Agronomy – Kharif Crops

PIGEONPEA (ARHAR)

GREEN GRAM (MUNG BEAN)BLACK GRAM (URD BEAN)

COW PEA (LOBIA)MOTH BEAN (DEW BEAN)

SOY BEANGROUND NUT

Dr. B. Gangaiah Senior Scientist

Division of Agronomy Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi – 110 012

PIGEONPEA (ARHAR)

Source: http://toptropicals.com/pics/garden/05/23/3696.jpg

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PIGEONPEA (ARHAR) Botanical name; Cajanus cajan L. Milsp.

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae) Chromosome number: 2n=22, 44, 66, 2n=14

Pigeonpea is commonly known as redgram or arhar. Pigeonpea seeds used as dal are rich in protein (21%), iron and iodine. They are also rich in essential amino acids like lycine, tyrocene, cystine and arginine. The green pods are used as vegetable. The pod husk and leaves after threshing serve as a valuable fodder for cattle. Woody plant stems are used as fuel. Pigeonpea being a legume possesses valuable property as restorer of nitrogen in soil. Pigeonpea plants are also used to culture the lac producing insect in China. It is grown on mountain slopes to arrest soil erosion. The perennial pigeonpea is also useful in agroforestry systems.

Origin India is believed to be center of origin and diversity of pigeonpea. The theory of its African origin has not been accepted owing to lack of diversity in the region. The true wild relatives of pigeonpea are not seen. The closest wild relative of pigeonpea Atylosia canifolia Hairs was found in India and Australia.

Geographic Distribution Pigeonpea is grown in over 50 tropical countries of the world especially in more arid regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. In India, it is cultivated as an annual crop, but in other countries, it is grown as perennial crop, where pods are harvested at regular intervals. In some countries, it is mostly grown as a kitchen garden crop for vegetable purpose The major pigeonpea producing countries of world are given in Table 1.

Table 1. The major pigeonpea producing countries of world (2004)

Country Area (mha) Production (m tonnes)

Productivity (kg/ha)

India 3.530 2.430 688

Myanmar 0.540 0.500 926

Kenya 0.195 0.106 541

Malawi 0.123 0.079 642

Uganda 0.084 0.084 1000

Tanzania 0.068 0.049 721

World 4.611 3.306 717

Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2004

Pigeonpea is the second most important pulse crop in the country. India accounts for over ¾ of acreage and production of the globe. The crop is extensively grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Maharashtra has unique distinction of contributing about 30% of total pigeonpea production in the country (Table 2).

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Table 2. Area, production and productivity of pigeonpea important states of India (2004-05) State Area (000 ha) Production (000 t)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 480.0 219.0 456

Assam 6.7 4.8 716

Bihar 35.8 44.2 1235

Chattisgarh 60.3 30.8 511

Gujarat 254.4 236.0 928

Haryana 31.0 32.0 1032

Himachal Pradesh 0.3 0.1 333

Jharkhand 90.0 49.0 544

Karnataka 562.0 290.0 516

Madhya Pradesh 327.5 257.0 785

Maharashtra 1074.0 658.0 613

Orissa 130.1 88.9 683

Punjab 8.9 7.7 865

Rajasthan 16.9 12.6 746

Tamil Nadu 40.0 25.0 625

Uttarakhand 1.0 1.0 1000

Uttar Pradesh 387.1 380.2 982

West Bengal 1.5 1.1 733

India 3518.5 2346.9 667

Source: Fertilizer Association of India, 2006

Classification All the cultivated Cajanus are classified into 2 groups based on maturity, floral and seed characteristics as below.

Cajanus indicus var. bicolor: Also known as arhar comprises most of the perennial types that are late-maturing, tall and bushy. Pods are dark coloured and each pod has 4 to 5 seeds. The standard petal, which is the largest of the 5 petals in the flower, possesses red veins on the dorsal side. Pods are synchronous in maturity.

Cajanus indicus var. flavus: Also known as tur comprises the commonly cultivated varieties, which are relatively short statured, early maturing and bear yellow flowers and plain pods with 2-3 seeds. Pods do not mature at a time and picking is done at an interval of 15-16 days.

Climate Pigeonpea is a crop of arid and semi-arid climates grown between 30oN and 35oS latitudes and thrives well in areas with 500-1000 mm of rainfall. Its drought hardy nature makes it a crop of low rainfall situations; however, it can not withstand waterlogging and frost. Moist and humid conditions during vegetative phase and dry conditions during reproductive phase

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are suitable for successful raising of pigeonpea. Low temperature at pod filling stage results in delayed maturity. Pigeonpea is quantitatively a short day plant with critical photoperiod of 13 hours. Low light intensity at pod formation is harmful. For flowering and pod setting 24oC is the optimum.

Soil Pigeonpea can be grown on a wide range of soils, however, sandy loam to clay loams are ideal. The soil should be deep, well drained and free from soluble salts. The electrical conductivity of 1.4 dS/m is critical for pigeonpea. It can be grown on soils with a pH range of 5.5-8.0 successfully. It can not tolerate soil acidity owing to aluminium toxicity.

Land Preparation Pigeonpea requires a clod free seedbed for proper germination and establishment of seedlings. The seedbed is prepared by a deep ploughing or disking, followed by 2-3 cross harrowings and levelling. In drylands, a deep summer ploughing is necessary for moisture conservation. In case of hard pan in the soil, sub-soiling is done. Pigeonpea with its deep root system (>150 cm) can break hard pans in plough layer, and hence called “biological plough”. Thorough levelling is essential for quick drainage and also to avoid waterlogging. Contour broad-bed and furrows (2.7 m width) or a ridge and furrow planting is preferred to overcome waterlogging. The former land configuration is promising for vertisols.

Seeds and Sowing Seed rate and spacing The row spacing in kharif varies from 40-60 cm in short and medium duration varieties to 60-90 cm in long duration varieties. In rabi season, the crop is grown in 30 cm rows. After germination, the seedlings are thinned to maintain an intra-row spacing of 15-20 cm. The optimum population thus varies from 60,000-1, 00,000 in kharif and 1.5-3.0 lakh/ha in rabi. To achieve this, a seed rate of 8-10 and 10-12 kg/ha is required for long duration and short and medium duration varieties. During rabi season, 15-18 kg/ha of seed is needed.

Seed treatment Before sowing, seed should be treated with agrosan GN or thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed. Seed should also be treated with Rhizobium culture, especially when pigeonpea is being taken for the first time in the field or after a long duration. In pigeonpea, seed inoculation with Trichoderma harzianum alone or serial inoculation of T. harzianum, followed by Rhizobium may significantly reduce wilt incidence, enhance nodulation and root/shoot growth, but simultaneous inoculation of T. harzianum + Rhizobium was ineffective.

Time of sowing Pigeonpea sowing in kharif under rainfed condition varies from June-July, depending on onset of monsoon. For sequential cropping of pigeonpea and wheat under irrigated condition, early sowings are preferred. In this cropping system, the crop is sown after a pre-sowing irrigation from late May to 1st week of June. For summer pigeonpea, early May sowing is followed in north India. Time of sowing should be adjusted in such a way to avoid rains and frost at flowering and reproductive stages. For early rabi planting in Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, September sowing is ideal. The rabi cultivation of pigeonpea in rice fallows is increasingly popular, and is sown immediately after rice harvest in southern India.

Method of sowing Seed should be sown behind the plough or with the help of seed drill in rows. In north-eastern plains zone and in vertisols, where excess moisture/water stagnation often causes mortality of plants during early stages, ridge planting of pigeonpea has proved superior over

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flat planting. This method also minimizes incidence of Phytopthora stem-blight and wilt. In vertisols, broad-bed and furrow system of planting is preferred.

Varieties The pigeonpea improvement through selection started as early as 1917 at Hebbal in Karnataka. Till date over 80 varieties have been developed, of which about 50% are selections from land races. Some of them include RG 72, SA-1, Type 66K, Hy 5, AL 15, Amar, Narendra Arhar 1, Bahar, LRG 36, etc. Through mutation breeding, 8 varieties have been developed since Co 3 released in 1977. Visakha 1, TT 5, TT 6, TAT 10, Co 5, Pusa 885, Co 6 are other varieties developed through mutation. ICRISAT has been successful in evolving first GMS (Genotypic Male Sterility) based hybrid ICPH 8. Later on, 5 more such hybrids have been developed. The difficulties in seed production (rogueing of female parent) have resulted in its limited success. This has been addressed with the development of first cytoplasmic MS based hybrid GTH 1 in Gujarat.

The important varieties and hybrids suitable for different pigeonpea growing states of India are given in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.

Pigeonpea is susceptible to wilt, sterility mosaic (NEPZ, CZ, SZ), Phytopthora blight (NPZ) and Alternaria blight (NEPZ) causing 10-15% reduction in yield. Hence selection of resistant varieties is one of the priorities.

The disease resistant varieties of pigeonpea are given in Table 3. Table 1. Pigeonpea varieties recommended for different states

State Type

Early (120-150 days) Medium (150-180 days)

Late (> 180 days)

UP (Central & Western)

PA 3, T 21, Prabhat, UPAS 120, Pusa 84, Pusa 74, Manak, Pusa 33, Pusa 993, Pusa 855, TT 5, ICPL 151

MA 6, Mukta, Paras, Sharda, Pant A 3

T 7, T 17, NP (WR) 15, Pusa 33, Pusa 55, Bahar (1258), MAL 13, KA 32-1 (Amar), Narendra Arhar-1, Pusa 9, Gwalior 3, Azad

Punjab, Haryana, Delhi

PA 1, T 21, Prabhat, UPAS 120, Pusa 84, Pusa 74, Manak, ICPH 8, Sagar (H 77-208), Pusa 33, Pusa 992, Pusa 855

Mukta, Paras, Sharda NP (WR), Pusa 55

Bihar, Jharkhand, Eastern UP

Prabhat, UPAS 120, Pusa Ageti, Pusas 74, Pusa 84

Mukta, ICPL 85063, BR 65, BR 183, MA 6, Birsa Arhar 1

T 7, T 17, NP (WR) 15, AS 71-77, MAL 13, Azad (K91-25), Pusa 9, DA 11 (Sharad), Bahar, Basant

West Bengal, Orissa & Assam

T 21, Prabhat, Pusa Ageti, Pusa 74, Pusa 84, TT 5, BS 1

BR 65, BR 183, Mukta, ICPL 85063, C 11, WB 20 (105)

Sweta (B7), Chuni (B 517), T 7, T 17, NP (WR) 15, MAL 13, Pusa 9, Bahar

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Rajasthan T 21, Prabhat, UPAS 120, Manak, Pusa Ageti, J 9-19, Pant A 1, Pant A 2, Sagar, Pusa 74, Pusa 33,

Sharda, Mukta, Paras NR (WR) 15, Gwalior 3

Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh

T 21, Prabhat, UPAS 120, Pusa Ageti, Vishakha 1, J 9-19, Pusa 33

Sharda (S 8), No. 148, Mukta, MA 3, KM 7, BDN 1, BDN 2, C 11, Paras, ICPL 87119, JA 3, JA 4

