offices are neat and co7y, clean and

engaging, staff could easier manage their job. f bad working conditions were available )e.g.

it is hot or noisy in the office, it would be more difficult for employees to implement their

work. Otherwise, working conditions affect job satisfaction similar to working group0s

influence. f all were favorably around, there would not be problems with job satisfaction.


6/56

!anagement style " culture# $rganizational culture # is the organi7ation0s

pattern of beliefs, e#pectations, and values as in company and industry practices. & major

organi7ational factor to which new employees must be sociali7ed is the culture of the group

they are joining.(he potential benefits of improved job design are unlikely to be reali7ed, if attention is

focused on the content of jobs alone. -3ual, if not more important, is the process by which

redesign is carried out. (his has led to recognition of the importance of management style

and, increasingly, of organi7ation culture.


7/56

neuroticism. (his model states that higher levels of self+esteem )the value one places onhisJher self and general self+efficacy )the belief in one0s own competence lead to higherwork satisfaction. 'aving an internal locus of control )believing one has control over herLhisown life, as opposed to outside forces having control leads to higher job satisfaction. :inally,lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction.[1I]

Equity theory

-3uity (heory shows how a person views fairness in regard to social relationships such aswith an employer. & person identifies the amount of input )things gained from a relationshipcompared to the output )things given to produce an inputJoutput ratio. (hey then comparethis ratio to the ratio of other people in deciding whether or not they have an e3uitablerelationship.[1A][1*]-3uity (heory suggests that if an individual thinks there is an ine3uality

between two social groups or individuals, the person is likely to be distressed because theratio between the input and the output are not e3ual.[!8]

:or e#ample, consider two employees who work the same job and receive the same pay andbenefits. f one individual gets a pay raise for doing the same work than the other, then theless benefited individual will become distressed in his workplace. f, on the other hand, oneindividual gets a pay raise and new responsibilities, then the feeling of e3uity will bemaintained.[!8]

Other psychologists have e#tended the e3uity theory, suggesting three behavioral responsepatterns to situations of perceived e3uity or ine3uity )'useman, 'atfield, M ile, 1*AI=OBeil M one 1**A. (hese three types are benevolent, e3uity sensitive, and entitled. (helevel by each type affects motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance.

1. /enevolent+Satisfied when they are under+rewarded compared with co+workers!. -3uity sensitive+/elieve everyone should be fairly rewarded$. -ntitled+2eople believe that everything they receive is their just due[!1]

Discrepancy theory

(he concept of discrepancy theory e#plains the ultimate source of an#iety and dejection.[!!]&n individual, who has not fulfilled his responsibility feels the sense of an#iety and regret fornot performing well, they will also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopesand aspirations. &ccording to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and

responsibilities for a particular function, over a time period, and if they fail to fulfill thoseobligations then they are punished. Over time, these duties and obligations consolidate toform an abstracted set of principles, designated as a self+guide.[!$]&gitation and an#iety arethe main responses when an individual fails to achieve the obligation or responsibility.[!%](histheory also e#plains that if achievement of the obligations is obtained then the reward can be

praise, approval, or love. (hese achievements and aspirations also form an abstracted set ofprinciples, referred to as the ideal self guide.[!$]4hen the individual fails to obtain theserewards, they begin to have feelings of dejection, disappointment, or even depression.[!%]

'eres a thought, an individual does fulfill those obligations and responsibilities to thecompany= but the employer punishes the employee regardless of the fulfillment of duties.&gitation and an#iety is the main response toward an ungrateful employer who refuses torecogni7e improvement to companies bottom line because of employees endeavor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Judge1997-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated5-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated5-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated2-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated2-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-Judge1997-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated5-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated5-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated2-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated3-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfaction#cite_note-autogenerated2-24


8/56

Two-factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory)

ain article; (wo+factor theory

:rederick 'er7berg0s two+factor theory )also known as motivator+hygiene theory attempts toe#plain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace.[!K](his theory states that satisfactionand dissatisfaction are driven by different factors N motivation and hygiene factors,respectively. &n employee0s motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of asubordinate. otivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain

personal and organi7ational goals )'oskinson, 2orter, M 4rench, p. 1$$. otivating factorsare those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people withsatisfaction, for e#ample achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities.[!>](hesemotivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out.[!K]'ygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies,supervisory practices, and other working conditions.[!K]

4hile 'er7bergs model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable toreliably empirically prove the model, with 'ackman M Oldham suggesting that 'er7bergsoriginal formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact.[!K]:urthermore,the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees willreact in an identical manner to changes in motivatingJhygiene factors.[!K]:inally, the modelhas been criticised in that it does not specify how motivatingJhygiene factors are to bemeasured.[!K]

Job characteristics model

ain article; 9ob characteristic theory

'ackman M Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which is widely used as aframework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including jobsatisfaction. (he model states that there are five core job characteristics )skill variety, taskidentity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback which impact three critical psychologicalstates )e#perienced meaningfulness, e#perienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledgeof the actual results, in turn influencing work outcomes )job satisfaction, absenteeism, workmotivation, and performance. (he five core job characteristics can be combined to form amotivating potential score )2S for a job, which can be used as an inde# of how likely a jobis to affect an employees attitudes and behaviors. Bot everyone is e3ually affected by the2S of a job. 2eople who are high in growth need strength )the desire for autonomy,challenge and development of new skills on the job are particularly affected by jobcharacteristics.[!I]&meta+analysisof studies that assess the framework of the model providessome support for the validity of the 9


9/56

4e all may intuitively know that stress can take a toll on ones health, but stress and healthresearch provides us with a clearer picture of how stress and health are linked, and whatspecific choices we can make to better manage stress and create greater health. n recentyears, ve blogged about some interesting and informative research studies on stress andhealth, and linked e#tra resources to help you put what you learn into action in your own life.

