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Chapter 7: The Transition from Analog to Digital (of Haykin & Mohler) 5/18/2010 1

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Page 1: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Chapter 7: T

he Transitio

n fro

Analog to D

igita

l(of H

aykin & M

ohler)

5/18/20

101

Page 2: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Intro

ductio

n

Analo

g

Contin

uous‐w

ave (CW

) modulatio

n: o

ne o

f the th

ree param

eters of a 

sinusosid

al carrier is varied co

ntin

uously

according to th

e inform

ation w

ave

Analo

g to digital

Digital 

Discrete tim

e & discrete levels

Theo

retical understan

dings: 19

30s to

 1960s

Hard

ware: so

lid state electro

nics, m

icro‐electro

nics, an

d larg

e‐scale integ

ration in th

e 1970

s

Three step

s for th

e transitio

n

Sam

plin

g: 

discrete tim

e

Pulse‐am

plitu

de m

odulatio

Pulse‐p

ositio

n m

odulatio

n

Quan

tization: 

discrete levels

Unifo

rm quan

tization

Non‐unifo

rm quan

tization

Line C

oding: d

ecimal in

tegers (b

ase 10) 

binary (b

ase 2)

5/18/20

102

Page 3: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Why D

igitize Analo

g Sources?

Digital system

s are less sensitive to

 noise

than an

alog

It is easier to

 integ

ratedifferen

t services into th

e same 

transm

ission sch

eme

e.g

., analo

g or d

igital T

V in Chap

ter 3

The tran

smissio

nsch

eme can

 be relatively in

dep

enden

t of 

the so

urce

homogen

eous stream

 of 0

’s and 1’s

Digital circu

itryis easier to

 repeat an

d less sen

sitive to 

physical effects su

ch as vib

ration an

d tem

peratu

re

Sim

pler to

 characterize

and typ

ically do not h

ave the sam

e am

plitu

de ran

ge an

d variab

ility as analo

g system

s

5/18/20

103

Page 4: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Why D

igital (contd.)

Alm

ost all tran

smissio

n m

edia m

ay be u

sed fo

r either 

digital o

r analo

g tran

smissio

nDigital u

ses med

ia more efficien

tlyMultip

lexing

Med

ia sharin

g is easier to

 implem

ent fo

r digital tran

smissio

ns

Source co

ding: 

Rem

ovin

g red

undan

cy in digital d

ata

Chan

nel co

ding: 

Adding co

ntro

lled red

undan

cy to a d

igital tran

smissio

n

For erro

r detectio

n an

d co

rrection

Other ch

annel co

mpen

sation sch

emes, e.g

., equalizatio

n, are 

easier to im

plem

ent fo

r digital tran

smissio

ns

Easier fo

r standard

izationfor in

teroperatib

ility

5/18/20

104

Page 5: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Sam

pling 

Process

Arbitrary sig

nal 

g(t)W

ith fin

ite en

ergy: w

hy

Specified

 for all 

time t: w

hy

Sam

ple in

st. at a unifo

rm rate

Sam

plin

g rate: 

Ts= 1/fs

Infin

ite sequen

ce of sam

ples, 

One every T

sseco

nds

5/18/20

105

0t

c(t)

Page 6: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Sam

pling P

rocess (co

ntd.)

Sam

plin

g perio

d: T

s , seconds

Sam

plin

g rate: fs , sam

ples/seco

nd

Instan

taneo

us sam

plin

g: im

pulses at t

weig

hted

 by 

the co

rresponding g(t)

values –

ideal sam

pled sig

nal

5/18/20

106

ns

s

ns

ns

nTt

nTg

nTt

tg

nTt

tg

tc

tg

tg

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

Page 7: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 8: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 9: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 10: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 11: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 12: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Spectral A

nalysis

Fundam

ental th

eory o

f Fourier T

ransfo

rm:

5/18/20

107

Mak

ing a sig

nal p

eriodic in

 the tim

e domain has th

e effect o

f samplin

g th

e spectru

m of th

e signal in

 the 

frequen

cy domain

Duality p

roperty

Sam

plin

g a sig

nal in

 the tim

e domain has th

e effect of 

mak

ing th

e spectru

m of th

e signal p

eriodic in

 the 

frequen

cy domain

HW 3.5

Prob 

2.12

Duality

: if g(t)