T 7, T 17, NP (WR) 15, Kanke-3

Gujarat T 21, Pusa Ageti, Prabhat, Vishakha 1, TAT 10, J 9-19, Pusa 84, Pusa 74

Sharda, Mukta, ICPL 87119, BDN 1, BDN 2, C 11, ICPL 871, GTH 1

NP (WR) 15, Gwalior 3

Maharashtra T 21, Pusa Ageti, Prabhat, Vishakha 1 (TT 6), TAT 10, J 9-19, AKT 8811

Sharda, Mukta, No. 148, BDN 1, BDN 2, C 11, ICPL 87119, BSMR 175, BSMR 736, MA 3, Malviya Vikalp, KM 7

NP (WR) 15, Gwalior 3,

Andhra Pradesh Pusa Ageti, Prabhat, CORG 9701, T 21, ICPL 87, ICPL 151, Hy 5, ICPL 84031 (Durga)

Sharda, PDM 1, GS 1, Hy 3A, Hy 3C, Hy 4, ICPL 87119, ICPL 8863, ICPL 85063 (Laxmi), LRG 30 (Palanadu), LRG 36, LRG 38, ICPL 332, C 11, PT 221

SA 1

Tamil Nadu Pusa Ageti, Prabhat, CORG 9701, ICPL 87, Co 1, Co 2, Co 4, Hy 5

Sharda, PDM 1, GS 1, Co 5, Co 6, Hy 3A, Hy 3C, Hy 4, ICPL 87119, BDN 2, PT 221

SA 1

Karnataka Pusa Ageti, Hy 5, ICPL 151 (Jagriti), CORG 9701, ICPL 87 (Pragati)

T 21, Sharda (S 8), Hy 3C, GS 1, KPL 87, ICPL 87119, C 11, TS 3, ICPL 8863 (Maruthi), PT 221

SA 1

Table 2. Hybrids released for different states of India

Hybrid Parentage Year of releast (by) Suitable for

GMS based hybrids

ICPH 8 Ms Prabhat (DT) x ICPL 161 1991 (ICRISAT) Central Zone

PPH 4 Ms Prabhat x AL 688 1994 (PAU) Punjab

CoPH 1 Ms21 x ICPL 87109 1994 (TNAU) Tamil Nadu

CoPH 2 Ms Co 5 x ICPL 83027 1997 (TNAU) Tamil Nadu

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AKPH 4101 Ms Prabhat NDT x AK 101 1997 (PKV) Central Zone

APKH 2022 AKMS 2 x AK 2 1998 (PKV) Maharashtra

GMS based hybrids

GTH 1 2003 (GAU) Gujarat

Table 3. Disease resistant varieties of pigeonpea

Disease Varieties

Wilt BDN 1, BDN 2, C 11, TT 6 Maruthi, BSM 6736, Sharda

Sterility mosaic Bahar, HY 3C, Pusa 9, Azad, ICPL 366, ICPL 87051, Amar, BSMR 175, BSMR 763

Wilt + sterility (both) Narendra Arhar 1, Asha (ICPL 87119), DA 11, BMSR 853, MA 3

Alternaria blight WB 20 (105), Pusa 9, DA 11

Phytopthora blight KM 7, DA 11, Pusa 9, Narendra Arhar 1

The gram pod borer and pod fly are problematic in all pigeonpea areas resulting in 15-20 and 25-40% yield losses, respectively. the resistant/tolerant varieties for these insects/pests are given below:

Pod borer : ICPL 332, ICPL 87089

Pod fly : AL 15, Gwalior 3

Manures and Fertilizers The crop with 8-10 t biomass (of which 6 tonnes sticks) removes substantial quantity of nutrients. Being a legume, it can meet 60-80% of its own N requirement from symbiosis. A starter dose of 25 kg N/ha is applied at the time of sowing. At times of waterlogging for quick recovery immediately after drainage, 50 kg N/ha as top-dressing is applied to alleviate adverse effects of waterlogging. Besides N, 60 kg P2O5 is also applied as basal. The response to K fertilization is rarely noticed. There has been increasing response to S fertilization in pigeonpea grown under intensive cropping systems and in light textured soils. Similarly, the crop responds zinc fertilization in alkali soils. Thus application of 20 kg/ha each of S and zinc sulphate is desirable. Zinc deficiency in the standing crop can be rectified by spraying 5 kg zinc sulphate and 2.5 kg lime dissolved in 800-1000 litres of water/ha. Use of FYM @ 5-10 t/ha is common under rainfed situation. Inoculation of seed with effective strains of Rhizobium is desirable for symbiotic N fixation. Use of phosphate solubilizing bacteria along with lower doses of phosphorus is promising to higher P doses. The roots by way of secreting organic acid (piscidic acid) improve solubility of Fe-phosphates. Thus the crop effectively utilizes soil P reserves.

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Water management Long duration pigeonpea with deep root system and flushes of flowering can withstand drought. The short duration cultivars, however, are grown with irrigation only. Post-rainy season crop responds better to irrigation. The critical stages for irrigation are branching, flowering and pod filling. The crop requires 20-25 cm water to produce a tonne of grain. The water requirement and consumptive use of pigeonpea varies from 30-50 cm and 40-50 cm, respectively. At times of prolonged drought, irrigation at flowering and pod filling stages is highly rewarding in kharif. Irrigation of after cessation of rains at 0.4-0.6 IW/CPE ratio has been found ideal in north India. Drainage is equally important in pigeonpea. To overcome ill-effects of waterlogging, ridge and furrow planting (with seeding on ridge) is followed in heavy soils.

Weed management Pigeonpea is infested by several grassy and broad-leaved weeds. Some of the common weeds associated with pigoenpea are: Cyperus rotundus L., Commelina bengalensis L., Phyllanthus niruri, Euphorbia parviflora L., Celosia argentena L., Amaranthus viridis L., Amaranthus spinosus L., Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, Digitaria sanguinalis, Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv, Ageratum conyzoides L., Eclipta alba L., Portulaca oleracea L., Trianthema portulacastrum L. etc. The crop plants with initial slow growth are grown in wider rows. Therefore, crop suffers from severe weed infestation leading to drastic reduction in grain yield. The initial 7-8 weeks period of crop i.e. from sowing to branching stage is critical period of crop-weed competition in medium and long duration varieties. In short duration varieties initial 4-6 weeks from sowing is critical. Thus it is important to keep the crop free from weeds during this period. Two hand-weedings or mechanical interculture at 3-4 and 6-8 weeks after sowing would take care of most of weeds. If the above operations are not possible owing to rains, use of herbicides is essential. Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin or alachlor or nitrofen @ 1 kg/ha are effective in controlling weeds. The above herbicides integrated with one hand-weeding or mechanical hoeing at 6-8 weeks after sowing is more effective to either of the methods alone. The leaf leachates have been found to have allelopathetic effects on weeds. The thick canopy would further suppress weed growth at later stages. Intercropping of pigeonpea with jowar, maize and short duration legumes effectively suppresses the weed growth.

Cropping systems Pigeonpea can be intercropped or sown mixed with a number of other crops like sorghum, maize, rice, groundnut, sesame, urdbean, greengram, cowpea, ragi, sawan and soybean, and an additional yield may be obtained. These crops do not adversely affect the pigeonpea crop, because by that time pigeonpea starts growing (end of September), the intercrops are ready for harvesting. There is a possibility of raising early maturing pigeonpea as a summer crop with intercrop of greengram (mung). In this cropping system, pigeonpea may be sown in mid-April keeping a row-to-row distance of 90 cm, intercropped with 2-3 rows of greengram. Greengram becomes ready for harvest by the end of June. Immediately in the space vacated by greengram, interplanting of blackgram can be done between pigeonpea rows. While blackgram will be ready for harvest by the end of September, pigeonpea matures by mid November. The wheat crop may be sown immediately after the harvest of pigeonpea. Short-duration pigeonpea fits well in the following crop rotations:

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Pigeonpea-wheat-greengram Pigeonpea-wheat Pigeonpea-lentil Pigeonpea-late potato Pigeonpea-sugarcane

Harvesting and Threshing The best time to harvest is when two third to three-fourths of pods turn brown. The plants are usually cut with ‘gandasa’ or sickle within 7.5-25 cm above the ground. The harvested plants are left in sun for drying and thereafter threshing is done by beating the pods with sticks. Pullman thresher could also be used for this purpose. The proportion of seeds to pod is generally 50-60%. Threshed and cleaned produce should be further sun dried to reduce the moisture content to 10-11%.

Yield By adopting improved technology, pigeonpea (red gram) may yield 2.0-2.5 tonnes (kharif), 3.0-3.5 tonnes (rabi) of grain/ha, 5.0-6.0 tonnes sticks, 0.8-1.0 tonnes of dry leaves and 0.2-0.3 tonnes of pod husk/ha. The yield attributes (range) of pigeonpea are given below.

Attribute Value

Pods/plant 43-260

Seeds/pod 2.6-4.7

1, 000 seed weight (g) 45-105

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GREENGRAM (Mungbean)Botanical name: Phaseolus raduatus L.

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae)

Source: (UNIP) and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mung_bean

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GREENGRAM (Mungbean)

Botanical name: Phaseolus raduatus L. Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae)

Chromosome number: 2n=24

Greengram is an excellent source of high (25%) quality protein. The whole or split grains are used as a dal or made into flour. The straw and husk are used as fodder for cattle. Grains are also used in many Indian dishes.

It is also used as green manuring crop. Being a legume, it has the capacity to fix the atmospheric nitrogen (30-50 kg/ha). It also helps in preventing soil erosion. Greengram can be used as a feed for cattle. After harvesting the pods, green plants are uprooted or cut from ground level and chopped into small pieces and fed to the cattle. The husks of the seed can be soaked in water and used as cattle feed.

Origin Greengram is believed to be native of India and central Asia. From India it spread to China, Japan, Iran, Africa etc. Although numerous varieties are found in different parts of the country, but wild forms are not found. Vigna radiata var. sublobata which grows wild in India and Indonesia is the closest relative of blackgram and believed to be the progenitor of greengram.

Geographic Distribution Greengram is widely cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan, China, Fiji, Far East, Australia, America and Africa. Country-wise estimates are not available as FAO provides data under dry beans only.

In India, it is grown on 2.76 m ha (2004-05) in almost all the states. Maharashra, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are the leading producers of greengram (Table 1).