4hile no single study provides the whole picture of the link between stress and health, thefollowing list of studies does provide some important information that you can use right now.5et this stress and health research be your guide to changes you can make today for ahealthier tomorrow.

hort-Term !oga "an #ring $eal #enefits

Doga has a reputation for being a health+promoting practice, and research backs thatreputation. 4hile there are documented health benefits, this study shows that even a short+term yoga program can bring real benefits for overall wellbeing and productivity as well."ead more about this short+term yoga research, and find resources for practicing yoga forstress relief.

ST(#SS %ANA)#%#NT

tress %a&es The 'ist As A Top "hildhood ealth roblem

(he Cniversity of ichigan


10/56

Threat 3s4 "hallenge5 ow !ou ee Things %a&es A Difference

"esearchers have found that a key difference in how stressors at work translate into chronicstress for workers has to do with outlook and how we perceive things. f we feel challenged,we fare better than if we feel threatened. 5earn more about seeing things as a threat vs. achallenge, and find ways to feel more in control of your life.

tress "an 2ncrease !our $is& of %ortality

"ecently, researchers from Fings


11/56

2f !ou Thin& !ou.re 2n "ontrol7 !ou %ay 6are #etter

ts not just what you e#perience, or even how you handle what you e#perience++the level ofcontrol you believeyou have in your life also makes a difference in how you e#periencestress. "ead about locus of controland learn more about how your feelings of control overyour life can impact your stress levels and, in turn, your health. )(heres a very interesting

poll to check out as wellQ

!our 8egative Thoughts $eally "an urt !ou

Dour thoughts can affect your health in ways you may not reali7e. /ecause of this, it matterswhat your habitual thought patterns are. )/ut dont worry++you can change themQ "ead on tolearn more about optimism, pessimism and e#planatory style.

9ne oor abit "an 'ead To %ore

& few days of not taking care of yourself can add to stress, but it can also add to bad habits inother areas of self careQ One study found that those who were sleep+deprived for a few daysended up eating poorly and e#ercising less++all things that can create and e#acerbate stressQ5earn more, and find ways to live healthier and stress less.

B


12/56

&nnu "ev , !88A.

2ublished in final edited form as;&nnu "ev 8IN>!A.doi; 18.11%>Jannurev.clinpsy.1.18!A8$.1%%1%12

B'S6; B'SI8>!!

T$E A8D EA'T5 sychological7 #ehavioral7 and#iological Determinants

Beil Schneiderman,?ail ronson, and Scott 6. Siegel&uthor information R


13/56

'ess 1*KI. n contrast, during aversive situations in which an active coping response is notavailable, mammals may engage in a vigilance response that involves sympathetic nervoussystem )SBS arousal accompanied by an active inhibition of movement and shunting of

blood away from the periphery )&dams et al. 1*>A. (he e#tent to which various situationselicit different patterns of biologic response is called Gsituational stereotypyH )5acey 1*>I.

&lthough various situations tend to elicit different patterns of stress responses, there are alsoindividual differences in stress responses to the same situation. (his tendency to e#hibit a

particular pattern of stress responses across a variety of stressors is referred to as GresponsestereotypyH )5acey M 5acey 1*KA. &cross a variety of situations, some individuals tend toshow stress responses associated with active coping, whereas others tend to show stressresponses more associated with aversive vigilance )Fasprowic7 et al. 1**8,5labre et al.1**A.

&lthough genetic inheritance undoubtedly plays a role in determining individual differencesin response stereotypy, neonatal e#periences in rats have been shown to produce long+termeffects in cognitive+emotional responses )5evine 1*KI. :or e#ample, eaney et al. )1**$showed that rats raised by nurturing mothers have increased levels of central serotoninactivity compared with rats raised by less nurturing mothers. (he increased serotonin activityleads to increased e#pression of a central glucocorticoid receptor gene. (his, in turn, leads tohigher numbers of glucocorticoid receptors in the limbic system and improved glucocorticoidfeedback into the


14/56

!S6-H7)-A7 AS!#-TS F ST(#SS

tressors During "hildhood and Adolescence and Their sychologicalequelae

(he most widely studied stressors in children and adolescents are e#posure to violence, abuse)se#ual, physical, emotional, or neglect, and divorceJmarital conflict )see patients in 6enmark, with first psychiatric admissions diagnosed withdepression, found more recent divorces, unemployment, and suicides by relatives comparedwith age+ and gender+matched controls )Fessing et al. !88$. (he diagnosis of a majormedical illness often has been considered a severe life stressor and often is accompanied byhigh rates of depression )


15/56

1**K. n fact, in prospective studies, patients with an#iety are most likely to develop majordepression after stressful life events occur )/rown et al. 1*A>.