G(f), th

en G(t)

g(‐f) 

Page 13: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Duality P

roperty o

f Fourier Tran

sform

Proof:

Exam

ple: 

5/18/20

108

Duality

: if g(t)

G(f), th

en G(t)

g(‐f) )

()

(

i.e., ,

)2

exp()

(

:have

we

,

and

variablesing

Interchang

)2

exp()

(

)

2exp(

)(

:T

ransfromF

ourier

inverseto

according),

()

(

Since

fg

tG

dtft

jt

Gf)

g(

ft

dfft

jf

Gt)

g(df

ftj

fG

g(t)

fG

tg

W f

W AW

tc

At

g2

rect2

)2(

sin)

(

Page 14: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Spectral A

nalysis (co

ntd.)

Sectio

n 2.6

: Fourier T

ransfo

rm of P

eriodic S

ignals

Determ

ine th

e Fourier tran

sform of g

δ (t) by ap

plyin

the d

uality p

roperty an

d Eqn. (2.8

8)

5/18/20

109

n

ss

sn

snf

fnf

Gf

nTt

g)

()

()

(

ns

snT

tnT

gt

g)

()

()

(

(2.88)

n

ss

nff

Gf

fG

tg

)(

)(

)(

G(f): F

ourier tran

sform of g

(t)

The p

rocess o

f unifo

rmly sa

mplin

g a co

ntin

uous‐tim

e signal o

f finite en

ergy 

results in

 a perio

dic sp

ectrum with a perio

d eq

ual to

 the sa

mplin

g ra

te

Tells u

s the sh

ape 

of th

e spectru

m

Page 15: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Spectral A

nalysis (co

ntd.)

Altern

atively, directly tak

e Fourier tran

sform

Delta fu

nctio

n an

d tim

e shiftin

g property

W

e have fo

5/18/20

1010

n

ss

nTt

nTg

tg

)(

)(

)(

Discrete F

ourier T

ransfo

rm of g

δ (t) . Can be view

ed as a co

mplex F

ourier 

series represen

tatio

n of th

e perio

dic freq

uen

cy functio

n G

δ (f).

1)

(

t

)2

exp()

()

(0

ofT

jf

Ht

th

)2

exp()

(s

sfnT

jnt

t

ns

snfT

jnT

gf

G)

2exp(

)(

)(

See P

age 39

, (2.8

0).

Tells u

s the 

expressio

n

Page 16: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Spectral A

nalysis (co

ntd.)

Consid

er a strictly ban

d‐lim

ited g(t), i.e., G

(f)=0, fo

r |f|≥

W

W

ith fs =

2Wan

d T

s =1/(2W

), the sp

ectrum G

δ (f) is

The sp

ectrum G

δ (f)is p

eriodic fs

Also easily seen

 from duality:  

5/18/20

1011

n

W nfj

W ng

fG

exp2

)(

n

ss

nff

Gf

fG

tg

)(

)(

)(

Perio

dic

Page 17: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Spectral A

nalysis (co

ntd.)

W

e have

if

Or

5/18/20

1012

Wf

Wf

GW

fG

),(

2 1)

(

W

f

Wf

fG

s2

for

0)

(

Wf

WW nf

j

W ng

Wf

Gn

,exp

22 1

)(

Page 18: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Sam

pling Th

eorem

Exam

ine th

e G(f)

expressio

n

Im

portan

t observatio

ns

The sam

ple valu

es g(n/(2W

)) are specified

 for all n

G(f)

is uniquely d

etermined in [‐W

, W]  

g(t)

is uniquely d

etermined by in

verse Fourier 

transfo

rm of G

(f)

g(t)

is uniquely d

etermined by sam

ple valu

es g(n/(2W

)) 

5/18/20

1013

otherwise

,0

,exp

22 1

)(

Wf

WW nf

j

W ng

Wf

Gn

The sam

pled seq

uen

ce{g(n/(2W

))} contain

s all inform

ation of 

g(t)

Page 19: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Reco

nstru

ct g(t)

Reco

nstru

ct g(t)

from th

e samples g

(n/(2W

))

Interch

anging th

e order o

f sum an

d in

tegratio

n

W

e have

5/18/20

1014

Shifted

 sin

cfunctio

n,  

Pag

e 8

Tim

e‐shiftin

property

Page 20: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Reco

nstru

ct g(t)

(contd.)

