intro to transport

8/19/2019 Intro to transport

1/21

Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING CIVL5502

INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TRANSPORT

COMPONENTS OF A TRANSPORT SYSTEM

• Transport demand

! Passenger

! Freight

• Transport supply

!

Vehicle

! Infrastructure

! Information/control system

TRANSPORT MODES

• Road

Passenger and freight vehicles on a road Vehicles on a free-flow freeway

Variable message board on a freeway Traffic management system of a road network


2/21


3/21

3

An inland waterway barge A canal bridge over a river

Maritime navigation sign Lighthouse

• Aviation

A Qantas passenger airplane A full cargo airplane

Instrument Landing System (ILS) Air traffic control tower


4/21

4

• Pipeline

A pipeline transporting natural gas Pipelines transporting liquids

ROAD TRANSPORT AND SOCIETIES

• Roles of roads

Roads play an important role in the society:

! Movement of people

! Movement of freight

A significant feature of the role is that demand for road transport (same as the othertransport modes, such as air, rail and shipping) is derived from other human needs and

economic activities:

!

Unrestricted mobility

! Unlimited access to resources and activities (accessibility)

•

Road transport and economy

Transport makes a contribution to the economy in a nation. In Australia transport

contributes about 3% of national GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to the economy, of whichover 50% are made by road transport.

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

18 000

20 000

1 9 7 4

- 7 5

1 9 7 6

- 7 7

1 9 7 8

- 7 9

1 9 8 0

- 8 1

1 9 8 2

- 8 3

1 9 8 4

- 8 5

1 9 8 6

- 8 7

1 9 8 8

- 8 9

1 9 9 0

- 9 1

1 9 9 2

- 9 3

1 9 9 4

- 9 5

1 9 9 6

- 9 7

1 9 9 8

- 9 9

2 0 0 0

- 0 1

2 0 0 2

- 0 3

2 0 0 4

- 0 5

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

$ m i l l i o n

0

200 000

400 000

600 000

800 000

1000 000

1200 000

G D P $ m

i l l i o n

Road

Air and space

Rail, pipeline and other transport

Gross Domestic Product (right axis)

Transport GDP in Australia (1974-75 to 2007-08)

Source: ABS (2008a), Australian National Accounts: National Income, Expenditure and Product (ABS cat. no. 5206.0).


5/21

5

• Road transport tasks

Australia has a large fleet of motor vehicles, which includes a wide range of cars, utility

vehicles and trucks. Large trucks, such as road trains, play an important role in long

distance road transport.

Vehicle types on Australian roads

The ownership of motor vehicles in Australia is on average 0.79 motor vehicles per person,

with the lowest of 0.59 motor vehicles per person in Northern Territory and the highest of0.88 motor vehicles per person in Western Australia. New South Wales has the largest fleet

of 4.361 million motor vehicles in 2007 and Northern Territory the smallest of 0.118

million motor vehicles in the same year.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

t h o u s a n d

v e h i c l e s

VIC QLD SA WA

TAS NT ACT NSW

Stock of registered motor vehicles in Australia

Source: ABS (2007), Motor Vehicle Census, Australia (ABS cat. no. 9309.0).

The transport tasks carried out by roads include intra-city and inter-city freight and

passenger movements.


6/21

6

0

50

100

150

200

250

1 9 7 0

- 7 1

1 9 7 2

- 7 3

1 9 7 4

- 7 5

1 9 7 6

- 7 7

1 9 7 8

- 7 9

1 9 8 0

- 8 1

1 9 8 2

- 8 3

1 9 8 4

- 8 5

1 9 8 6

- 8 7

1 9 8 8

- 8 9

1 9 9 0

- 9 1

1 9 9 2

- 9 3

1 9 9 4

- 9 5

1 9 9 6

- 9 7

1 9 9 8

- 9 9

2 0 0 0

- 0 1

2 0 0 2

- 0 3

2 0 0 4

- 0 5

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

b i l l i o n k i l o m

e t r e s

Road

Rail

Coastal shipping

Total bulk and non-bulk domestic freight by transport mode in Australia

Source: ARA (2008), Australian Rail Industry Report, BTRE (2006b), Freight Measurement and Modelling in Australia (Report 112),

BITRE estimates and BITRE (2008i), Domestic sea freight database.