DS(D#(S (#7AT#D T T(A%A

5ifetime e#posure to traumatic events in the general population is high, with estimatesranging from %8P to I8P )Borris 1**!. Of note, an estimated 1$P of adult women in theCnited States have been e#posed to se#ual assault )Filpatrick et al. 1**!. (he 6iagnosticand Statistical anual )6S+E+("=&merican 2sychiatric &ssociation !888 includes two

primary diagnoses related to trauma; &cute Stress 6isorder )&S6 and 2(S6. /oth thesedisorders have as prominent features a traumatic event involving actual or threatened death orserious injury and symptom clusters including re+e#periencing of the traumatic event )e.g.,intrusive thoughts, avoidance of remindersJnumbing, and hyperarousal )e.g., difficultyfalling or staying asleep. (he time frame for &S6 is shorter )lasting two days to four weeks,with diagnosis limited to within one month of the incident. &S6 was introduced in 1**% to

describe initial trauma reactions, but it has come under criticism )'arvey M /ryant !88! forweak empirical and theoretical support. ost people who have symptoms of 2(S6 shortlyafter a traumatic event recover and do not develop 2(S6. n a comprehensive review, ?reen)1**%estimates that appro#imately !KP of those e#posed to traumatic events develop2(S6. Surveys of the general population indicate that 2(S6 affects 1 in 1! adults at sometime in their life )Fessler et al. 1**K. (rauma and disasters are related not only to 2(S6, butalso to concurrent depression, other an#iety disorders, cognitive impairment, and substanceabuse )6avid et al. 1**>, Schnurr et al. !88!,Shalev !881.

Other conse3uences of stress that could provide linkages to health have been identified, suchas increases in smoking, substance use, accidents, sleep problems, and eating disorders.

2opulations that live in more stressful environments )communities with higher divorce rates,business failures, natural disasters, etc. smoke more heavily and e#perience higher mortalityfrom lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder )


16/56

depression and generali7ed an#iety )Fendler et al. !88$. :actors associated with thedevelopment of symptoms of 2(S6 and mental health disorders include injury, damage to

property, loss of resources, bereavement, and perceived life threat ):reedy et al. 1**!,ronson et al. 1**I, cBally !88$. "ecovery from a stressor can also be affected bysecondary traumati7ation )2fefferbaum et al. !88$. Other studies have found that multiple

facets of stress that may work synergistically are more potent than a single facet= for e#ample,in the area of work stress, time pressure in combination with threat )Stanton et al. !881, orhigh demand in combination with low control )Farasek M (heorell 1**8.

Stress+related outcomes also vary according to personal and environmental factors. 2ersonalrisk factors for the development of depression, an#iety, or 2(S6 after a serious life event,disaster, or trauma include prior psychiatric history, neuroticism, female gender, and othersociodemographic variables )?reen 1**>,cBally !88$,2atton et al. !88$. (here is alsosome evidence that the relationship between personality and environmental adversity may be

bidirectional )Fendler et al. !88$. 5evels of neuroticism, emotionality, and reactivitycorrelate with poor interpersonal relationships as well as Gevent proneness.H 2rotectivefactors that have been identified include, but are not limited to, coping, resources )e.g., socialsupport, self+esteem, optimism, and finding meaning. :or e#ample, those with social supportfare better after a natural disaster )adakaisira M O0/rien 1*AI or after myocardialinfarction ):rasure+Smith et al. !888. 2ruessner et al. )1***found that people with higherself+esteem performed better and had lower cortisol responses to acute stressors )difficultmath problems. &ttaching meaning to the event is another protective factor against thedevelopment of 2(S6, even when horrific torture has occurred. 5eft+wing political activistswho were tortured by (urkey0s military regime had lower rates of 2(S6 than did nonactivistswho were arrested and tortured by the police )/asoTlu et al. 1**%.

:inally, human beings are resilient and in general are able to cope with adverse situations. &recent illustration is provided by a study of a nationally representative sample of sraelis after1* months of ongoing e#posure to the 2alestinian intifada. 6espite considerable distress,most sraelis reported adapting to the situation without substantial mental health symptoms orimpairment )/leich et al. !88$.

?o to;

:7)-A7 (#S!NS#S T ST(#SS(S

Acute tress $esponses

:ollowing the perception of an acute stressful event, there is a cascade of changes in thenervous, cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. (hese changes constitute the stressresponse and are generally adaptive, at least in the short term )Selye 1*K>. (wo features in

particular make the stress response adaptive. :irst, stress hormones are released to makeenergy stores available for the body0s immediate use. Second, a new pattern of energydistribution emerges. -nergy is diverted to the tissues that become more active during stress,

primarily the skeletal muscles and the brain.


17/56


18/56

(he elevated basal levels of stress hormones associated with chronic stress also suppressimmunity by directly affecting cytokine profiles.


19/56

disease processes. (his is especially true of atherosclerotic !. One problem with suchstudies is that they do not control for e#posure. Stressed people, for instance, might seekmore outside contact and thus be e#posed to more viruses. (herefore, in a more controlledstudy, people were e#posed to a rhinovirus and then 3uarantined to control for e#posure toother viruses )


20/56

difficulties had a high likelihood of catching cold, whereas people subjected to stressfulevents lasting less than a month did not )


21/56

)e.g., the flu, proinflammatory cytokines feed back to the


22/56

of months away from the front )?raham 1*%K. n contrast, individuals with chronic illnessessuch as chronic fatigue syndrome may show a high rate of relapse after a relatively acutestressor such as a hurricane )5utgendorf et al. 1**K. Bevertheless, by emphasi7ing the rolethat chronic stressors may play in multiple disease outcomes, c-wen has helped toemphasi7e an important area of study.