Table 1. Area, production and productivity of green gram (mungbean) in different states of India (2004-05)

States Area (Lakh hectare)

Production (Lakh tones)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total

Andhra Pradesh

3.040 1.500 4.540 1.105 0.490 1.595 363 327 351

Assam 0.075 0.075 0.038 0.038 - 507 507

Bihar 0.073 1.754* 1.827 0.036 0.968* 1.004 493 552* 550

Chattisgarh 0.104 0.067 0.171 0.027 0.014 0.041 260 209 240

Gujarat 1.731 1.731 0.717 0.717 414 414

Haryana 0.295 0.295 0.113 0.113 383 383

Himachal Pradesh

0.003 0.003 0.001 0.001 333 333

Jammu & 0.019 0.019 0.009 0.009 474 474

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States Area (Lakh hectare)

Production (Lakh tones)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi TotalKashmir

Jharkhand 0.116 0.116 0.061 0.061 526 526

Karnataka 5.180 0.050 5.230 0.820 0.020 0.840* 158 400 161

Kerala 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 1000 1000

Madhya Pradesh

0.861 0.024 0.885 0.281 0.006 0.287 326 250 324

Maharashtra 6.560 0.076 6.636 2.280 0.019 2.299* 348 250 346

Orissa 1.162 0.791 1.953 0.223 0.213 0.436 192 269 223

Punjab 0.150 0.150 0.120 0.120 800 800

Rajasthan 7.546 7.546 2.049 2.049* 272 272

Tamil Nadu 0.339 0.886 1.225 0.164 0.369 0.533 484 416 435

Tripura 0.008 0.004 0.012 0.005 0.002 0.007 625 500 583

Uttar Pradesh

0.322 0.539* 0.861 0.089 0.289* 0.378 276 536* 439

West Bengal

0.007 0.110 0.117 0.003 0.041 0.044 429 373 376

Pondicherry 0.019 0.019 0.005 0.005 263 263

India 27.517 5.895 33.412 8.104 2.474 10.578 295 420 317

*Summer season Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2005

Classification According to Bose (1932), greengram was classified into 40 different types based on flower colour, pod colour, seed colour and seed surface. The flour colour is either light yellowish-olive or olive yellow. The ripe pod colour varies from iron grey, olive grey or snuff. The seed colour varies from green, black, brown or yellow. The seed surface is either dull or shining.

Mungbean cultivars are classified into two categories (greengram and goldengram) and differ in the following ways (Purseglove, 1991):

Character Greengram Goldengram

Seed colour Bright green Yellow, shining

Seed production Prolific Shy producer

Shattering Very low High

Use As dal As hay, silage, pasture, cover crop

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Botanical Description Greengram plant is a small herbaceous annual with a twining habit. Plant grows up to 45-60 cm depending upon the type and nature of crop raised. The stems are ridged and succulent having 6-9 branches on them. The central stem is more or less erect, while side branches are semi-erect. The leaves are trifoliate, ovate, entire and arranged in alternate and opposite position on the stem. Both the stems and leaves are covered with short hair, generally shorter than those of blackgram. The flowers appear in axillary receme in clusters of 10-20 in number. They are self-pollinated and develop into 6-10 cm long hairy pods, which are round, slender and used to bear about 7-11 seeds in them. The seeds are small and nearly globular. The colour of seed is usually green, but yellow brown or purple brown seeds also occur. The hilum is white, more or less flat. Germination of greengram is epigeal.

Climate Greengram is cultivated all the year round in peninsular India, and during kharif, spring and summer seasons in north-India. During non-kharif seasons, irrigation is necessary for its cultivation. It is grown in the areas having an annual rainfall of 50-75 cm. It can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 2,000 m. waterlogging is very harmful to greengram. The crop can tolerate mild frost and salinity. Temperature beyond 40oC is harmful to the crop, while 30-35oC is the optimum. It is a short day plant requiring 12-13 hours of photoperiod for flowering. Photoperiod above this delays reproductive phase.

Soils Greengram can be raised on a wide array of soils ranging from red laterite soils of south India to heavy black cotton soils of Madhya Pradesh, and sandy soils of Rajasthan. In general, a well drained loamy to sandy loams are ideal for mungbean cultivation. Acidic and saline soils are not suitable. The crop performs best in soils with 6.5 – 7.5 pH.

Land preparation The crop requires fine seedbed preparation. In kharif, the land preparation involves 2-3 cross ploughings or harrowings followed by planking. A thorough land levelling is must for quick drainage. For spring and summer mungbean, a pre-sowing irrigation is needed for the land preparation. Land levelling is required for uniform distribution of irrigation water. In kharif rice fallows, it is raised without tillage (utera system).

Seeds and Sowing Seed rate and spacing During kharif season, greengram makes luxuriant vegetative growth with lateral spreading of branches and hence requires wider spacing than other seasons. In kharif, mungbean is sown in rows 30-45 cm apart. The plants are thinned to a distance of 5.0-7.5 cm. Thus the optimum population varies from 3-7 lakh/ha that would require a seed rate of 15-20 kg/ha. In other seasons, the crop is sown in rows 25-30 cm apart with an intra-row spacing of 5 cm. The optimum population thus varies from 6-8 lakh/ha and would require 25-30 kg seed/ha. Broadcast sown crop in rice fallows requires still higher seed rate.

Before sowing seed should be treated with agrosan GN or thiram @ 2.5 g/kg of seed. It is also desirable to treat the seed with appropriate Rhizobium culture.

Time of sowing In kharif, greengram sowing depends on onset of monsoon and thus it is sown in the months of June-July. In any case, sowing should not be done beyond July. Rabi mungbean sowing depend on harvest of kharif crops and are spread from October-December in central, southern

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and eastern parts of the country. In the states of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, greengram is sown in standing crop of rice, 7-10 days before harvest.

Spring mungbean is sown in the month of February after harvest of early rabi crops of potato, and toria in north India. Similarly after harvest of rabi crops of wheat, rapeseed and mustard etc. in the months of March-April, summer mungbean is sown. In any case, summer sowings should not be delayed beyond April, because reproductive phase will coincide with rains leading to prolonged vegetative growth and delayed maturity.

Method of sowing The seeds are sown in furrows opened by plough or line sown using seed drill. In utera cropping, seeds are broadcast in standing rice crop from flowering to 2-3 days before its harvest.

Varieties A large number of varieties have been developed in greengram since Independence. The earlier varieties were developed through selection. Type 1 is the first variety developed through selection from Muzaffarpur (Bihar) in 1948. Shining mung 1, Amrit, Panna, Co 1, Co 2, Khargone 1, Krishna 11 are some of the important varieties developed through this method. Since 1960’s, hybridization was used to get variability. ‘Type 44’ is the first variety of greengram developed through hybridization (Type 1 x Type 49) in Uttar Pradesh, and was released in 1962. Interspecific hybridization of greengram and blackgram was attempted in 1990’s to develop early maturing, disease resistant varieties. Three such varieties were released in India that include Pang Mung 4 (Type 44 x UPU 2), HUM 1 (PHUM 1 x Pant U 30) and IPM 99-125 (Pant mung 2 x AMP 36). Through mutation breeding, over a dozen greengram varieties have been developed. Dhauli is the first mutant variety of greengram released in 1979 from Orissa Agricultural University and Technology. The other varieties include Co 4, Pant Moong 2, TAP 7, BM 4, MUM 2, LGG 407, LGG 450, TARM 1, TARM 2 and TARM 18 etc.

The important varieties of greengram and their suitability to different agro-climatic zones and seasons are given in Table 1.

Mungbean is highly susceptible to yellow mosaic virus (YMV) in north-west and north-east plain zone, causing a yield loss of about 15-20%. The selection of YMV resistant varieties is must for economical greengram cultivation. Some of the resistant varieties include:

Pant Mung 1, Pant Mung 2, Pant Mung 3, Pang Mung 4, Narendra Mung 1, PDM 11, PDM 54, PDM 139, M 267, ML 337, ML 613, Basant, Samrat, HUM 1, HUM 2, Pusa 9531.

Powdery mildew (PM) also causes significant yield losses in greengram. TARM 1, TARM 2, TARM 18, CoG 4 are some of the PM resistant verities. Pusa 105, Kamdeva, ML 131 are resistant to both PM and YMV.

Table 1. Improved varieties of greengram recommended for various agro-climatic zones of India

Zone Varieties

North-Western Plains Zone (Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &

Type 44 (year round), Pusa Baisakhi (Z), PS 16 (Z), PS 7 (Z), Vamban 1 (spring), K-851 (S,Z), SML 32 (Z), Pusa 9072 (Z), PS 10 (Z), SML-668 (Z) Pant Moong 2,ML 267 (K), ML 337 (K), Pant Moong-3 (K), S 8 [Mohini (K)], Ganga 8 (K), Medium & Late : Varsha, Shining moong 1, RS 4, R 288-8, ML 1,

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Kashmir ML 5, ML 9, T 51 Early: Pant Moong 1, ML 9, ML 131, Pusa 105

North-Eastern Plains Zone (Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam)

Basant [PDM 84-143 (K,S], PDM-11 (Z), K 851 (S,Z), HUM-12 [(Z) Malviya Janchetra], Pusa 9531 (S), PDM 54 (K, Z), TARM 1 (S), PS 16 (K,Z), MG 368 (S), PDM 90239 (Z), Pusa Baisakhi (Z), Sunaina (Z), PDM 199 (Z), Panna [B105 (Z)], PS 10 (Z), PS 7 (Z), PDM 84-139 (Samrat (Z)], ML 337 (K), Pant Mung 4 [UPM 92-1(K)], S 8 (K), Sonali (E), Pant Moong 1 (E), Pant Moong 2 (E), Koperagaon, (M&L), Amrit , BR 2 (M & L), B1 (E)

Central Zone (Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra)

PDM-11 (S), Pant Mung 5 (Z), Pusa 9531 (Z), HUM-1 (S), HUM-2 (Z), Pusa Baisakhi (R), PS 16 (Z), BM4 (K), PS 16 (K), Mohini (K), Gujarat 2, Sabarmati, Gujarat 12, Khargaon 1, Jalgaon 781, Krishna 11

Peninsular Zone (AP, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala)

PDM 84-143 [Basant (K)], ML 337 (K), OUM-11-5 [Kamdeva (K)], PDM 54 (K), Jawahar 5 (K), PS 16 (K), Jawahar 45 (K), K 851 (K), Mohini (K), LGG 456 (R), Pusa 9072 (R), Pusa Baisakhi (R), TARM-1 (S), Malviya Jyoti [HUM 1(S)] Koperagaon, Kondaveedu, KM 1, KM 2, PDM 1, PDM 2, ADT 2, Co 2, Co 4, Co 65, Paiyur 1

S : Spring; Z : Zaid; R : Rabi; K : Kharif, E : Early; M & L : Medium & Late

Manures and Fertilizers Greengram is generally raised on the residual fertility of soil. In case of light soils of poor fertility, it needs addition of organic manures like FYM or compost @ 8-10 tonnes/ha. If organic manure is not available, fertilizer application is necessary. Long duration varieties and the crop grown under irrigated conditions respond to higher doses of fertilizer. Mungbean fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with Rhizobium. The N fixation starts from 2nd week after sowing with its peak at 40-50 DAS. To meet the requirement of N before start of N fixation, 15-20 kg N/ha is applied along with 40-60 kg P2O5/ha as basal at the last ploughing. In general, 100 kg di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)/ha would meet the nutrient needs of the crop. Foliar sprays of 2% DAP at flowering and pod filling stages is promising.

The response of crop to K fertilization is rare. However, in deficient soils, soil test based K fertilization is necessary. In saline soils and intensive cropping systems, crop responds to Zn and S fertilization. Application of 20 kg each of zinc sulphate and elemental sulphur is essential for higher yields. P fertilization through single super phosphate would take care of S needs of the crop. Zinc fertilization is needed once in 3 years.