Interp

olatio

n fo

rmula 

Reco

nstru

ct g(t)

from th

e samples {g

(n/2W

)}

Interp

olatio

n fu

nctio

n:  sin

c(2Wt)

5/18/20

1015

h(t)=

sinc(2W

t)g(t)

gδ (t) 

Page 21: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Sampling Th

eorem

For strictly b

and‐lim

ited sig

nal o

f finite en

ergy

Nyq

uist rate: fs

= 2W

Nyq

uist in

terval: Ts= 1/ fs

=1/(2W

)

5/18/20

1016

Page 22: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Sampling Th

eorem

 (contd.)

Signals w

hich are n

ot b

and‐lim

ited, o

r fs< 2W

Undersam

pled

Aliasin

geffect

High freq

uen

cy componen

t in th

e spectru

m seem

ingly ta

king 

on th

e iden

tity of a lo

wer freq

uen

cy in th

e spectru

m of its 

sampled versio

n

Solutio

nLow‐pass p

re‐alias filter: to lim

it the b

andwidth of th

e sig

nal to

 be sam

pled

Reco

nstru

ction filter: lo

w‐pass in

 [‐W, W

], with 

transitio

n ban

d fro

m in [W

, fs ‐W]

5/18/20

1017

Page 23: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Example

Undersam

pled sig

nal

5/18/20

1018

Page 24: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Example (co

ntd.)

W

ith pre‐

alias filter

5/18/20

1019

transitio

n ban

Low pass

Page 25: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Pulse‐A

mplitu

de M

odulatio

nThe am

plitu

des o

f regularly sp

aced pulses are varied

 in proportio

n to th

e corresp

onding sam

ple valu

es of 

g(t)

Pulse: rectan

gular

form or so

me o

ther fo

rms

Two sim

ilar techniques:

Natu

ral samplin

g

PAM (flat‐to

p sam

plin

g)

5/18/20

1020

Page 26: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Pulse‐A

mplitu

de M

odulatio

(contd.)

Two step

s:

Step

 1: get th

e instan

taneo

usly sam

pled sig

nal

Pass it th

rough a lin

ear system w

ith im

pulse resp

onse 

h(t) =

 rect(t/T‐1/2) (see H

omew

ork 1, P

roblem

 2.3)

5/18/20

1021

ns

snT

tnT

gt

g)

()

()

(

s(t)gδ (t) 

ns

snT

th

nTg

th

tg

ts

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

Page 27: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Pulse‐P

ositio

Modulatio

n

Pulse d

uratio

n m

odulatio

(PDM)

The sam

ples o

f the m

essage 

signal are u

sed to vary th

e duratio

nof in

divid

ual p

ulses

A.k.a.:  p

ulse‐w

idth 

modulatio

n or p

ulse‐len

gth 

modulatio

n

Pulse‐p

ositio

n m

odulatio

(PPM)

The p

ositio

nof a p

ulse is varied

 acco

rding to th

e signal valu

e

PAM 

Amplitu

de 

modulatio

n

PPM 

Angle m

odulatio

n

5/18/20

1022

The fallin

g ed

ges 

represen

ts inform

ation

PDM

PPM

Unmodulated

 signal

Inform

ation w

ave

Page 28: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

PPM (co

ntd.)

g(t‐n

Ts ): a sin

gle p

ulse at n

Ts

m(nTs ): sam

ple to

 modulate th

e positio

n of th

e n‐th 

pulse

kp : sen

sitivityof P

PM

Sufficien

t conditio

n: d

ifferent p

ulses in

 s(t)must b

e strictly n

on‐overlap

ping

5/18/20

1023

n

sp

snT

mk

nTt

gt

s))