?o to;

T(#AT%#NT F( ST(#SS


23/56

%orbidity7 %ortality7 and %ar&ers of Disease rogression

2sychosocial intervention trials conducted upon patients following acute myocardialinfarction ) have reported both positive and null results. (wo meta+analyses have reporteda reduction in both mortality and morbidity of appro#imately !8P to %8P )6usseldorp et al.

1***, 5inden et al. 1**>. ost of these studies were carried out in men. (he major studyreporting positive results was the "ecurrent


24/56

attempting to determine their 'E serostatus,


25/56

A-N=7#D)%#NTS

2reparation of this manuscript was supported by B' grants 281+'%*K%A, 281+ '58%I!>,($!+'5$>KAA, "81+'>>>*I, and "81+&(8!8$K. 4e thank -li7abeth /albin, &dam;1!!>N1!$K.[2ubed]

!. &dams ", Faplan 9", Foritnik 6". 2sychosocial influences on ovarian, endocrineand ovulatory function in!acaca fascicularis. 2hysiol. /ehav. 1*AK=$K;*$KN*%8.[2ubed]

$. &ffleck ?, Crrows S, (ennen ', 'iggins 2, 2av 6, &loisi ". & dual pathway model of

daily stressor effects on rheumatoid arthritis. &nn. /ehav. ed. 1**I=1*;1>1N1I8.[2ubed]

%. &merican 2sychiatric &ssociation. 6iagnostic and Statistical anual of ental6isorders E+(". %th ed. 4ashington, 6N%K!. [2ubed]

>. &ntoni ', /aggett 5, ronson ?, 5a2erriere &, Flimas B, et al. K$N>IK. [2ubed]

1$. /eck &(. .

1%. /erlant 95. (opiramate in posttraumatic stress disorder; preliminary clinical

observations. 9. !;>8N>$. [2ubed]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5816147http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4095185http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603691http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1776498http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1774375http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710838http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10892526http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11020087http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11414552http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8267139http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2286178http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11495099http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5816147http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4095185http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603691http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1776498http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1774375http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710838http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10892526http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11020087http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11414552http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8267139http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2286178http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11495099


26/56

1K. /ernard =11;1N1*. [2ubed]

!1. /rownley F&, 'urwit7 /-, Schneiderman B.


27/56

$K. 6habar :S, c-wen /S. &cute stress enhances while chronic stress suppresses cell+mediated immunity in vivo; a potential role for leukocyte trafficking. /rain /ehav.mmun. 1**I=11;!A>N$8>. [2ubed]

$>. 6usseldorp -, van -lderen (, aes S, eulman 9, Fraaij E. & meta+analysis ofpsychoeducational programs for coronary heart disease patients. 'ealth 2sychol.

1***=1A;K8>NK1*. [2ubed]$I. -aker -6. 2sychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease in women. years later. &rch. ?en. 2sychol. 1**$=K8;>A1N>A*.[2ubed]

%!. :erguson "?, 4ikby &, a#son 2, Olsson 9, 9ohansson /. mmune parameters in alongitudinal study of a very old population of Swedish people; a comparison betweensurvivors and nonsurvivors. 9. ?erontol. 1**K=K8;/$IAN/$A!. [2ubed]

%$. :inlay+9ones ", /rown ?4. (ypes of stressful life events and the onset of an#iety anddepressive disorders. 2sychol. ed. 1*A1=11;A8$NA1K. [2ubed]

%%. :oa -/, eadows -&. 2sychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder;critical review. &nnu. "ev. 2sychol. 1**I=%A;%%*N%A8. [2ubed]%K. :rasure+Smith B, 5espXrance :, ?ravel ?, asson &, 9uneau , et al. Social support,

depression, and mortality during the first year after myocardial infarction. . :reedy 9", Shaw 65, 9arrell 2, asters


28/56

K%. ?reen /5. (raumatic stress and disaster; mental health effects and factors influencingadaptation. n; ak :5, Badelson . [2ubed]

KI. 'arvey &?, /ryant "&. &cute stress disorder; a synthesis and criti3ue. 2sychol. /ull.!88!=1!A;AA>N*8!. [2ubed]

KA. 'arvey &?, 9ones $. ckovics 9", 'amburger -, Elahov 6, Schoenbaum --, Schumm 2, /oland "9.ortality, 8KN>1*. [2ubed]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716090http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12794050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405136http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12729678http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7665444http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1116216http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1125772http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11255423http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11748600http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9088048http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9777041http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6543317http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3677359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6889852http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2100346http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716090http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12794050http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405136http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12729678http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7665444http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1116216http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1125772http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11255423http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11748600http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9088048http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9777041http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6543317http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3677359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6889852http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2100346


29/56

I$. Fendler FS, ?ardner .*1. 5insky &S, Strauss &, ;I!NA8. [2ubed]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14580074http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12912762http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10360120http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14580072http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7492257http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12090368http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13521020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10737052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9624022http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11782104http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10910783http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13467220http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8615707http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3974239http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14580074http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12912762http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10360120http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14580072http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7492257http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12090368http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13521020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10737052http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9624022http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11782104http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10910783http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13467220http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8615707http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3974239


30/56

*!. 5labre , Flein /", Saab 2?, c


31/56

118. endes de 5eon


32/56

1!*. "on , 5ogsdail S. 2sychiatric morbidity in multiple sclerosis; a clinical and" study. 2sychol. ed. 1*A*=1*;AAINA*K. [2ubed]

1$8. "oss ". &therosclerosisYan inflammatory disease. B. -ngl. 9. ed.1***=$%8;11KN1!>. [2ubed]

1$1. Saab 2?, 5labre , 'urwit7 /-, :rame N$%I.