Water management Kharif crop is predominantly grown as a rainfed crop, and usually receives no irrigation. Under prolonged dry spells, the crop requires one to two irrigation at flowering and pod formation stages. In rice fallows, under utera cropping, the crop faces severe moisture stress at reproductive stage. Thus an irrigation at flowering or early podding is highly beneficial. During other seasons, the crop is grown under irrigated conditions. Besides a pre-sowing irrigation, 3-4 irrigations at 15-20 days interval are required. In summer season (grown after wheat), no irrigation should be given after 40-45 days of sowing. The water requirement varies with soil and climate from 15-30 cm.

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Weed management Initial 30-40 days after sowing is critical period of crop-weed competition. During this period, crop should be kept with minimum competition from weeds. Due to continuous rains in kharif and broadcast sowing in utera cropping, mungbean suffers from intense weed competition than other seasons.

The major weed flora of greengram includes Trianthema monogyna; Portulaca oleracea, Eargrostis riparia, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Dactyloctenium aegipticum (L.) P. Beaur, Echinochloa colonum; Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. etc. The crop requires 2 hand weedings, first at 20-25 days after sowing (DAS) and the later at 40-45 DAS. In summer, one weeding is sufficient. During kharif season, use of herbicides is ideal, as utility of manual weeding is limited by continuous rains.

Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @ 1 kg/ha has been found effective in control of weeds. Its integration with one hand weeding gives best results. Post-emergence herbicides like fluazifop @ 0.5 kg/ha or haloxyfop-methyl @ 0.24 kg/ha 20 DAS for grasses have proved effective in weed management in utera cropping, where hand weedings are not possible.

Cropping Systems Greengram is grown mixed with sorghum, pearl millet, maize, pigeonpea and cotton during kharif season. Intercropping of greengram can also be done with spring planted sugarcane. In this way, an additional grain yield of 0.5-0.6 tonnes/ha may be obtained without any adverse effect on the performance of sugarcane. Sugarcane is planted at a distance of 90 cm from row to row. Two rows of greengram 30 cm apart in the center of sugarcane rows leaving 30 cm distance between sugarcane and greengram rows are sown with a seed rate of 7-8 kg/ha.

The important crop rotations with greengram in north India are:

Maize-wheat-greengram Greengram-wheat

Potato-wheat-greengram Greengram-potato

Rice-wheat-greengram

Harvesting and Threshing Shattering of pods is a great problem with this crop. Therefore, picking should be done as the pod mature. Harvesting should be completed in 2-3 pickings. Sometimes the whole crop may be harvested by sickle. The pods or whole crop after complete drying should be threshed manually.

Yield A good crop of greengram may yield about 1.2-1.6 tonnes of grain and nearly equal quantity of straw (bhusa)/ha. The yield attributes (range) of greengram are given below.

Attribute Value Pods/plant 6-53 Seeds/pod 10 1, 000 seed weight (g) 20-70

Additional Reading Material: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mung_bean

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BLACKGRAM (URDBEAN)Botanical name: Phaseolus mungo L.

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae)

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BLACKGRAM (URDBEAN) Botanical name: Phaseolus mungo L.

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae) Chromosome number: 2n=22 or 24

Blackgram or mash is one of the important kharif pulse crops of India. It is consumed in the form of dal (whole or split, husked or unhusked) or parched. In north India, it is the chief constituent of papad and also bari (spiced balls) which makes a delicious curry. In the south, the husked ‘dal’ is ground into a fine paste, allowed to ferment and is mixed with equal quantity of rice flour to make ‘dosa’ and ‘idli’. Urad dal is also used in preparation of halva and imarti. It is also fried to serve as a savoury dish.

It is also valued as a green manure crop. Its dry stalks along with pod husk forms a nutritive fodder especially for mulch cattle. Blackgram possesses deep root system, which binds soil particles and thus prevents soil erosion. Blackgram contains 60% carbohydrates, 24% of protein, 1.3% fat and is the richest among the various pulses in phosphoric acid (P2O5), being 5-10 times richer than others.

Origin and History Blackgram is a native to India and is believed to have originated from a wild progenitor of blackgram viz., Phaseolus sublobatus Roxb. or Phaseolus trinervus Heyne. There is a mention of blackgram (urdbean) in Vedic texts such as Kautilya’s “Arthashasthra’ and ‘Charak Samhita’. From India it spread to many countries of Africa, Europe, America and Asian continents.

Geographic distribution Blackgram is mainly grown in tropical and sub-tropical climate and has become very popular pulse crop in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and West Indies. The distribution of crop in different countries of the world is not available separately, as FAO provides data in a group under dry beans.

It is grown all over the country in kharif and summer seasons. In north India, it is grown in kharif and summer season, while in south India, it is raised in rabi season also. It is cultivated over an area of about 3.2 m ha with a production of 1.32 m tonnes. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are the major producing states of the country (Table 1).

Table 1. Area, production and productivity of black gram (urdbean) in different states of India (2004-05)

States Area (Lakh hectare)

Production (Lakh tones)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Kharif

Rabi

Total

Andhra Pradesh 0.765 3.510 4.273 0.351 2.240 2.591 459 638 606

Assam 0.373 0.373 0.201 0.201 539 539

Bihar 0.240 0.240 0.179 0.179 746 746

Chaattissgarh 1.136 0.68 1.204 0.313 0.015 0.328 276 221 272

Gujarat 0.960 0.960 0.486 0 0.486 506 506

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States Area (Lakh hectare)

Production (Lakh tones)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Haryana 0.038 0.038 0.013 0.013 342 342

Himachal Pradesh

0.101 0.101 0.032 0.032 317 317

Jammu & Kashmir

0.143 0.143 0.059 0.059 413 413

Jharkhand 0.686 0.686 0.405 0.405 590 590

Karnataka 1.220 0.100 1.320 0.140 0.040 0.180 115 400 136

Kerala 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 1000 1000

Madhya Pradesh 5.566 0.068 5.634 2.009 0.028 2.037 361 412 362

Maharashtra 5.300 0.076 5.376 2.160 0.029 2.189 408 382 407

Orissa 1.225 0.021 1.246 0.324 0.007 0.331 264 333 266

Punjab 0.034 0.034 0.018 0.018 529 529

Rajasthan 1.463 1.462 0.527 0.527 360 360

Tamil Nadu 0.469 1.874 2.343 0.219 0.802 1.021 467 428 436

Tripura 0.012 0.004 0.016 0.007 0.002 0.009 583 500 563

Uttar Pradesh 4.763 0.586*

5.349 1.774 0.302*

2.076 372 515 388

West Bangal 0.475 0.114 0.589 0.320 0.084 0.404 674 737 686

Pondicherry 0.017 0.017 0.005 0.005 294 294

India 24.843

6.850 31.693

9.482 3.784 13.266

382 552 419

*Summer season Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2005

Classification Blackgram (Vigna mungo) is subdivided into 2 varieties.

Vigna mungo var. niger: This species has early maturating varieties with bold seeds of black colour.

Vigna mungo var. viridis: This species includes late-maturing varieties. Seeds are of small size and green in colour.

Botanical Description

Blackgram is an annual trailing or erect plant with a height of 30-90 cm with profuse branching. The stem is slightly ridged and covered with brown hair. The leaves are large, trifoliate, hairy and generally with a purplish tinge. The colour of leaves is green to dark green. The leaflets are 5-10 cm long, broad, ovate and entire. The flowers are axillary, recemose, complete, self-pollinated and yellow in colour. The inflorescence consists of cluster of 5-6 flowers at the top of a long hairy peduncle. There are 5 sepals and 5 petals.

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There are 9 stamens and 1 hairy and spirally twisted style. The pods are 4-6 cm long. There are 8-15 seeds in a pod. The seeds are generally black or dark brown with smooth seed coat and protruding hilum.

Climate Blackgram is a tropical crop with tolerance to high temperature. It is cultivated in areas receiving rainfall of 500 to 700 mm in kharif and on residual moisture in rice fallows or under irrigated conditions during rabi. It is also cultivated in summer season. It is grown all the year round in peninsular India and during kharif and summer seasons in the north. It prefers humid conditions. The crop is susceptible to frost and waterlogging. The optimum temperature for growth ranges from 25-35oC. However, it can tolerate temperature up to 42oC. It is grown from sea level to an altitude of 1,800 m above mean sea level. It has drought resistance and can tolerate moisture stress. Heavy rains and cloudy weather during flowering stage are harmful to its successful cropping. Short days are conducive for higher productivity.

Soils Blackgram is cultivated on a variety of soils, but well drained loams are best for its cultivation. In scanty rainfall areas, heavy soils are preferred. Owing to its salt tolerance, it can be grown in moderate saline and alkali soils. The crop can be successfully grown in soils with pH 5 to 8.

Land preparation The crop does not require fine filth. The land preparation involves 1-2 deep ploughings followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking in both kharif as well as in irrigated conditions of rabi. Its utera cropping in rice involves no land preparation, as seeds are broadcast in standing crop of rice. In kharif season, levelling is important to provide quick damage of excess water accumulated from heavy rainfall.

Seed and Sowing Seed rate and spacing During kharif season, the crop attains vigorous vegetative growth than other seasons, and hence requires wider spacing. Accordingly, in kharif the crop is sown in rows 30-45 cm apart, while in other seasons, a narrow rows of 20-30 cm are recommended. The plants are thinned to a spacing of 5-10 cm after germination and establishment. Thus, a seed rate of 12-15 kg/ha in kharif is the optimum, while in other seasons, double the seed rate of kharif is required. For utera cropping, the highest seed rates are used, ranging from 30-50 kg/ha. The optimum population is 4 lakh/ha in kharif, and 10 lakh/ha in spring and summer seasons. The optimum depth of sowing is 4-6 cm.

Before sowing seed should be treated with agrosan GN or thiram @ 2.5 g/kg of seed. Seed should also be inoculated with suitable Rhizobiumm culture.

Time and method of sowing The time of sowing depends on onset of monsoon in kharif and harvest of previous crops in other seasons. In kharif, the crop is sown between mid June to mid July. Rabi crop is sown in the months of October-November. Spring and summer blackgram are sown in February and mid March – early April, respectively.

The seeds are planted in lines using seed drill. However, in utera cropping it is broadcast in standing rice crop.