((

)(

2|

)(

|m

axs

p

Tt

mk

Page 29: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example –

UWB

Im

pulse rad

ioInform

ation is sen

t by m

eans o

f very narro

w pulses th

at are w

idely sep

arated in tim

e

Very n

arrow pulses 

very wide b

andwidth

Ultra‐w

ideb

and(U

WB)

The p

ulse

Gau

ssian m

onocycle: th

e first derivative o

f the G

aussian

 pulse

τ: p

ulse w

idth ~ betw

een 0.2 an

d 1.5 n

anoseco

nds

5/18/20

1024

Page 30: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

UWB (co

ntd.)

Very n

arrow pulses

1 n

anoseco

nd

Very w

ide b

andwidth

W≈5G

Hz

Im

plicatio

ns

For U

WB sig

nal w

ith 

limited

 power, th

e signal 

power in

 any p

articular 

narro

w ban

d is sm

all

Could be lo

wer th

an th

ermal 

noise 

security

Falls in

 allnarro

w ban

ds

Interferes all

Power sh

ould be lim

ited

5/18/20

1025

Page 31: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

UWB (co

ntd.)

Pulse p

ositio

n m

odulatio

n (P

PM)

Nominal sep

aration T

p

“0”–slig

htly early (‐T

c ); “1”–slig

htly late (+

Tc )

Data rate: R

=1/T

p

5/18/20

1026

]1 ,

40[

]

1000 ,

25[

Mbps

Mbps

Rns

nsT

p

Page 32: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Q

uantizatio

n Process

Human sen

se can detect o

nly fin

ite inten

sity differen

cesOrig

inal co

ntin

uous sig

nal can

 be ap

proxim

ated by a sig

nal 

constru

cted of d

iscrete amplitu

de selected

 on a m

inim

um 

error b

asis from an availab

le set

Amplitu

de q

uan

tization

Tran

sform

ing th

e sample am

plitu

de m

(nTs )into discrete 

amplitu

de v(n

Ts )tak

en fro

m a fin

ite set of p

ossib

le am

plitu

des

Contin

uous tim

e, contin

uous am

plitu

de 

discrete tim

e, discrete am

plitu

de

Mem

oryless q

uan

tization: tran

sform

ation at tim

e t=nTsis 

not affected

 by earlier o

r later samples  

5/18/20

1027

Page 33: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Q

uantizatio

n Process (co

ntd.)

Mem

oryless q

uan

tization

Signal am

plitu

de is sp

ecified by in

dex k

if it lies insid

e the 

k‐th in

terval

L: to

tal number o

f amplitu

de levels

m

k : decisio

n levels, o

r decisio

n th

resholds

Quan

tum

or step

‐size: spacin

g betw

een tw

o decisio

n levels

Output v

k : represen

tation levels o

r reconstru

cted levels

Quan

tizer characteristic:  v =

 g(m

)

5/18/20

1028

Page 34: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Q

uantizatio

n Process (co

ntd.)

Midtread

: the o

rigin lies in

 the m

iddle o

f a tread of th

e staircase‐like 

grap

h

Midrise: th

e orig

in lies in

 the m

iddle o

f a rising part o

f the staircase‐

like g

raph

5/18/20

1029

Page 35: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

The Q

uantizatio

n Process (co

ntd.)

Unifo

rm quan

tization: th

e represen

tation levels are u

nifo

rmly sp

aced

Nonunifo

rm quan

tization: n

onunifo

rmly sp

aced step

‐sizes

5/18/20

1030

W. S

tallings,  D

ata and Computer C

ommunica

tions, 8

th Ed., P

rentice H

all, 2007.

unifo

rmnonunifo

rm

Page 36: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 37: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

What In

form

ation Is Lo

st?Sam

plin

g

Use sam

ples g

(nTs ), T

s  =1/fs =

1/(2W), to

 represen

t g(t)

The valu

es of g

(t)betw

een [(n

‐1)Ts , n

Ts ] are lo

st, for all n

Is th

is a problem

?