Passenger cars on roads are the most important passenger transport mode in Australia.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 9 7 0

- 7 1

1 9 7 2

- 7 3

1 9 7 4

- 7 5

1 9 7 6

- 7 7

1 9 7 8

- 7 9

1 9 8 0

- 8 1

1 9 8 2

- 8 3

1 9 8 4

- 8 5

1 9 8 6

- 8 7

1 9 8 8

- 8 9

1 9 9 0

- 9 1

1 9 9 2

- 9 3

1 9 9 4

- 9 5

1 9 9 6

- 9 7

1 9 9 8

- 9 9

2 0 0 0

- 0 1

2 0 0 2

- 0 3

2 0 0 4

- 0 5

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

b i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r k i l o m e t r e s

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

b i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r k i l o m e t r e s

Buses

Rail

Air

Other (1)

Passenger cars (right axis)

Total passenger travel by transport mode in Australia

Source: BTRE (2007), Estimating urban traffic and congestion cost trends for Australian cities and BITRE estimates.


7/21

7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 9 7

6 - 7 7

1 9 7

8 - 7 9

1 9 8

0 - 8 1

1 9 8

2 - 8 3

1 9 8

4 - 8 5

1 9 8

6 - 8 7

1 9 8

8 - 8 9

1 9 9

0 - 9 1

1 9 9

2 - 9 3

1 9 9

4 - 9 5

1 9 9

6 - 9 7

1 9 9

8 - 9 9

2 0 0

0 - 0 1

2 0 0

2 - 0 3

2 0 0

4 - 0 5

2 0 0

6 - 0 7

b i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r k i l o

m e t r e s

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

b i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r k i l o

m e t r e s

Commercial vehiclesMotor cyclesRailLight railBusFerryPassenger cars (right axis)

Total metropolitan passenger travel by Australian capital city

Source: BTRE (2007), Estimating urban traffic and congestion cost trends for Australian cities and BITRE estimates.

• Road inventory and funding

Australia has about 815,000 plus kilometers of roads in 2007 that are open to general use.

Details of the network and its geographical distribution are shown diagram and table

below.

Map of Auslink national road network and recently completed projects

Source: Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government.


8/21

8

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2007

k i l o m e t r e s

NSW VIC SA WA

TAS NT ACT QLD

Total road length by state/territory in Australia

Source: BITRE survey and ABS (2005), Year Book Australia (ABS cat. no. 1301.0).

The provision of roads is expensive and its funding in Australia has been mainly from

governments at commonwealth, state and local levels, with the private sector being

involved in some toll roads, such as CityLink Expressway in Melbourne.

The expenditure on road infrastructure includes:

! Construction

! Maintenance

! Rehabilitation

CityLink Expressway in Melbourne

Source: Google Earth.


9/21

9

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

1 9 8 5

- 8 6

1 9 8 6

- 8 7

1 9 8 7

- 8 8

1 9 8 8

- 8 9

1 9 8 9

- 9 0

1 9 9 0

- 9 1

1 9 9 1

- 9 2

1 9 9 2

- 9 3

1 9 9 3

- 9 4

1 9 9 4

- 9 5

1 9 9 5

- 9 6

1 9 9 6

- 9 7

1 9 9 7

- 9 8

1 9 9 8

- 9 9

1 9 9 9

- 0 0

2 0 0 0

- 0 1

2 0 0 1

- 0 2

2 0 0 2

- 0 3

2 0 0 3

- 0 4

2 0 0 4

- 0 5

2 0 0 5

- 0 6

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

$ m i l l i o n

NSW VIC QLD SA

WA TAS NT ACT

Road expenditure (all levels of government, 2006-07 prices) in AustraliaSource: BITRE (2009), Public road related expenditure and revenue in Australia.