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Varieties Since independence, over 60 improved varieties have been evolved in blackgram. Selection from local material has contributed over 50% of the improved varieties. T 9 is the first variety developed from Bareilly local in Uttar Pradesh (1948). Some other varieties developed through selection include T 27, T 65, T 77, Khargone 3, Mash 1-1, Mash 2, Naveen, ADT 1, D-6-7, D 75, Co 2, Co 3 etc. These varieties were later used in hybridization to develop high yielding and disease resistant varieties. KM 1 (G 31 x Khargone 3) and ADT 2 (AB 1-33 x ADT 1) are the first hybrid developed in blackgram. Mutation breeding has also been used to develop six varieties in blackgram till date. Co 4 is the first mutant blackgram developed at Coimbatore in 1978. Other blackgram varieties evolved through mutation include Manikya, TAU-1, TAU-2, TAU-4, TAU-94-2. The important and improved varieties recommended for different agro-climatic zones of India are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Improved varieties of blackgram recommended for various agro-climatic zones of India

Zone Varieties Rabi Spring

North-western Zone (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir

T 9, T 65, PS 1, Pant U 35, Pant U 19, UG 218, Mash 48, Kulu 4, HPU-6, Pusa 1, WBU 108 (Sharda), IPU 94-1 (Uttar), Krishna

PDU-1, KU-300

North-eastern Zone (Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam)

T 9, T 65, PS 1, T 27, T 77, T 22, T 127, Pant U-19, Pant U-30, BR 68, Kalindi (B76), Naveen, Azad Urad 2, Uttar, DPU-88-31(Neelam)

Azad urd 1, UG 606, PDU 1 (Basant Bahar)

Central Zone (Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra)

T 9,Pusa 1, Khargone 3, Gwalior 2, D 6-7, D 75, Mash 48, Pusa U 30, Ujjain-4, Barka (RBU 38), TPU-4, TU 94-2, VB 3

PDU 1

Peninsular Zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka)

T9. WBG 26. Pusa 1, ADT 1, Khargone-3. ADT 2, PDM 2, Co 2 CO 3, Co 4, Co 5, Pant U 30, Mash 35-5, KM 2, Sharda, VB 3, Warangal 26

LBG 17 (Krishnayya), LBG 685, LBG 402, Prabhava), LBG 623, LBG 645

Yellow mosaic virus (YMV) in north east plain zone and powdery mildew (PM) and Cercospora leaf spot in southern zone cause enormous loss in productivity. Selection of resistant varieties is essential in blackgram. The important resistant varieties for these diseases are given below:

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Yellow mosaic virus Pant U 19, Pant U 30, PDU-1, KU 300, UG 218, Vamban 2, Neelam, Uttar, Narendra Urd 1, Mash 338, Gwalior 2.

Powdery mildew Krishnayya, LBG 402, CoBG 5, TAU 1, Co 4, WBU 108

Cercospora leaf spot Pant U 19, Neelam Manures and Fertilizers Being a legume, it meets most of its N requirement from biological fixation. To meet the initial N requirement before start of N fixation, 15-20 kg N/ha is applied along with 30-50 kg P2O5/ha at the time of sowing. Response to P application is the highest in red soils followed by lateritic soils. Potassic fertilizers should be applied as per soil test value. In case, soil test facilities are not available, apply 30-40 kg K2O/ha. The fertilizers should be drilled at the time of sowing in such a way that they are placed about 5-7 cm below the seed. When the crop is raised as intercrop, the fertilizer applied to main crop may also meet its requirement. Application of S @ 20 kg/ha and 0.5 kg Mo/ha is also beneficial. Gypsum was more efficient source of S, followed by single superphosphate.

Soil mulch and 2% KCl spray have been recommended for mid-season drought management in blackgram.

Water management It is grown under rainfed conditions in kharif. However, under prolonged moisture stress due to dry spells in monsoon, it requires irrigation. Blackgram grown on residual moisture in rice fallows, however, experiences moisture stress at reproductive stage. Under these situations, provision of one irrigation at pod filling stage is promising. Under irrigated conditions of rabi, spring and summer seasons, the crop requires 3-5 irrigations at 15-20 days interval. Summer crop requires irrigation at less frequent interval than rabi/spring blackgram. Depending on soil and climate, the water requirement of blackgram varies from 15-20 cm. No irrigations should be applied after pod filling, and should be stopped 2 weeks prior to maturity.

Weed management The short stature of crop in sole stands provides scope for intense weed competition. The weed menace is the highest in kharif owing to intermittent rains. Initial 30-40 DAS is critical period of crop-weed competition. In an unweeded crop, the extent of yield losses may vary from 40-60%.

The major weed flora of blackgram includes grasses: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers, Cyperus rotundus L., Setaria glauca (L) Bear; dicot weeds: Trianthema portulocastrum L., Digeria arvensis Forsk, Commelina benghalensis L., Boerhavia diffusa L., Phyllanthus niruri Hook. F., Cuscuta sp. menace is seen in coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh.

When blackgram is grown as an intercrop with sorghum, pigeonpea, pearl millet etc., the interculture given to the main crop is adequate. When sown as a sole crop, 1 or 2 weedings are required in the initial stages to keep the crop free from weeds.

Two manual weedings or mechanical harrowings 3 and 6 weeks after sowing are sufficient to take care of weed menace. When conditions are not favourable for the above operations owing to rains in kharif and labour cost in other seasons, herbicides usage is necessary.

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Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin or alachlor @ 1 kg/ha are recommended for weed control. Post-emergence application of sethoxydim @ 1 kg/ha 10 DAS or haloxyfop-methyl @ 0.24 kg/ha 20 DAS or fenoxoprop-ethyl @ 50 g/ha 28 DAS have been recommended. In utera cropping, the post-emergence herbicide application is the only option available.

Cropping Systems Blackgram is grown mixed with sorghum, maize, pearl millet and cotton crops during kharif season. It is intercropped with pigeonpea and spring sugarcane in 2:1 row ratio. In peninsular India, it is sometimes grown alone for manuring rice or as second crop after the cereal. In Kangra valley (Himachal Pradesh), it is often grown on bunds around terraced rice fields. The important rotations involving blackgram in north India are as given below:

Maize-wheat-blackgram Maize-toria-blackgram

Paddy-wheat-blackgram Blackgram-wheat-blackgram

Maize-potato-blackgram

Harvesting and Threshing Blackgram should be harvested when most of the pods turn black. Over maturity may result in shattering of pods. In general, the crop takes about 100-115 days in kharif and 75-80 days in summer for maturity. Harvested crop should be dried properly on threshing floor for a few days and then threshed. Threshing can be done either manually or by trampling by bullocks.

Yield A good crop of blackgram may yield 1.0-1.5 tonnes grain/ha and 2.0-2.5 tonnes/ha of straw. The yield attributes (range) of blackgram are given below.

Attribute Value

Pods/plant 25-120

Seeds/pod 4-8

1, 000 seed weight (g) 36-49

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COWPEABotanical name: Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

Source: http://www.cowpea.org/

Source : http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Vigna_unguiculata.htm

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Source : http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Vigna_unguiculata.htm

Additional Reading Material: http://www.cowpea.org/http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Vigna_unguiculata.htm

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COWPEA Botanical name: Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae) Chromosome number: 2n=22 or 24

Cowpea commonly known as lobia is valued for its protein rich grain (25%) in human consumption. It forms major staple food in many parts of Africa. The scorched seeds are also used as coffee substitute. It is also extensively grown for forage purposes and in terms of quality, it is comparable to lucerne. It is used for both human consumption and as a concentrate feed for cattle. Cowpea grains also contain 60.3% carbohydrates and 1.8% fat. Its pods are eaten as vegetable and tender leaves form important food in Africa. In Sudan and Ethiopia, the roots are roasted and eaten. The thick canopy aids in checking the soil erosion and weeds. Cowpea with drought tolerance and ability to grow in poor soils, forms an important crop in Savanna regions that are not suitable for raising any other crop.

Origin One school of thought believes that cowpea has originated in southern Sahel (north-central Africa) or in Ethiopia and later spread from these places to Asia and the Mediterranean through Egypt. Other school opines that cowpea has originated in India, and from there it was introduced into Africa in around 1500 BC. From West Africa, cowpeas entered into Carribean and then to North America through slave trade.

Geographic Distribution It is most widely raised crop of west and central African countries (Table 1). In the Indian sub-continent, it is mainly raised in central and peninsular regions. In north India, it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi and Haryana. Table 1. The major cowpea producing countries of world (2004)

Country Area (m.ha)

Production (m.t)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Nigeria 5.34 2.32 434.2

Niger 3.50 0.55 157.1

Burkinafas 0.59 0.28 470.0

Myanmar 0.14 01.3 928.6

Cameroon 0.04 0.087 2175.0

Tanzania 0.15 0.052 346.7

Uganda 0.064 0.064 1000.0

Congo 0.085 0.053 623.5

World 10.73 3.84 357.6

Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2004 Classification The cultivated types of cowpea have been classified into 3 groups:

Vigna sinensis (cowpea): These are erect/trailing, early maturing and annual types. Pods are 20-30 cm long containing 0.6-0.9 cm long seed. On drying, seeds are neither flabby nor inflated. Mainly grown for fodder purposes.

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Vigna sinensis sub. sp. catjang (Indian cowpea): The pods are 7.5-12.5 cm long, erect ascending when green, spreading or deflexed when dry. Seeds are 0.5-0.6 cm long and nearly as thick as broad. Mainly grown for fodder purpose.

Vigna sinensis sub. sp. sesquipedalis (Yardlong or asparagus bean): They are spreading annual types with 30-60 cm long and pendent pods. Seeds are 0.8-1.2 cm long and are mainly used as vegetable.

Botanical Description The common cowpea is a twining annual herbaceous plant. It has well developed root system. It has a tap root with a considerable number of lateral roots. Most of the roots are existed in the upper 40 cm of soil. The stem is almost glabrous and slightly ridged. The leaves are trifoliate, alternate and with scattered short hair. The flowers are white, yellow or pink in colour and are usually self-pollinated. Pods are long, cylindrical and constricted between the seeds. The seeds are bean shaped and many times spotted with various colours such as brown, green, yellow, white and mottled.

Climate Cowpea is a tropical and sub-tropical crop preferring warm and humid season. Being a warm weather crop, it can withstand drought and moderate levels of shade. However, under very dry conditions, the plants produce a poor crop. Germination of cowpea is better between 12 and 15oC temperature. The crop thrives best between 27 and 35oC temperature. It can not tolerate cold and is completely killed by frost. It is a short day plant requiring a minimum of 12.5 hour light. It is grown from sea level to an elevation of 2,000 m.

Soils Cowpea grows well on a wide range of soils including low fertile and acidic soils. Saline and alkaline soils are, however, not suitable for its cultivation. The crop performs best in well drained sandy loams with a pH of 5.5-6.5.

Land preparation Clod free seedbed that can be obtained with moderate land preparation is sufficient for cowpea cultivation. Under kharif rainfed conditions, a deep summer ploughing would be useful for conservation of moisture. The land preparation involves 2-3 ploughings followed by harrowing and levelling in kharif after onset of monsoon or early showers. As an irrigated crop of rabi, spring and summer seasons, land is prepared after an irrigation.

Seeds and Sowing Seed rate and spacing Spreading cultivars of cowpea are sown in rows 45 cm apart with a plant to plant spacing of 10-15 cm, and thus 1, 50,000 to 2, 50,000 plants/ha is the optimum plant density. Compact types are sown in 30 cm rows with a plant to plant spacing of 5-10 cm. Generally, a seed rate of 25-35 kg/ha is used to get desired plant density. In mixed and intercropping systems, the seed rate varies with row proportions.

Before sowing seed should be treated with cerasan or agrosan GN @ 2.5 g or carbendazim @ 2 g/kg seed. The later is effective for arresting root rot disease. Seed should also be treated with Rhizobium culture.