1$>. Schneiderman B, &ntoni ', Saab 2?, ronson ?. 'ealth psychology;psychosocial and biobehavioral aspects of chronic disease management. &nnu. "ev.2sychol. !881=K!;KKKNKA8. [2ubed]

1$I. Schneiderman B, c


33/56

1%A. (hase -, ?reenhouse 9/, :rank -. (reatment of major depression withpsychotherapy or psychotherapy+pharmacotherapy combinations. &rch. ?en.2sychiatry. 1**I=K%;188*N181K. [2ubed]

1%*. Eoordouw /


34/56

"ited by other articles in %"

(he biopsychosocial model of stress in adolescence; self+awareness of performanceversus stress reactivity[Stress )&msterdam, Betherlands. !81%]


35/56


36/56

"eview 2sychological mechanisms in acute response to trauma.[/iol 2sychiatry.!88$]


37/56

-vidence for a shift in the (h+1 to (h+! cytokine response associated with chronicstress and aging.[9 ?erontol & /iol Sci ed Sci. !881]

nfluen7a vaccination in community+dwelling elderly; impact on mortality andinfluen7a+associated morbidity.[&rch ntern ed. !88$]


38/56

"eview &ssociation between stressful life events and e#acerbation in multiplesclerosis; a meta+analysis.[/9. !88%]

"eview &therosclerosis++an inflammatory disease.[B -ngl 9 ed. 1***] "eview


39/56

& meta+analysis of psychoeduational programs for coronary heart disease patients.['ealth 2sychol. 1***]

2sychosocial interventions for patients with coronary artery disease; a meta+analysis.[&rch ntern ed. 1**>]

See more ... -ffects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after

myocardial infarction; the -nhancing "ecovery in


40/56

Concepts4ork+related stress is a pattern of reactions that occurs when workers are presented with workdemands that are notmatched to their knowledge, skills or abilities, and which challenge their ability to cope. (hesedemands may be

related to time pressure or the amount of work )3uantitative demands, or may refer to the difficulty ofthe work)cognitive demands or the empathy re3uired )emotional demands, or even to the inability to showone0s emotionsat work. 6emands may also be physical, i.e. high demands in the area of dynamic and static loads.4hen the worker perceives an imbalance between demands and environmental or personal resources,this cancause a number of possible reactions. (hese may include physiological responses )e.g. increase inheart rate, blood

pressure, hyperventilation, emotional responses )e.g. feeling nervous or irritated, cognitiveresponses )e.g.reduced attention and perception, forgetfulness, and behavioural reactions )e.g. aggressive, impulsive

behaviour,making mistakes. 4hen people are in a state of stress, they often feel concerned, less vigilant andless efficient in

performing tasks

Stress occurs in many different circumstances, but is particularly strong when a person0s ability tocontrol thedemands of work is threatened. nsecurity about successful performance and fear of negativeconse3uencesresulting from performance failure may evoke powerful negative emotions of an#iety, anger andirritation. (hestressful e#perience is intensified if no help is available from colleagues or supervisors at work.(herefore, socialisolation and lack of cooperation increase the risk of prolonged stress at work. re " %odel of ca>ses and conse?>ences of ,or@ences*

For the ,or@er

o high /2o affective disorderso alcohol dependenceo disturbed metabolismo musculoskeletal

disorders for employers+ companies*

o increasedabsenteeism

o increased turnovero tardinesso impaired

performanceo increased costs


41/56

Stress reactions may result when people are e#posed to risk factors at work. (hese reactions may beemotional,cognitive, behavioural andJor physiological in nature. 4hen stress reactions persist over a longer

period of time,they may develop into more permanent, less reversible health outcomes, such as chronic fatigue,

burnout,musculoskeletal problems or cardiovascular disease.ndividual characteristics, such as personality, values, goals, age, gender, level of education, andfamily situation,influence one0s ability to cope. (hese characteristics may interact with risk factors at work and either

e#acerbate oralleviate their effects. 2hysical and psychological characteristics, such as physical fitness or a highlevel of optimism, may not only act as precursors or buffers in the development of stress reactions andmental health

problems, but may also change as a result of the effects. :or e#ample, if workers are able to deal withrisk factors atwork, they will be more e#perienced and self+confident in overcoming similar situations the ne#t timethey have toface them. On the other hand, stress reactions, like fatigue and long+term health problems, will oftenreduce a

person0s ability to perform well, and thus aggravate the e#perience of stress, which will ultimatelyresult ine#haustion and breakdown."ecent stress models like the @effort+reward imbalance0 model strongly point to the importance ofindividualfactors in contributing to the effect that e#posure to working conditions may have. (he commitment towork isconsidered to be significant in this respect. (he general feeling is that certain people are prone to

becoming@over+committed0 to their work, which results in unhealthy conse3uences for health. Self+confidence,another coreindividual characteristic that has been related to the vulnerability of the individual, seems to be highly)inversely

related to the issue of over+commitment.