• Road accidents

Roads has had a significant toll of:

! Loss of life

! Injuries

! Property damage

! Reduced productivity as a result of vehicle accidents

In Australia fatalities on roads have been the highest among various modes, though thenumber of fatalities has in general declined over years.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 9 7 1

1 9 7 3

1 9 7 5

1 9 7 7

1 9 7 9

1 9 8 1

1 9 8 3

1 9 8 5

1 9 8 7

1 9 8 9

1 9 9 1

1 9 9 3

1 9 9 5

1 9 9 7

1 9 9 9

2 0 0 1

2 0 0 3

2 0 0 5

2 0 0 7

F a t a l i t i e s

0

500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

F a t a l i t i e s

Rail Marine Aviation Road (right axis)

Number of fatality accidents by transport mode in Australia

Source: ATSB (2004, 2006, 2008a, 2008b), Infrastructure (2008c), National Maritime Safety of Road Safety (1984), Road trafficaccident data and rates.


10/21

10

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

1 9 7 1

1 9 7 3

1 9 7 5

1 9 7 7

1 9 7 9

1 9 8 1

1 9 8 3

1 9 8 5

1 9 8 7

1 9 8 9

1 9 9 1

1 9 9 3

1 9 9 5

1 9 9 7

1 9 9 9

2 0 0 1

2 0 0 3

2 0 0 5

2 0 0 7

d e a t h s p e r 1 0 0 , 0

0 0

p o p u l a t i o n

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

d e a t h s p e r 1 0 0 , 0

0 0

p o p u l a t i o n

Rail Marine Aviation Road (right axis)

Fatality rate by transport mode in Australia

Source: ABS (2008i), Regional population growth, Australia (ABS cat. no. 3218.0), ATSB (2004, 2006, 2008a, 2008b), Infrastructure

(2008c), National Maritime Safety Committee (2008), Office of Road Safety (1984), Road traffic accident data and rates.

The challenge facing both road and vehicle engineers is to use all possible technologies todesign safe roads and vehicles in order to reduce accidents on roads, while maintaining

high level of mobility.

In addition, attention needs to be paid to the behaviour of drivers and general public with

respect to road safety:

!

Increasing levels of aggressive driving

! Increasing levels of disrespect for traffic control devices

! In-vehicle driving distractions

! Poor driving skills

• Greenhouse gas emissions from road transport

In Australia domestic transport contributes 13.5% of national total of greenhouse gas

emissions, measured in CO2 equivalent, of which nearly 85% came from road transport in

2006-07.

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

8 000

9 000

1 9 7 4

- 7 5

1 9 7 6

- 7 7

1 9 7 8

- 7 9

1 9 8 0

- 8 1

1 9 8 2

- 8 3

1 9 8 4

- 8 5

1 9 8 6

- 8 7

1 9 8 8

- 8 9

1 9 9 0

- 9 1

1 9 9 2

- 9 3

1 9 9 4

- 9 5

1 9 9 6

- 9 7

1 9 9 8

- 9 9

2 0 0 0

- 0 1

2 0 0 2

- 0 3

2 0 0 4

- 0 5

2 0 0 6

- 0 7

g i g a g r a m s o f C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t

0

10 000

20 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

60 000

70 000

80 000

90 000

g i g a g r a m s o f C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t

Rail (incl electric)

Maritime

Aviation

Motor Vehicles (right axis)

Transport direct greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions in Australia

Source: BTRE (2006c), Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Australian Transport: Base Case Projections to 2020, BITRE estimates.


11/21

11

Breakdown of greenhouse gas emissions from Australian transport

• Disciplines/areas related to road transport

!

Engineering

! Economics

!

Planning

! Environment science

! Sciences related to safety

• Parties/stakeholders involving in road transport

! Government

–

Provision of infrastructure and associated control devices – Regulation

! Private sector

– Provision of some infrastructure and associated control devices

– Provision of transport services

! Non-profit organisations

– Community reference groups

–

Interest associations


12/21

12

TECHNOLOGY

Four elements are involved in provision of road transport (the same as other transport modes):infrastructure, vehicles, traffic control and users. To provide efficient and safe road transport,

technologies of infrastructure, vehicles and control devices are important and need duetreatment, and human factors are worth studying.

• Infrastructure technologies

! Survey and design

– Aerial photography and digital survey equipment

–

Computer-aided design


13/21

13


14/21

14

! Construction

–

All sorts of construction machines

– Advance digital devices for controlling construction quality

Source: http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/Leica-PaveSmart-3D-for-Asphalt-Pavers_4683.htm

!