Time of method of sowing As a kharif rainfed crop, cowpea is sown immediately with the onset of monsoon. Its sowing is thus spread from mid June to end of July. With delayed sowing beyond July, rust incidence increases. In hills, the crop is sown in April-May. As a rabi crop, in the south, it is sown in

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the months of October and November. Summer crop is sown during March-April in the north. Seed should be sown behind the plough or with the help of a seed drill.

Varieties The original shy bearing, photosensitive, long duration and pest susceptible varieties have been improved to remove these bottlenecks and to fit them into various intensive cropping systems. A number of varieties have been developed through selection from local or improved germplasm (C 152, Pusa Phalguni, T 2 etc.). New varieties have also been evolved through hybridization (Pusas Dofasli, RC 19). Mutation breeding has also been adopted since early eighties, that resulted in evolving five varieties of cowpea in India, of which 4 [Amba, Shreshtha (V 37), Swarna (V3 8) (All in 1981) and V 240 (1984)] are developed through irradiation of Pusa Phalguni with Dimethyl sulphonate (DMS) at IARI, New Delhi. Cowpea 88 was developed at Ludhiana (Punjab) in 1990 by irradiation of F1 seed of cross of cowpea 74 x No. H 2.

The important varieties recommended for different agro-climatic zones and purposes are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Cowpea varieties recommended for various agro-climatic zones of India

Varieties Zone

Grain types Vegetable types

Dual types

North-western zone (Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir)

T2, JC 5, JC 10, RS 9, RC 29, V 16, Cowpea 74, Pusa 152, Pusa Sawani (TS 269), Pusa Sampada, Rambha

Pusa Rituraj, Pusa Phalguni, Pusa Dofasli, Pusa Barsati

FS 68, Swarna (V 38), Gomti, Pusa Komal, Arka Garima

North-eastern zone (Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam)

FGC 1, T2, V 16, RC 19, Pusa 152, Pusa Sawani, Cowpea 74

Central zone (Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra)

Pusa 152, V 240, V 16, Gujarat cowpea 1, Gujarat cowpea 2, K 11, K 14, GC 3

Peninsular zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala)

Pusa 152*, Krishnamani (PTB 2), Kanakmani (PTB 1), Co 1, Co 2, Co 3, Co 4*, V16 (Amba), V 240, S 228, S 448, JC 5, SU 88, Km 1

*Suitable for Rabi Manures and Fertilizers Being a leguminous crop, it can fix 70-350 kg/ha of N through biological N fixation. However, it needs a small amount of N for early growth period on those soils which are poor in organic matter. Such soils should receive 15-20 kg N/ha as a starter dose. Application of phosphorus is essential for proper root development and functioning of Rhizobium. Apply 40-

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50 kg P2O5/ha at the time of sowing. Phosphatic fertilizer is placed 5 cm below and away from the seed. It is advisable to apply potassic fertilizer based on soil test recommendations.

Water management The crop is raised on rainfall in kharif. However, at time of moisture stress owing to long breaks in monsoon, irrigation is essential. In cowpea, flowering and pod filling stages are identified as critical stages for irrigation. As an irrigated crop, cowpea requires 3-4 irrigations. After a pre-sowing irrigation, irrigations are provided at seedling, flowering and pod filling stages. Cowpea requires 300-400 mm water depending on soil and climate. Summer crop may require 5-6 irrigations due to high temperature and low humidity. The number and frequency of irrigation depend upon the soil type and weather prevailing during the growth period. Generally, the summer season crop should get irrigation at an interval of 10-15 days.

Weed management Cowpea suffers from heavy weed infestation at initial growth phases. The critical period of crop weed competition is 25-30 days after sowing. Effective control of weeds during this period is essential. The crop is known to have weed suppressing ability in later stages owing to its thick canopy and fast growth. At least, 2 hoeing and weeding are needed to check the growth of weeds. Summer season crop is less infested by weed in comparison to kharif crop. Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha may effectively take care of initial weed growth. Of the 30 species of Striga (witch weed) a semi root parasite, Striga asiatica and S. gesneriodes (Willd.) Vatke. are prominent in India and Africa. Pre-emergence application of dicamba or metalachlor is promising for its control. Trap cropping and use of Striga resistant varieties are other effective ways of its management.

Harvesting and Threshing Green pods can be harvested 45-90 days after sowing depending on the variety. Pods should be harvested at tender stage; otherwise pods may develop fibres due to longer retention on the plant. For grains, the crop may be harvested in about 90-125 days after sowing, when pods are fully matured. The crop should be dried properly and threshed. The grain should be dried in sun before storage.

For fodder, the cutting of the crop depends upon the need and the stage of growth of the component crop sown with it. In general, the crop should be cut with sickle when it attains the age of 40-45 days.

Yield A good crop of cowpea may yield about 1.2-1.5 tonnes grain and 5.0-6.0 tonnes straw/ha. The yield attributes (range) of cowpea are given below

Attributes Value Pods/plant 1-230 Seeds/pod 4-24 1, 000 seed weight (g) 35-197

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MOTH BEAN or DEW BEANBotanical name: Phaseolus aconitifolius (Jacq.) Marechal

Source: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV021

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MOTH BEAN or DEW BEAN Botanical name: Phaseolus aconitifolius (Jacq.) Marechal

Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae) Chromosome number: 2n=22

Mothbean is an important kharif pulse crop of the arid and semi-arid regions. Besides use of mature dry seeds as dal, popular Indian preparations like kheech, papad, dalmoth and bhujia are also prepared from its seeds. The seeds are rich in protein (23-25%). The green pods are relished as vegetable. It is also grown for fodder (green and dry) and green manuring purposes. The spreading habit makes it a soil conserving crop. It is the most drought tolerant crop among the pulses and enriches the soil by its biological N fixation.

Origin It is considered to be native of India owing to wide spread wild and cultivated forms. Mothbean grows wild in India, Pakistan and Myanmar and from the Himalayas in the north to Sri Lanka in the south.

Geographic distribution India is the major producer of mothbean in the world. It is widely grown in the Indian subcontinent and the Far East, particularly Thailand. It has also reached China, Africa and southern USA, where it is confined mainly to the drier areas. In India, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat are the major mothbean producing states (Table 1). Table 1. Area, production and productivity of mothbean in different states of India (2004-05)

State Area (lakh ha)

Production (Lakh tonnes)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Gujarat 0.410 0.147 359

Haryana 0.024 0.003 125

Himachal Pradesh 0.001 0.001 1000

Jammu & Kashmir 0.027 0.017 630

Maharashtra 0.510 0.152 298

Punjab 0.003 0.002 667

Rajasthan 14.363 1.883 131

Uttar Pradesh 0.003 0.001 333

India 15.341 2.206 144

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2005

Climate Mothbean needs warm weather; hence the crop is grown during monsoon season. The cultivation is spread in plains between 30oN to 30oS. It is a drought tolerant crop and can be grown in areas with rainfall of 200-500 mm. High rainfall is detrimental to its cultivation.

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Soil and its preparation The crop grows well in sandy loams with neutral pH. It can thrive in sand dunes also. It is cultivated in dry areas and has the ability to grow where no other crop can be grown. Saline and alkaline soils are not suitable for mothbean production. Mothbean requires a minimum preparation of land. It is often sown in sandy soils without land preparation. In other soils, field is prepared by one or two cross harrowings followed by planking. To control the white grub, 25 kg of phorate 10 G should be applied in the furrows, and where the termite problem is serious, apply 5% aldrin dust @ 25 kg/ha at the time of soil preparation.

Seeds and Sowing Seed rate and spacings The seed rate required for sole mothbean for grain purpose varies from 10-12 kg/ha in spreading and semi-spreading varieties. In erect and short duration cultivars (RMO-40) and under delayed sowing, higher seed rate (15 kg/ha) is required. For inter and mixed cropping (depending on row proportion of component crops), 4-5 kg seed/ha is used. Fodder crop requires double the seed rate of sole grain crop. The crop is sown in rows 45 cm apart with an intra-row spacing of 10 cm. Erect types are grown in 30 cm rows. Before sowing, the seed should be treated with captan or thiram @ 2.5 g/kg of seed. Seed should also be treated with Rhizobium culture.

Time of sowing In Rajasthan, sowing is done with the onset of monsoon, and usually sown in the month of July. If rains are not sufficient, the sowing can be done in August also. The yield is reduced with delayed sowing beyond July. Under assured irrigation, spring (February-March) season cultivation can also be done. Sowing is done behind the plough or seed drill at 3-5 cm depth.

Varieties The important varieties of mothbean and their characteristics are given below

Type 1 A selection from Meerut local, released in 1967. Plants are spreading type. Maturing in 120 days has medium bold (test weight 19 g) shining brown seeds and yields 2-4 q/ha. Suitable for Haryana

Baleshwar-12 Plants are tall (40-50 cm), requiring 110-115 days to maturity and susceptible to yellow mosaic virus (YMV). The seeds are medium in size and are brown and yields 5 q/ha seed.

Jadia A local selection from Rajasthan released in 1980. It matures in 90 days with 5-8 q/ha seed yield. The seeds with 25-29 g test weight are dark brown in colour. Suitable for Rajasthan.

Jwala Identified in 1983, suitable for Rajasthan; Maturing in 90 days has resistance to yellow mosaic virus (YMV). Grains are light brown with a test weight of 30 g. Average yield is 7 q/ha.

IPCMO-0880 A selection from Jhunjhunu local, released in 1989 takes 90-100 days to maturity. It is recommended for Rajasthan and Gujarat has a yield of 5 q/ha.

IPCMO-912 A selection from Sikar local, released in 1994 for Rajasthan. Maturing in 75-80 days has tolerance to YMV and bacterial blight

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RMO 40 Developed from 40 KR r-rays irradiation of “Jwala” at ARS, Mandore in 1994. It is an erect, short duration (62-65 days) synchronous maturing vareiety with 6-9 q/ha yield, suitable for Rajasthan.

RMO 257 A spreading, short duration variety (62-65 days) developed by mutation breeding. It is resistant to YMV and drought and has medium bold (29-32 g test weight) seeds.

FMM 96 An erect, short duration (58-60 days) variety with synchronous maturity developed through mutation breeding. It is resistant to YMV, stem blight. Yields 5-7 q/ha seed.

CAZRI moth 1 Developed in 1999 by 30 KR r-rays mutation of “Jadia”

RMO 423 An early variety released in 2003. Suitable for Rajasthan. Latest varieties Prabha, Maru Varedhan and CZM-45; RMO-435 (Maru Bahar).

Irrigation It is rainfed crop of kharif and is usually not irrigated. However, drought at reproductive stage deters farmers from realizing higher yields. In mothbean grown during spring and summer seasons, irrigations are given at two weeks interval from sowing onwards. Flowering stage of the crop is the critical stage for irrigation.