Quan

tization

Use d

iscrete amplitu

de v(t)

to rep

resent co

ntin

uous 

amplitu

de m

(t)

Intro

duce d

istortio

n (o

r, noise) to

 the in

form

ation sig

nal

Is th

is a problem

Human percep

tion can

 tolerate certain

 disto

rtions 

Need

 to quan

tify the level o

f noise ad

ded by q

uan

tization

5/18/20

1031

Page 38: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Quantizatio

n Noise

Quan

tization noise: q

 = m ‐v

5/18/20

1032

Erro

r qis 

bounded 

by ±Δ/2

m

v

Page 39: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Quantizatio

n Noise M

odel

Input: zero

‐mean

 random variab

le M

Quan

tizer g(·): m

aps M

of co

ntin

uous am

plitu

de in

to 

a discrete ran

dom variab

le output V

V: also

 zero m

ean

Q=M‐V

: quan

tization erro

r, also zero

 mean

Unifo

rm quan

tizer, input am

plitu

de is in

 [‐mmax , 

mmax ], L

represen

tation levels an

d is su

fficiently larg

eStep

‐size:    Δ= 2m

max /L

Q

is bounded by:  ‐Δ

/2 ≤q ≤Δ/2

Q

is unifo

rmly d

istributed

 with probab

ility den

sity functio

n as: 

5/18/20

1033

otherw

ise ,0

2/2/

- ,

/1

)(

qq

fQ

Page 40: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 41: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Quantizatio

n Noise M

odel (co

ntd.)

Since Q

is zero m

ean, its p

ower (o

r, variance) is

If each

 sample is rep

resented

 with R

bits, th

en

R=log2 L an

dL=2R

The n

oise p

ower is: 

If averag

e signal p

ower is P

S , the sig

nal‐to

‐noise ra

tio 

is:

5/18/20

1034

122/

-

2/

3

11

)(

][

E2

22/2/

-

22/2/

-

22

qdq

qdq

qf

qQ

PQ

Q

RQ

mP

22m

ax 23 1

RS

Q SO

m

P

P P2

2max

23

)S

NR

(

Page 42: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Quantizatio

n Noise: Exam

ple

A fu

ll‐load

sinusoidal

m(t)

of am

plitu

de A

m, averag

e power is:

Full‐lo

ad 

Am=m

max

Averag

e noise p

ower is: 

The q

uan

tizer’s output sig

nal‐to

‐noise ratio

 is:

In dB, it is:

5/18/20

1035

2/2m

SA

P

Rm

RQ

Am

P2

22

2max

23 1

23 1

R

Rm

mO

A

A2

22

2

22 3

3/2

2/

power

noise

Average

power

signal

Average

)S

NR

(

RO

dB6

8.1

)S

NR

(log

10)

SN

R(

10

Page 43: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 44: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Quantizatio

n Noise Exam

ple 

(contd.)

5/18/20

1036

RdB

68.

1)

SN

R(

Page 45: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Nonunifo

rm Quantizatio

nExam

ple 7.2: 

Assu

mes fu

ll‐load sig

nal, i.e., A

m=m

max

W

hat if A

m<m

max ?  

If A

m=m

max /3,                                       , 9

.6 dB lo

wer

For p

ractical systems

Fixed

 L, m

maxan

d R

But sig

nal m

ay not alw

ays be fu

ll‐load ones

Voice: lo

ud talk

 to w

eak talk

: 1000 to 1 

60 dB variatio

n

Need

 nonunifo

rm quan

tization fo

r constan

t SNR

Larg

e step‐size fo

r high am

plitu

de reg

ion, sm

all step‐size fo

r sm

all amplitu

de reg

ion

Equivalen

t to usin

g a co

mpresso

r

5/18/20

1037

RdB

68.

7)

SN

R(

Page 46: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Solutio

n I: N

onunifo

rm Quant.