Maintenance and rehabilitation

–

Advanced survey/test equipment

Assess pavement by 1) Benkelman Beam 2) Falling Weight Deflectometer

Measure pavement longitudinal and transverse profiles by Laser Profiling

Measure friction by 1) Friction Tester 2) Mobile Friction Test Vehicle


15/21

15

– Computer software for data management and optimising maintenance/rehabilitation

measures and sequences

• Vehicle technologies

Advances have made in vehicle technologies with respect to: vehicle/pedestrian safety, fuel

efficiency and exhaust emissions, due to government regulations, energy shortages and

market competition.! Safety equipment

– Seat belts

A mandatory safety belt use law for cars has been in force in many countries. It has

contributed significantly to the reduction of injuries. The most common occupant

protection system today is the three-point safety belt, which holds the occupant in

his or her seat and prevents the body from being subjected to uncontrolled

movements and forces. Supplementary systems are increasingly being offered, for

example, pyrotechnic safety belt pretensioner, belt force limiter and, above all,

airbags.

The safety belt pretensioners are actuated by a gas generator triggered by the

airbag control unit. The pretensioners have a lower deployment threshold than the

front airbags so that they may deploy in a collision that is not enough to deploy the

front airbags. When activated, the pretensioner tightens the webbing. Because the

webbing is now tighter across the body, occupants participate earlier in the vehicle

ride down and loadings on the body are distributed more uniformly over the entire

restraint sequence, the risk of injury declines.

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/s/safety_belt.html

Source: www.volvocars.com.au/experience/safety.htm


16/21

16

–

Airbags (front, side and curtain)

Airbags reduce the risk of severe head and chest (thorax) injuries in a certain

collisions. If the crash sensors on the car detect an impact that exceeds the value

needed to trigger the airbags, the airbag control unit ignites the gas generator.

This inflates the airbags in the steering wheel and the instrument panel in front of

the front-seat passenger (the front airbags) within 30 to 40 milliseconds. Wheninflated, these airbags absorb energy from the forward movement of the head and

upper body and distribute the resulting loads over a much greater area. After only120 milliseconds, the gas escapes and the airbag collapses. Reducing the amount of

relative movement between the head and neck helps to reduce injuries, but optimum

protection can only be achieved if all occupants are properly wearing their safetybelts - the safety belt pretensioner and the airbags are part of a finely tuned safety

system.

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/a/airbag.html

Side airbags (also called “thorax” airbags) deploy in the space between the upper

torso and the door trim in certain side impacts. Together with a properly worn

three point safety belt they reduce the load on the thorax and pelvic areas. …

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/s/side_airbag.html


17/21

17

In certain side impacts, the SIDEGUARD head airbag system (curtain airbag) is an

effective supplement to the car’s side airbags and the properly worn three point

safety belt for the protection of the head area of the front and rear vehicle

occupants. SIDEGUARD ‘softens’ head impact with interior components or with

objects outside the car. In addition, less pronounced head movement reduces

loadings on the neck.

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/s/sideguard.html

– Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

The anti-lock braking system (ABS) prevents the wheels from locking up during

braking. Even under strong braking, the car remains steerable and controllable.

This can help the driver avoid an obstacle without having to release the brakes

first. When ABS is activated, the driver will notice a slight pulsation of the brake

pedal. The anti-lock brake system is optimised with electronic brake-force

distribution (EBD).


18/21

18

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/a/abs.html

– Traction control (ASR)

For today’s typical high-torque engines, a form of wheelslip regulation or traction

control (ASR) can increase both comfort and safety, particularly on surfaces with

differing coefficients of friction or on slippery roads. It makes smooth starts and

acceleration possible through all speed ranges without wheel-spin or fishtailing. ASR only operates in conjunction with the electronic accelerator (E gas) and uses

components of the anti-lock braking system (ABS). If one wheel suddenly begins to

rotate faster than the others (slip), ASR intervenes in the engine management

system and reduces power until the wheel stops spinning. ASR improves tractionand can help the driver maintain control even if the limit of adhesion is

inadvertently reached while cornering. In addition, it reduces tire wear. …

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/t/traction_control.html

!