Manures and Fertilizers Mothbean soils are generally poor in organic matter, fertility and water holding capacity. An addition of 10-15 t/ha FYM is recommended to improve the organic matter and water holding capacity of soil. Though, it fixes 30-60 kg N/ha, 15 kg N/ha is applied at sowing to meet initial N demands. Application of potassium is rare, but 30-50 kg P2O5/ha is needed for better root growth, nodulation and N fixation. In intensive cropping systems, 20 kg S/ha fertilization is required for better yields. Uncontrolled weeds may reduce mothbean productivity by 25-50%. The initial 4 weeks from sowing is critical period of crop-weed competition. The weed menace is less in intercropping with pearl millet. The important weeds invading mothbean are Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Trianthema portulacastrum, Phyllanthus niruri, Commelina and Digeria spp. One hand weeding at 3-4 weeks after sowing is sufficient to take care of weeds. Use of fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (pre-plant incorporation) is recommended for both sole mothbean and its intercropping with pearl millet.

Cropping systems In low rainfall areas, it is grown in sole stands. However, under higher rainfall, it is intercropped with pearl millet and clusterbean. Mothbean is also a component of several crop rotations. It is rotated with mustard, gram, linseed and barley under rainfed conditions. Under irrigated conditions, the important rotations include: Mothbean-potato-wheat mothbean-toria-potato mothbean-radish-wheat mothbean-toria-wheat-greengram.

Harvesting and Threshing The crop matures in about 3 months. The main characteristic of ripening of mothbean is that the pods become yellow black. Delayed harvesting results in shattering of pods. The crop may be harvested with sickles and then sun-dried for 3-5 days. Seeds are separated by hand

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beating or bullock/tractor trampling. Threshers are also available for threshing and winnowing simultaneously.

Yield A good crop may yields about 0.5-0.8 tonnes grain and 1.0-1.5 tonnes straw/ha. The yield attributes (range) of mothbean are given below

Attribute Value Pods/plant 24.8-128.3 Seeds/pod 2.0-10.0 1, 000 seed weight (g) 15-46

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SOYBEAN (Botanical name: Glycine max L. Merril)

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean

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SOYBEAN

Botanical name: Glycine max L. Merril Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoceae)

Chromosome number: 2n=40

Soybean with 40% protein and 20% oil in its seed is one of the important and cheapest sources of vegetable proteins and oils. Owing to its multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products, it is called a ‘wonder crop’. It is the number one oilseed crop of the world. Soybean protein is rich in the valuable amino acid lysines (5%) in which most of the cereals are deficient. In addition, it contains a good amount of minerals, salts and vitamins (thiamine and riboflavin).

A large number of Indian and western dishes such as bread, kachori, pastries, high-protein food for children, food for diabetic, milk, biscuits, sweets, fermented food, chhbole, khoa, paneer rabdi, powdered food material, chocolate, ice cream, protisnacks, nutrinugget, green pods as vegetable, canned seed vegetable, salad, dry seed-roasted, boiled, cooked, soya sauce, soya soup etc. can be prepared from its seed/flour. It is widely used for manufacturing of edible oil, vanaspati ghee, salad oil, butter, glycerine, oil for light, explosive, varnish paints, linolium, soap, lubricating oil, printing ink, celluloid, plywood material, tape joint, typewriter ribbon, rice cream, vitamins, antibodies, medicine and cosmetic material etc. It is widely used in different antibodies. It can be used as forage, hay, silage etc. Its forage and cake are excellent nutritive foods for livestock and poultry. Soybean builds up the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen through the root nodules, and also through leaf fall on the ground on maturity. Soybean is a food that is as nearly perfect as cow milk. Its fortification (5%) with wheat flour is done for alleviating protein malnutrion in the country.

Origin and History Soybean originated in China around 2800 B.C. The wild form, a slender twinning vine, Glycine soja is considered to be the predecessor of Glycine max (cultivated form) occurring in China, Manchuria and Korea. It was domesticated in eastern half of the North China around the 11th century B.C. It was introduced into Korea from North China and then into Japan sometimes between 200 BC and 3rd century A.D.

It is introduced into northern India in 1000 AD from Central China through silk route and is an important source of food in Kumaon hills and Naga hills. Black seeded soybean was also grown in Kumaon and Garhwal hills region and some places of Madhya Pradesh.

Geographic distribution Soybean is globally cultivated over an area of 91.2 million ha with a production of 206.5 million tonnes (2004). The important soybean growing counties are USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and Russia (Table 1). Table. 1. Area, production and productivity of soybean in major producing countries of world

Country Area (m ha)

Production (m tonnes)

Productivity (t/ha)

USA 29.93 85.01 2.84

Brazil 21.54 49.79 2.31

Argentina 14.32 31.50 2.20

China 9.70 17.60 1.81

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Country Area (m ha)

Production (m tonnes)

Productivity (t/ha)

India 6.90 7.50 1.09

Russian Federation

0.56 0.56 1.00

World 91.2 206.5 2.26

Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2004 In India, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra states are major producers of soybean accounting for 87% of acreage and 82% of the production (Table 2). Table 2. Area, production and productivity of soybean in important states of India in 2004-05

State Area (000 ha)

Production (000 t)

Productivity (kg/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 76.9 120.5 1567

Chattisgarh 33.2 33.8 1018

Gujarat 27.0 15.0 556

Karnataka 159.0 96.0 604

Madhya Pradesh 4485.3 3747.1 835

Maharashtra 2102.0 1892.0 900

Rajasthan 621.9 886.5 1425

Uttarakhand 18.0 23.0 1278

India 7571.2 6876.3 908 Source: Fertilizer Association of India, 2006.

Classification Genus Glycine consists of two subgenera Glycine Willd. and Soja (Moench) F.J. Herm. The sub-genus Soja comprises of the cultivated soybean Glycine max. and its wild annual progenitor, Glycine soja Sieb and Zucc. The subgenus Glycine consists of 16 wild perennial species [of which 2 species G. tabicina (2n = 40, 80) and G. tornentosa (2n = 38, 40, 78, 80) have polyploid forms] and the rest are diploids (2n=40). Soybean is classified on the basis of various criteria used as below:

Manchurian classification As per this classification based on colour of seed, soybean has been classified into 3 groups: Yellow group: They fetch higher price. The minimum support price in India is Rs 1020/q (2006-07)

Yellow seeds with light hilum Yellow seeds with golden hilum Yellow seeds with brown hilum

Black group: They fetch higher price. The minimum support price in India is Rs 900/q (2006-07)

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Large black seed Flat black seed Small black seed

Green group Epidermis of seed green but embryo yellow Epidermis as well as embryo green

Martin’s classification This classification is based on shape and size of soybean seed

Soja elliptica : Egg shaped seed Soja spherical : Round seed Soja compressa : Pressed seed

Hertz Classification This classification is based on the shape of pods

Soja platycarpa : Flat seed Soja tumida : Thick seed

American classification This classification is based on maturity duration. The varieties available in USA have been divided into 10 groups.

Group Maturity (in days) Varieties (Hilum colour)

(00) 117 Flambeau (b), Portage (y)

(0) 126 Traverse (y), Merit (bf), Grant (b)

(i) 126 Chippewa (b), Hark (y)

(ii) 130 Amsoy (y), Harosoy 63 (y)

(iii) 131 Ford, Kim, Sheby, Adams, Wayne (b), Adelphia (bf)

(iv) 136 Delmar (y), Scott, Kent (b), Clark 63 (b)

(v) 139 Dare Hill (br), Dorman, York (bf)

(vi) 148 Hood (bf), Pickett (b), Lee (b), Davis (bf)

(vii) 156 Bragg (b), Jackson, Semmes (b)

(viii) 158 Hardee (bf), Bienville, Improved Pelican

b = black; y = yellow; br = brown; bf = buff colour hilum Climate Soybean grows well in warm and moist climates from sea level to an elevation of 3,000 m. Temperature of 15-32oC is optimum for germination. For growth and development, the optimum temperature is 30oC. Lower temperatures tend to delay the flowering. It has been observed that low temperatures reduce the oil content, whereas higher temperatures during seed formation increase the oil content in seed. At temperatures >42oC, nodulation is hampered severely. A relative humidity of 70-75% is optimum for pod formation. The crop

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can not tolerate frost and waterlogging. It is grown in areas of 40-75 cm annual rainfall. Drought at flowering or just before flowering results in flower and pod drop. Rains during maturity impair the quality of grain. It is a short day plant and requires a photoperiod of less the 14 hours provided that temperatures are also favourable.

Soils The crop performs best in well drained medium textured soils with moderate to deep soils. Sandy loam to clay loams is preferred for its cultivation. Soils with neutral pH are ideal. The soils with an electrical conductivity >4dS/m and exchangeable sodium percentage >15% are not suitable for soybean.

Land preparation Soybean requires well pulverized seed bed with no clods for proper germination and crop establishment. The required seed bed can be prepared by a deep ploughing followed by cross harrowing twice and planking.

Seeds and Sowing Seed rate Soybean crop needs about 70-80 kg/ha seed during kharif season and 100-120 kg/ha seed during spring and summer seasons. A spacing of 45 cm x 5 cm in kharif crop and 30 cm x 3 cm in spring and summer crops is optimum. Intercropping with other crops either in alternate rows or 2 rows of soybean between two rows of main crop would require 60% of the seed rate.

Time of sowing Time of sowing of kharif crop is dependent on onset of monsoon or availability of irrigation water. The sowing starts from last week of June and continue up to first fortnight of July. In northern and central India, last week of June is the optimum time of sowing under irrigated conditions. However, it not only takes long duration to maturity but is also highly susceptible to yellow mosaic virus disease. The optimum time of sowing is, however, earliest in northern hills zone i.e. last week of May to mid June. Under irrigated conditions, it is sown in spring season between mid February to mid March.

Method of Sowing It is conventionally sown by broadcast. However, it involves several problems; viz. plants are not properly spaced, resulting in inconvenience in hoeing, weeding etc. Broadcast method is still ideal for fodder and green manure crop. For seed purposes, the crop is sown in rows with the help of seed drill or behind the plough. The depth of sowing should not be more than 2-3 cm in heavy soils to 3-4 cm in light to medium-textured soils under optimum conditions. Rains immediately after sowing results in crust formation inhibiting seedling emergence. Crust breaking by light racking is desirable under these situations.

Varieties The important varieties of soybean released/ introduced in India and their areas of recommended are given below in Table 2.

Table 2. Soybean varieties recommended for different zones of India

Region Varieties Northern Hills Zone (Himachal Pradesh and Hills of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand)

PK-416, Bragg, PK-262, VL2, PSS-64, PK 327, VLS-47, VLS-1, Alankar (PK-74-21), Shilajeet (UPSM-19), Hara Soya, Pusa-16

North Plains Zone (Punjab, Haryana, North

PK 262, PK 327, PK 416, PK 308, PS 564, PS 1024, Pusa 16, Bragg, Ankur (UPSM-38), Alankar, Shilajeet, DS-73-16, DS-

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eastern plains of Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar)

7522-4, PK-472, VL Soya-21, SL-95, SL-295, PK-1042, PK 564-Y, PK-1024

Central Zone (Madhya Pradesh, Bundelkhand regions of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, western Maharashtra and Orissa)

JS-2, JS-335, Ankur, Gaurav (JS-72-74), Durga, MACS-13, PK-472, MACS 58, JS-80-21, MACS-57, JS-80-21, MAUS-81, PK-472, Prasad (MAUS-32), Ahilya-4 (NRC-37), Parbhani sona (MAUS-47), NRC-2 (Ahilya-1), NRC-7 (Ahilya-3), NRC-12 (Ahilya-2), JS-90-41, Indira Soya-9, JS-71-05, JS-9041

Southern Zone (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Southern Maharashtra)

KHsb-2, Co-1, Monetta, Hardee, Pratiksha (MAUS-61-2), MAUS-32, MACS-450, PK-1029, KP-79 (Sneha), JS-93-05, LSb-1, Co Soya-2, MAUS-2 (Puja), MACS-124, Partikar (MAUS-61)

North-East Zone (Assam, West Bengal, Eastern Bihar, Meghalaya etc.)