Unifo

rm quan

tization: th

e represen

tation levels are u

nifo

rmly sp

aced

Nonunifo

rm quan

tization: n

onunifo

rmly sp

aced step

‐sizes

5/18/20

1038

W. S

tallings,  D

ata and Computer C

ommunica

tions, 8

th Ed., P

rentice H

all, 2007.

unifo

rmnonunifo

rm

Page 47: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Solutio

n II: C

ompander

Compresso

r compressio

n law

, the μ

–law:

μis a p

ositive co

nstan

t

Slope is

5/18/20

1039

)1

log(

|)|

1log(

||

mv

|)|

1()

1log(

||

||

mv

d

md

Approxim

atelylin

ear for lo

w in

put 

levels:   μ|m

|<<1

Approxim

atelylogarith

m fo

r high 

input levels:  μ

|m|>>1

Page 48: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Compander (co

ntd.)

Compresso

r compressio

n law

, the A

–law:

Ais a p

ositive co

nstan

t ~ 10

0

Slope is

5/18/20

1040

1|

|1

,log

1

|)|

log(1

1|

|0

,

log1

||

||

mA

A mA

Am

A

mA

v

1|

|1/A

|,

|)

1log(

/1

||

0 ,

/)

1log(

||

||

mm

A

Am

AA

vd

md

Linear fo

r low in

put levels

Logarith

m fo

r high in

put levels

Page 49: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Compander (co

ntd.)

Receiver sid

e

An exp

ander: w

ith a ch

aracteristic complem

entary to

 the co

mpresso

r

Compresso

r + exp

ander: co

mpan

der

5/18/20

1041

compresso

runifo

rm 

quan

tizer

expan

der

Tran

smitter:

Receiver:

chan

nel

Page 50: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 51: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 52: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 53: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 54: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Encoding

Tran

slate the d

iscrete set of sam

ple valu

es (after quan

tization) to

 a more ap

propriate fo

rm of sig

nal

Code: a p

lan fo

r such tran

slation

Codeelem

ent o

rsym

bol: a d

iscrete event in

 a code

Codew

ord

or ch

aracter: a particu

lar arrangem

ent o

f sym

bols u

sed to rep

resent a sin

gle sam

ple valu

e

A binary co

de

Each

 symbol m

ay be eith

er of tw

odistin

ct values

A tern

ary code

Each

 symbol m

ay be eith

er of th

reedistin

ct values

Each

 code w

ord co

nsists o

f Rbits, L

=2Rlevels

5/18/20

1042

Page 55: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Encoding (co

ntd.)

Enco

ding: estab

lish a o

ne‐to

‐one m

apping betw

een 

represen

tation levels an

d co

de w

ords

For exam

ple: exp

ress the o

rdinal n

umber o

f the 

represen

tation level as a b

inary n

umber

Tab

le 7.2, R=4 bits/sam

ple

5/18/20

1043

Level in

dex

0 ~ (L‐1)

Binary co

de o

flen

gth R=log2 (L

)One‐to

‐one 

map

ping

Page 56: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Encoding 

(contd.)

5/18/20

1044

Data rate =

 R ×

fs

Page 57: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Line C

odes

Line co

de: a b

inary stream

 of d

ata takes o

n an 

electrical represen

tation 

for tran

smissio

nRetu

rn‐to‐zero

: the p

ulse sh

ape u

sed to rep

resent th

e bit alw

ays returns to

 the 0 vo

lts or th

e neu

tral level befo

re the en

d of th

e bit

Nonretu

rn‐to‐zero

: …. d

oes n

ot …

.

Unipolar

& polar

(or b

ipolar)

Unipolar N

onretu

rn‐to‐Zero

 (NRZ) sig

nalin

gSym

bol 1: rep

resented

 by a p

ulse o

f amplitu

de A

for th

e duratio

n of th

e symbol

Sym

bol 0

: represen

ted by sw

itching off th

e pulse

5/18/20

1045

Page 58: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Line C

odes (co

ntd.)