Fuel/engine technologies – Gasoline engine

–

Diesel engine – more powerful and 30-35% fuel-efficient than similar-sized

gasoline engines

– Hybrid engine

Hybrid-electric vehicles combine the benefits of gasoline engines and electricmotors to provide improved fuel economy. The engine provides most of the vehicle's

power, and the electric motor provides additional power when needed, such as for

accelerating and passing. This allows a smaller, more-efficient engine to be used.

The electric power for the motor is generated from regenerative braking and from


19/21

19

the gasoline engine, so hybrids don't have to be "plugged in" to an electrical outlet

to recharge.

Starting – When the vehicle is started,

the gasoline engine "warms up." If

necessary, the electric motor acts as a

generator, converting energy from the

engine into electricity and storing it in

the battery.

Cruising – The gasoline engine powers

the vehicle at cruising speeds and, if

needed, provides power to the battery

for later use.

Passing – During heavy accelerating

or when additional power is needed,

the gasoline engine and electric motor

are both used to propel the vehicle.

Additional power from the battery is

used to power the electric motor as

needed.

Braking (part 1) – Regenerative

braking converts otherwise wasted

energy from braking into electricity

and stores it in the battery. In

regenerative braking, the electricmotor is reversed so that, instead of

using electricity to turn the wheels, the

rotating wheels turn the motor andcreate electricity. Using energy from

the wheels to turn the motor slows the vehicle down.

Braking (part 2) – If additional

stopping power is needed, conventional

friction brakes (e.g., disc brakes) are

also applied automatically.


20/21

20

Stopped – When the vehicle is stopped,

such as at a red light, the gasolineengine and electric motor shut off

automatically so that energy is not

wasted in idling. The battery continues

to power auxillary systems, such as

the air conditioning and dashboard

displays.

Source: www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridAnimation/hybrid/hybridoverview.html

! Emission control technologies

– Exhaust emission control

The exhaust emission control system converts the pollutants created during thecombustion process into substances more compatible with the environment. The

central element in the car’s exhaust emission control system is the catalytic

converter. An oxygen sensor or lambda probe measures the residual oxygen in theexhaust gas and adjusts the engine’s fuel-air mixture to the correct ratio. Powerful

engines often have up to four pre-converters and two main converters. For dieselcars, a soot filter may also be a part of the emission control system.

Source: audi.com.au/glossary/e/exhaust_emission_control.html

EU emission control standards (a)

Effective

from

Car Diesel car Petrol car Heavy vehicle

NOx PM NOx PM NOx PM NOx PM

EURO1(b)

1992 8.0 0.36

EURO2 (c) 1995 7.0 0.15

EURO3(d)

1999 0.50 0.050 0.15 5.0 0.10

EURO4(d)

2005 0.25 0.025 0.08 3.5 0.02

EURO5(d) (e)

2008 0.20 0.005 0.06 0.005 2.0 0.02

Note: (a) NOx nitrogen oxide; PM particulate matter, aerosols or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid (a smoke) or

liquid (an aerosol) suspended in a gas.

(b) Emission unit: g/kWh

(c) Emission unit: g/km

(d) Emission unit: Diesel & petrol cars – g/km; heavy vehicle – g/kWh

(e) For diesel and petrol cars, the emission values are recently suggested.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_1

• Traffic control technologies

! Intersection traffic signals – trading off between mobility and safety

SCATS (Sydney Co-ordinated Adaptive Traffic System) is an intersection traffic

control system, invented by Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) in New South Wales. It

monitors in real-time volumes of traffic to coordinate adjacent traffic signals to ease

traffic congestion and improve traffic flow. It is probably one of the most advanced

intersection traffic control systems in the world and has widely been used in Australia

and overseas.


21/21

Source: elmore.ie/ListItems.asp?CatID=5&SubCatID=15

! ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) refers to the application of computer and

communications technologies to transport problems. It offers the potential to reduce

traffic congestion and improve safety on roads. It has many versions, depending on the

scope and technologies used.

Source: www.etsi.org

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

• Practice of provision of road transport infrastructure

!

People tend to tolerate more and more traffic congestion to use private cars.

!

The practice of “forecasting and constructing”

! The practice of traffic management

• Dominance of single-occupant private vehicles

! The attractiveness of single-occupant private vehicles

The average vehicle occupancy in Perth is about 1.12.

! Incentives for multiple-occupant vehicles: carpooling, public transport

intro to transport

Documents