-a>ses of ,or@al characteristics*

?ender

&ge

-ducation


42/56

pationalhealth+topics+stressat,p+en+

& healthy job is likely to be one where the pressures on employees are appropriate in relationto their abilities and resources, to the amount of control they have over their work, and to thesupport they receive from people who matter to them. &s health is not merely the absence ofdisease or infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and social well+being)4'O, 1*A>, a healthy working environment is one in which there is not only an absence ofharmful conditions but an abundance of health+promoting ones.

(hese may include continuous assessment of risks to health, the provision of appropriateinformation and training on health issues and the availability of health promotingorganisational support practices and structures. & healthy work environment is one in whichstaff have made health and health promotion a priority and part of their working lives.

=hat is ,or@


43/56

and the way they do it + support is received from supervisors and colleagues + participation indecisions that concern their jobs is provided.

=hat are stress


44/56

concerning the many ways in which appreciation and respect )or lack thereof can becommunicated and how this knowledge can be useful for prevention in the field of health andwell+being.

=H definition of Health

'ealth is a state of complete physical, mental and social well+being and not merely theabsence of disease or infirmity.

http5;;www4who4int;about;definition;en;print4html

2reamble to the by therepresentatives of >1 States )Official "ecords of the 4orld 'ealth Organi7ation, no. !, p.188 and entered into force on I &pril 1*%A.

(he 6efinition has not been amended since 1*%A.

http;JJen.wikipedia.orgJwikiJ'ealth

Healthis the level of functional or metabolicefficiency of a living organism. n humans, it isthe general condition of apersons mind and body, usually meaning to be free from illness,injuryorpain)as in good health^ or ^healthy^.[1](he 4orld 'ealth Organi7ation)4'Odefined health in its broader sense in 1*%> as ^a state of complete physical, mental, and socialwell+beingand not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.^ [!][$]&lthough this definitionhas been subject to controversy, in particular as lacking operational value and because of the

problem created by use of the word ^complete,^ it remains the most enduring.[%][K]Otherdefinitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and

personal satisfaction.[>][I]


45/56

Occupational safety and health can be important for moral, legal, and financial reasons. ncommon+law jurisdictions, employers have a common law duty )reflecting an underlyingmoral obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their employees,[$]Statute law may

build upon this to impose additional general duties, introduce specific duties and creategovernment bodies with powers to regulate workplace safety issues; details of this will vary

from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. . ?ood OS' practices can also reduce employee injury andillness related costs, including medical care, sick leave and disability benefit costs.

Definition

4orkers cutting marble without any protective gear, ndore, ndia

&s defined by the 4orld 'ealth Organi7ation)4'O ^occupational health deals with allaspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention ofha7ards.^[%]'ealthhas been defined as ^a state of complete physical, mental and social well+

being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. [K]Occupational health is amultidisciplinary field of healthcareconcerned with enabling an individual to undertake their

occupation, in the way that causes least harm to their health. 'ealth has been defined as tcontrasts, for e#ample, with the promotion of health and safety at work, which is concernedwith preventing harm from any incidental ha7ards, arising in the workplace.

Since 1*K8, the nternational 5abour Organi7ation)5O and the 4orld 'ealth Organi7ation)4'O have shared a common definition of occupational health. t was adopted by the 9oint5OJ4'O


46/56

conte#t to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertakingconcerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the managerial systems, personnel policy,

principles for participation, training policies and 3uality management of the undertaking.^

Y9oint 5OJ4'O , 1*8A. 2ulled into machinery in a factory in


47/56

Otto von /ismarckinaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1AA$ and the firstworkers compensationlaw in 1AA% N the first of their kind in the 4estern world. Similar actsfollowed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest.[A]

=or@place haEards

&lthough work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of workplaceha7ards also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. (hese include but are notlimited to, ^chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions,allergens, a comple# network of safety risks,^ and a broad range of psychosocial risk factors.[*]

hysical and mechanical ha%,1I8 cases thatre3uired days away from work in !88A. ore than a 3uarter of these cases re3uired more than$1 days spent away from work. (hat same year, machines were the primary or secondary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worker's_compensationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-ILO_Hazardous_Work-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-ILOChild-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_(accident)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-fall_topic-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuttinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearing_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabbinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabbinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-topic-machine-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockout-tagouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockout-tagouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_over_protection_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-topic-machine-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Construction_workers_not_wearing_fall_protection_equipment.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Construction_workers_not_wearing_fall_protection_equipment.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worker's_compensationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-ILO_Hazardous_Work-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-ILOChild-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_(accident)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-fall_topic-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuttinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearing_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabbinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-topic-machine-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockout-tagouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_over_protection_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-topic-machine-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics


48/56

source of over >88 work+related fatalities.[1K]achines are also often involved indirectly inworker deaths and injuries, such as in cases in which a workerslips and falls, possibly uponasharp or pointed object.(he transportation sector bears many risks for the health ofcommercial drivers, too, for e#ample from vibration, long periods of sitting, work stress ande#haustion. (hese problems occur in -urope but in other parts of the world the situation is

even worse. ore drivers die in accidents due to security defects in vehicles. 5ong waitingtimes at borders cause that drivers are away from home and family much longer and evenincrease the risk of 'E infections.[1>]


49/56

Eirus :ungi

o old /lood+borne pathogens (uberculosis

-hemical haEards

&cids /ases 'eavy metals 5ead Solvents 2etroleum 2articulates &sbestosand other fine dustJfibrous materials Silica :umes )no#ious gasesJvapors 'ighly+reactive chemicals :ire, conflagration and e#plosion ha7ards; -#plosion 6eflagration 6etonation


50/56

:y ind>stry

Specific occupational safety and health risk factors vary depending on the specific sector andindustry.]