Polar N

onretu

rn‐to‐Zero

 (NRZ) sig

nalin

gSym

bols 1 an

d 0 are rep

resented

 by p

ulses o

f amplitu

de +

Aan

d –A, resp

ectivelyEasier to

 gen

erate and m

ore p

ower‐efficien

t

Unipolar R

eturn‐to‐Zero

 (RZ) sig

nalin

gSym

bol 1: p

ulse w

ith am

plitu

de A

for h

alf‐symbol w

idth  

Sym

bol 0

: switch

ing off

Bipolar R

eturn‐to‐Zero

 (BRZ) sig

nalin

gSym

bol 1: p

ositive an

d neg

ative pulses w

ith +Aan

d –Afor 

half‐sym

bol w

idth

Sym

bol 0

: switch

ing off

Also called

 Altern

ative Mark

 Inversio

n (A

MI) sig

nalin

g

5/18/20

1046

Mark

 

symbol o

ne; S

pace 

sym

bol zero

Page 59: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Line C

odes (co

ntd.)

Split‐P

hase sig

nalin

g (M

anch

ester Code)

Sym

bol 1: p

ositive p

ulse w

ith +Afollo

wed by a n

egative p

ulse w

ith –A, 

both half‐sym

bol w

ide

Sym

bol 0

: polarities o

f the tw

o pulses are reversed

Differen

tial Enco

ding 

A tran

sition to desig

nate sym

bol 0

No tran

sition to desig

nate sym

bol 1

5/18/20

1047

Page 60: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 61: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 62: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Line C

odes 

(contd.)

Unipolar N

RZ

Polar N

RZ

Unipolar R

Z

Bipolar R

Z or A

MI

Split‐p

hase o

r Man

chester co

de

5/18/20

1048

Page 63: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 64: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 65: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 66: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses
Page 67: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Which

 Code to

 Choose

Signal sp

ectrum

high freq

uen

cies: ban

dwidth req

uirem

ents

low freq

uen

cies: allows co

uplin

g via tran

sform

er, isolatio

n

Self‐syn

chronizatio

n

with an extern

al clock or clo

ck reco

very from th

e signal

Coding/deco

ding co

mplexity

Baselin

e wan

derin

drift o

f average received

 power fo

r differen

t signal

DC co

mponen

t: 

low freq

uen

cy componen

ts, high req

uirem

ent o

n ch

annel

Built‐in

 error d

etection/co

rrection

Im

munity to

 noise an

d in

terference

5/18/20

1049

Page 68: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Which

 Code to

 Choose (co

ntd.)

5/18/20

1050

From D

ata Communica

tions a

nd Netw

orking, B

ehrouz A

. Forouzan

Page 69: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Example 7

.3: Tim

e Divisio

n M

ultip

lexing

5/18/20

1051

Page 70: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

TDM (co

ntd.)

5/18/20

1052

Low sp

eed lin

ks

High sp

eed lin

k

Why n

eed bufferin

g?

Sch

edulin

g, sig

nalin

g, …

Page 71: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

T1 System

: Transm

ission Bandwidth

Voice sig

nal: 

30

0 H

z to 310

0 H

z

Low‐pass filter: W

=3.1 k

Hz

Sam

plin

g rate: 8

 kHz > N

yquist rate 6

.2 kHz

Piece‐lin

ear characteristic (15 lin

ear segmen

ts) to 

approxim

ate the lo

garith

mic μ

‐law, μ

=255

PCM: R

=8 bits/sam

ple

T1 systemAcco

mmodate 24

 voice ch

annels

Fram

e:  one b

yte per ch

annel, 24

 chan

nels, 1 b

it for 

synch

ronizatio

24×8+1=193 b

its

Sam

plin

g rate 8

 kHz 

125 μs fram

e perio

1.544 M

bps

5/18/20

1053

Page 72: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

T1 System

5/18/20

1054

Page 73: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Delta M

odulatio

n

5/18/20

1055

W. S

tallings,  D

ata and Computer C

ommunica

tions, 8

th Ed., P

rentice H

all, 2007.

Data ra

te?‐R=1/T

s

Quantiza

tion 

error?

Page 74: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Delta M

odulatio

n (co

ntd.)

Provid

es a staircase approxim

ation fo

r the in

form

ation w

ave

The erro

r betw

een th

e staircase approxim

ation an

d th

e orig

inal sig

nal 

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tized an

d tran

smitted

5/18/20

1056

Page 75: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Delta M

odulatio

n (co

ntd.)