"onstruction

See also;


51/56

"ollover protection baron a :ordsontractor.

&griculture workers are often at risk of work+related injuries, lung disease, noise+inducedhearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use or prolonged sune#posure. On industriali7ed farms, injuries fre3uently involve the use ofagriculturalmachinery. (he most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the Cnited States istractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection structureswhichlimit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over.[$$]2esticides and other chemicals used infarming can also be ha7ardous to worker health, and workers e#posed to pesticides maye#perience illnesses or birth defects.[$%]&s an industry in which families, including children,commonly work alongside their families, agriculture is a common source of occupationalinjuries and illnesses among younger workers.[$K]]

(he !818 B'S+O'S found elevated prevalence rates of several occupational e#posures inthe agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector which may negatively impact health. (hese

workers often worked long hours. (he prevalence rate of working more than %A hours a weekamong workers employed in these industries was $IP, and !%P worked more than >8 hoursa week. Of all workers in these industries, AKP fre3uently worked outdoors compared to !KPof all C.S. workers. &dditionally, K$P were fre3uently e#posed to vapors, gas, dust, orfumes, compared to !KP of all C.S. workers.[$I]

ervice sector

See also; Service sector

&s the number of service sector!818 B'S+O'S, ha7ardous physicalJchemical e#posures inthe service sector were lower than national averages. On the other hand, potentially harmful

work organi7ation characteristics and psychosocial workplace e#posures were relativelycommon in this sector. &mong all workers in the service industry, $8P e#perienced jobinsecurity in !818, !IP worked non+standard shifts )not a regular day shift, !1P had non+standard work arrangements )were not regular permanent employees.[$A]

%ining and oil = gas e1traction

See also; ining

&ccording to data from the !818 B'S+O'S, workers employed in mining and oil M gase#traction industries had high prevalence rates of e#posure to potentially harmful work

organi7ation characteristics and ha7ardous chemicals. any of these workers worked longhours; K8P worked more than %A hours a week and !KP worked more than >8 hours a week
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollover_protection_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordson_tractorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_over_protection_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-aginjury-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-aginjury-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-aginjury-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_pest-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_alert_youth-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_alert_youth-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_alert_youth-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_Agri-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_agriculture-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_service-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Tractor_with_ROPS_bar_fitted.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Tractor_with_ROPS_bar_fitted.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollover_protection_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordson_tractorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_over_protection_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-aginjury-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_pest-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_alert_youth-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-NIOSH_Agri-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_agriculture-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_sectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_service-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining


52/56

in !818. &dditionally, %!P worked non+standard shifts )not a regular day shift. (heseworkers also had high prevalence of e#posure to physicalJchemical ha7ards. n !818, $*Phad fre3uent skin contact with chemicals. &mong nonsmoking workers, !AP of those inmining and oil and gas e#traction industries had fre3uent e#posure to secondhand smokeatwork. &bout two+thirds were fre3uently e#posed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes at work.[$*]

ealthcare and ocial Assistance

See also; 'ealth careand 4elfare

'ealthcare workers are e#posed to many ha7ards that can adversely affect their health andwell+being. 5ong hours, changing shifts, physically demanding tasks, violence, and e#posuresto infectious diseases and harmful chemicals are e#amples of ha7ards that put these workersat risk for illness and injury.

&ccording to the /ureau of 5abor statistics, C.S. hospitals recorded !K$,I88 work+related

injuries and illnesses in !811, which is >.A work+related injuries and illnesses for every 188full+time employees.[%8](he injury and illness rate in hospitals is higher than the rates inconstruction and manufacturing N two industries that are traditionally thought to be relativelyha7ardous.

(he Occupational 'ealth Safety Betwork )O'SBis a secure electronic surveillance systemdeveloped by theBational nstitute for Occupational Safety and 'ealth )BOS'to addresshealth and safety risks among health care personnel. O'SB uses e#isting data to characteri7erisk of injury and illness among health care workers. 'ospitals and other healthcare facilitiescan upload the occupational injury data they already collect to the secure database foranalysis and benchmarking with other de+identified facilities. BOS' works with O'SB

participants in identifying and implementing timely and targeted interventions. O'SBmodules currently focus on three high risk and preventable events that can lead to injuries ormusculoskeletal disorders among healthcare personnel; musculoskeletal injuries from patienthandling activities= slips, trips, and falls= and workplace violence. O'SB enrollment is opento all healthcare facilities.

Definition of Stress

Stressmay be defined as ^a state of psychological and J or physiological imbalance resultingfrom the disparity between situational demand and the individuals ability and J or motivationto meet those demands.^

Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress as^the rate of all wear and tear caused by life.^

Stress can be positive or negative. Stress can be positive when the situation offers anopportunity for a person to gain something. t acts as a motivator for peak performance.Stress can be negative when a person faces social, physical, organisational and emotional

problems.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_mining-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-40http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ohsn/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-nhis_mining-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health#cite_note-40http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ohsn/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health


53/56

-a>ses of Stress

:actors that cause stress are called ^Stressors.^ (he following are the sources or causes of anorganisational and non+organisational stress.

". -a>ses of an ranisational Stress

(he main so>rcesor causes of an organisational stress are ;+

". -areer -oncern; f an employee feels that he is very much behind incorporate ladder, then he may e#perience stress and if he feels that there are noopportunities for self+growth he may e#perience stress. 'ence unfulfilled careere#pectations are a major source of stress.

2. (ole Ambi>ity; t occurs when the person does not known what heis supposed to do on the job. 'is tasks and responsibilities are not clear. (heemployee is not sure what he is e#pected to do. (his creates confusion in the minds ofthe worker and results in stress.

3. (otatin Shifts; Stress may occur to those individuals who work indifferent shifts. -mployees may be e#pected to work in day shift for some days andthen in the night shift. (his may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and

it can affect not only personal life but also family life of the employee.

4. (ole -onflict ; t takes place when different people have different

e#pectations from a person performing a particular role. t can also occur if the job is

not as per the e#pectation or when a job demands a certain type of behaviour that is

against the persons moral values.

5. cc>pational Demands; Some jobs are more stressful than others.

9obs that involve risk and danger are more stressful. "esearch findings indicate thatjobs that are more stressful usually re3uires constant monitoring of e3uipments and

devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc.

7ac@ of !articipation in Decision %a@in; any e#perienced employees feel thatmanagement should consult them on matters affecting their jobs. n reality, thesuperiors hardly consult the concerned employees before taking a decision. (hisdevelops a feeling of being neglected, which may lead to stress.

=or@ $erload; -#cessive work load leads to stress as it puts a person undertremendous pressure. 4ork overload may take two different forms ;+

o

ualitative work overload implies performing a job that is complicated orbeyond the employees capacity.


54/56

o uantitative work overload arises when number of activities to be performedin the prescribed time are many.

=or@ nderload; n this case, very little work or too simple work is e#pected on thepart of the employee. 6oing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would leadto monotony and boredom, which can lead to stress.

=or@in -onditions; -mployees may be subject to poor working conditions. twould include poor lighting and ventilations, unhygienic sanitation facilities,e#cessive noise and dust, presence of to#ic gases and fumes, inade3uate safetymeasures, etc. &ll these unpleasant conditions create physiological and psychologicalimbalance in humans thereby causing stress.

7ac@ of )ro>p -ohesi$eness; -very group is characterised by its cohesivenessalthough they differ widely in degree of cohesiveness. ndividuals e#perience stresswhen there is no unity among the members of work group. (here is mistrust,

jealously, fre3uent 3uarrels, etc., in groups and this lead to stress to employees. nterpersonal and nterro>p -onflict; nterpersonal and intergroup conflict takes

place due to differences in perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two ormore individuals and groups. Such conflicts can be a source of stress to groupmembers.

ranisational -hanes; 4hen changes occur, people have to adapt to thosechanges and this may cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are major or unusuallike transfer or adaption of new technology.

7ac@ of Social S>pport; 4hen individuals believe that they have the friendship andsupport of others at work, their ability to cope with the effects of stress increases. fthis kind of social support is not available then an employee e#periences more stress.

2. -a>ses of Non


55/56

4hile the (ype / people are e#actly opposite and hence are less affected by stressdue to above mentioned factors.

>. Technoloical -hanes; 4hen there are any changes in technological field,employees are under the constant stress of fear of losing jobs, or need to adjust to new

technologies. (his can be a source of stress.I. -areer -hanes; 4hen a person suddenly switches over a new job, he is under

stress to shoulder new responsibilities properly. Cnder promotion, over promotion,demotion and transfers can also cause stress.

http;JJkalyan+city.blogspot.comJ!811J8$Jwhat+is+stress+meaning+definition+and.html

$elationship #etween tress and Job erformance2ost ; ?aurav &krani 6ate ; $J!*J!811 18;18;88 & S(

Bo


56/56

point that corresponds appro#imately to the employees day to day performance capability./eyond this point, stress shows no signs of improvement in job performance.

:inally, if stress is too hih, it turns into a damaging force. 9ob performance begins todecline at the same point because e#cessive stress interferes with performance. &n employee

lose the ability to cope, fails to make a decision and displays inconsistent behaviour. f stresscontinues to increase even further it reaches a breaking point. &t this breaking stage, anemployee is very upset and mentally devastated. Soon heJshe completely breaks down.2erformance becomes 7ero, no longer feels like working for their employer, absenteeismincreases, eventually resulting into 3uitting of a job or getting fired.

Stress should not be very high nor too low. t must be within the range and limits ofemployees capacity to tolerate and his performance level. & controlled stress which is withinlimits is always beneficial and productive than an uncontrolled one.

anagement of every organisation must always consider their employees as assets of theirfirm and not work slaves. -fforts should be made regularly to monitor and study stress levelsin working environment. Becessary adjustments and arrangements should be made to controlstress and its causes.

intro to stress

Documents