5/18/20

1057

nks

qq

sq

ss

qs

sq

sq

ss

qs

qkT

em

nTe

TnT

eT

nTm

nTe

TnT

mnT

m1

)(

)0(

)(

)(

)2

()

()

()

(

Page 76: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Delta M

odulatio

n (co

ntd.)

In order fo

r the staircase ap

proxim

ation to in

crease as fast as the o

riginal sig

nal, w

e require th

e conditio

n:

Two typ

es of d

istortio

n: 

W

hen th

e conditio

Does n

ot h

old tru

e slo

pe o

verload 

slop overlo

ad disto

rtion

Gran

ular n

oise: 

Occu

rs at a relatively flat

region of m

(t)

Analo

gous to

 quan

tization

noise in

 PCM

Conflictin

g desig

choices 

5/18/20

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Page 77: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example: D

igitization of 

Video

 and M

PEG

Video

Can be rep

resented

 by th

ree dim

ensio

ns

Two dim

ensio

ns are sp

atial still im

age

Third dim

ensio

n is tem

poral 

imag

e evolves o

ver time

Still im

age is rep

resented

 by th

ree dim

ensio

ns

Luminan

ce (brig

htness)

Two ch

rominan

ce (color) co

mponen

ts

Spatial an

d tem

poral co

rrelation

Video co

ding

Rem

ove sp

atial and tem

poral red

undan

cy

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Page 78: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example: D

igitization of 

Video

 and M

PEG

 (contd.)

Video co

der: ap

plied

 to each

 of th

e three co

mponen

ts

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Page 79: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example: D

igitization of 

Video

 and M

PEG

 (contd.)

Sam

plin

g

A sam

ple o

f a video sig

nal is an

 N×M

matrix

W

ith pictu

re elemen

ts (pels) p

er unit tim

e co

rresponding to a co

mplete stillim

age 

Video Fram

e

Human eyes is m

ore sen

sitive to lu

minan

ce than 

chrominan

ce

Lower fram

e rate (a quarter) fo

r chrominan

ce signals

MPEG co

ding

First fram

e: intrafram

e coding m

ode (I‐p

icture)

Subseq

uen

t frames: in

terframe p

redictio

n (P‐pictu

re)

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Page 80: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example: D

igitization of 

Video

 and M

PEG

 (contd.)

Discrete co

sine tran

sform (D

CT)

Closely related

 to discrete F

ourier tran

sform

Iden

tifies spatial co

rrelation of th

e pels

5/18/20

1062

Σ∫

Cos 

exp{}

Page 81: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Them

e Example: D

igitization of 

Video

 and M

PEG

 (contd.)

Quan

tization

The co

efficients fo

r each D

CT block are q

uan

tizedOnly n

on‐zero

 coefficien

ts (and th

eir positio

n) are 

transm

itted

Enco

ding

Non‐zero

 coefficien

ts and positio

ns are co

ded w

ith an 

advan

ced data‐co

mpressio

n tech

nique, ru

n‐len

gth en

tropy 

enco

ding

Motio

n‐co

mpen

sation fo

r P‐pictu

resTem

poral co

rrelation co

rresponds to

 motio

n of a p

el or a 

block in th

e same d

irection

Only th

e motio

n vecto

rs and a sm

all number o

f non‐zero

 DCT co

efficients h

ave to be tran

smitted

 lower rate 

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Page 82: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses

Summary

W

hy an

alog to digital

Three step

sSam

plin

g: th

e link betw

een an

alog w

aveform an

d its 

discrete‐tim

e represen

tation

Quan

tization: th

e link betw

een an

alog w

aveform an

d its 

discrete am

plitu

de rep

resentatio

nEnco

ding: tran

slate discrete am

plitu

des to

 a more 

appropriate fo

rm of sig

nal

Sam

plin

g th

eorem

PAM, P

DM, P

PM, D

MQuan

tization noise 

Nonunifo

rm quan

tization/co

mpan

ding

Tim

e divisio

n m

ultip

lexing

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Page 83: Introduction - Auburn Universitytugnait/chap7_15s.pdfModulation Pulse duration modulation (PDM) The samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of individual pulses