JS-80-21, RAUS-5, Samrudhi (MAUS-71)

Manuring and Fertilization Soybean removes substantial amount of nutrients from the soil. The nutrient requirement in India with low to moderate yield levels (~ 1.1 t/ha) are entirely different from countries with 4-8 tonnes/ha productivity. In these countries, removal of P and K far exceeds their application. Soybean has rapid uptake of nutrients at pod filling period. For raising a good crop, application of 15-20 t/ha of FYM is recommended. Being a legume, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with Bradyrhizobium japonicum to meet most of its requirement. To meet the N requirement of crop before fixation starts, 40 kg N/ha is applied at the time of sowing. At flowering stage, the nitrogen supply from soil and symbiotic N fixation often lags behind the requirement. Hence top dressing of 20 kg N/ha would be required. Soybean requires liberal P fertilization for proper nodulation. In acidic soils, P gets fixed owing to predominance of aluminium and iron oxides. Hence, liming of such soils is desirable for raising a good crop. In general, 60-80 kg P2O5/ha is recommended as basal application. Potassium need of soybean is the highest amongst 3 primary nutrients, For proper nodulation, 600-800 mg K/kg biomass is required. Indian soils are rich in potassium, and therefore the response is rare. In K deficient soils, basal application of 40 kg K2O/ha is recommended. To correct K deficiency in a standing crop, 0.5% foliar spray of KCl is recommended. Soybean requires S for oil synthesis. In areas with low S availability, 20 kg S/ha is necessary. In sodic soils and high rainfall zones, soybean usually encounters Zn deficiency. Further, liberal P fertilization also aggravates Zn deficiency due to their antagonism. Hence, application of 5 kg Zn /ha recommendation is made for all soybean growing zones.

Weed control Uncontrolled weeds in the field can cause reduction in yield up to 65%. The initial 40 days have been found as critical period of crop weed competion. Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colonum, Sorghum halepense, Setaria glauca, Cynodon dactylon, Celossia argentia and Trianthema monogyna etc. are the most common weeds of soybean. Two manual weedings or hoeings at 20 and 40 days after sowing may effectively control the weeds in soybean. However, continuous rains may limit the utility of manual weeding/hoeing. Under such cases, use of herbicides is inevitable. Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin @ 0.75-1.00 kg/ha or pre-emergence application of alachlor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha or

42

metolochlor or chlomazone or pendimethalin or linuron @ 1 kg/ha or metribuzin @ 0.75 kg/ha have been found effective to control annual grasses and broad leaved weeds. In recent times, some post-emergence herbicides are also used for control of grasses. They include quizalofop-ethyl @ 50 g/ha 25 days after sowing (DAS) or imazethapyr @ 75 g/ha 15-20 DAS.

Water management In kharif soybean, drainage is more important than irrigation. In soybean, sprouting, flowering, pod initiation and grain filling are critical stages of irrigation. Moisture stress at flowering and pod initiation results in flower and pod abortion, while stress at grain filling reduces seed size. Waterlogging is detrimental to nodulation, hence ridge and furrow planting is recommended, where irrigation is provided in furrows. Spring and summer season soybean is grown with assured irrigation facilities, and requires 3 and 5 irrigations, respectively. Under prolonged dry spells, kharif crop also requires protective irrigation at the end of flowering to pod initiation stages.

Cropping Systems Mixed cropping of soybean with maize, sesame and mandua has been found feasible and remunerative. In mixed stand of maize and soybean, the yield of maize is not affected, and an additional 1.0-1.2 t/ha of soybean grain can be obtained. In this system maize is planted at 100 cm row spacing keeping plant-to-plant distance of 10 cm, and 3 rows of soybean are planted in between maize rows. In north India, it has tremendous scope as an intercrop in pigeonpea, maize, cotton and upland rice. In southern part of the country, soybean has a good scope as intercrop in cotton, sorghum, pigeonpea, groundnut and sugarcane. In central India, it has been found very remunerative on the fallow lands in kharif. In low rainfall areas of Madhya Pradesh, soybean-rabi cropping has been found more economical than kharif fallow. Some common soybean based rotations followed in north India are given below. Soybean-gram Soybean-potato Soybean-wheat (most extensively followed in 2 m ha) Soybean-tobacco Soybean-potato-wheat Soybean-wheat-groundnut Soybean-mustard/toria Soybean-maize

Harvesting and Threshing Early varieties usually take 90-120 days to mature, whereas late varieties mature in 140-150 days. There is a thumb rule for harvesting soybean crop i.e. the crop should be harvested after it has fully matured. The matured crop is harvested manually with the help of sickles. Shattering of grains from pods is not common in most of the commercial varieties. The harvested crop is kept on threshing floor to dry for a few days. Thereafter, it is threshed by trampling with bullocks or tractor. Grains are separated by winnowing. It can also be threshed by wheat thresher after some adjustments. A moisture content of 13-14% is ideal for threshing with thresher.

Yield A well managed crop yields about 2.0-2.5 tonnes grain/ha. Oil to soybean seed crushed is 18%, meal to soybean seed crushed is 73%, hull from soybean seed crushed is 8% and wastage from soybean seed crushed is 1%.

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GROUNDNUTBotanical name: Arachis hypogaea

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut

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GROUNDNUT Botanical name: Arachis hypogaea Family: Fabaceae (Leguminoseae) Chromosome number: 2n =4x= 40

Groundnut is also known as earthnut, peanut, monkey nut, goober, pinda and Manilla nut. The word Arachis hypogaea has been derived from the Greek words, Arachis meaning legume, hypogaea meaning below groundnut. Groundnut is cultivated for its kernel that is rich in oil (45%) and protein (20%). It is mainly used for manufacture of vegetable oil. In some countries of Europe, USA, South-east Asia, kernel is directly consumed or consumed after roasting/frying and salting by human beings. Besides this, A. villosulicarpa Hoehne in Mato Gasso region and A. stenosperma Krapov & W.C. Gregory nov. sp. in S-Eastern region of Brazil are grown for their kernels.

A Pintoi Krapov & W.C. Gregory nov. sp. and A. grabrata Benth have been valued as forage and fodder crop in South and North America and Australia. Further in South America, A. repens Handro is grown as a cover crop.The stover and groundnut cake have immense value as feeding material for livestock.

Globally, 50% of the groundnut produced is used for oil extraction, 37% for confectionery use and 12 % for seed purpose. In India, 80% of the total produce is used for oil extraction, 11% as seed, 8% for direct food uses and 1% is exported.

Origin The Arachis genus was distributed in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay with largest number of species reported from Brazil followed by Bolivia. Arachis hypogaea is believed to have originated in North Argentina and Southern Bolivia, where the diploid wild (progenitors of groundnut) species (A. batizocoi Krapov & W.C. Gregory Morten nudum and A. duranensis Krapov & W.C. Gregory nov. sp.) that are closely related to tetraploid A. hypogaea and A. monticola Krapov & Rigoni are distributed in this region. This suggests that this region is the primary center of diversity.

The secondary center of diversity includes Guarani region of Paraguay-Parana, Goias and Mina Gerais region of Tocatins, San Fransisco, Rondonia North-West Mato Grosso of Brazil, eastern foothills of the Andes and Bolivia and Peuu’s upper Amazon and West Coast. North East Brazil is considered as tertiary center of Diversity. The Christian Missionaries are believed to have introduced groundnut in India during the early 16th century.

Geographic distribution At present groundnut is grown in over 100 countries spread in 6 continents.It is raised on over 26 m ha in the world. The most important groundnut producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia and Sudan.. India occupies the first place in regard to acreage, while China ranks first with regard to total production (Table 1). Asia and Africa together acoounts for over 90 % of area and production in the world.

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Table 1. Area, production and productivity of groundnut in major producing countries to the world

Country Area (m ha) Production (m t) Productivity (kg/ha)

India 6.70 7.00 1045

China 4.77 14.41 3020

Nigeria 2.88 2.94 1020

USA 0.56 1.95 3448

Indonesia 0.72 1.47 2031

Sudan 1.90 1.20 632

Myanmar 0.58 0.72 1244

Senegal 0.75 0.60 806

Argentina 0.17 0.42 2499

World 25.06 36.44 1454

Source: FAO Production Year Book, 2004

Groundnut cultivation in India (6.64 m ha in 2004-05) is mostly confined to Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. The other important states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab (Table 2). The area (8.71 m ha), production (9.66 m t) and productivity (1357 kg/ha) till date were the highest in 1989-90, 1988-89 and 2003-04, respectively.

Table 2. Area, production and productivity of groundnut in important states of India (2004-05)

State Area (000 ha) Production (000 t) Productivity (kg/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 1841.4 1639.5 890

Chattisgarh 29.1 32.3 1110

Gujarat 2000.4 1886.6 943

Karnataka 969.0 742.0 766

Madhya Pradesh 209.5 242.7 1058

Maharashtra 447.0 502.0 1123

Orissa 86.0 106.0 1233

Rajasthan 287.8 446.8 1552

Tamil Nadu 615.9 1005.3 1632

Uttar Pradesh 85.1 69.4 816

West Bengal 46.6 75.5 1620

India 6640.4 6774.4 1020

Source: Fertilizer Association of India, 2006

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Classification The genus Arachis has 69 species. The cultivated A. hopogaea is divided into 2 subspecies viz. fastigiata Waldron and hypogaea Kropov & Rigoni. The subspecies are again divided into four and two varieties, respectively (Krapovickas and Gregory, 1994) as below. 1. ssp. fastigiata Central axis with flowers and lateral branches, the reproductive and vegetative branches show no order (sequential rampification). The subspecies has been divided into 4 varieties viz. var. fastigiata (Fruits with smooth or lightly marked reticulation. Reproductive branches are short and thin); var. peruviana [Fruits with very marked reticulation, long and strong reproductive branches (5-10 cm)]; var. acquatoriana ( leaflets have a hairy (1-2 mm) dorsal surface; and var. vulgaris (Fruits are 2 seeded, branches and point to the base of the plant) 2. ssp. hypogaea Central axis without flowers and lateral branches, the vegetative and reproductive branches alternate regularly (alternate ramification). The sub-species is divided into 2 varieties viz. var. hypogaea (leaflets with a glabrous dorsal surface or with some hair along mid rid); and var. hirsute (leaflets with hairy (1-2 mm) dorsal surface, entire surface is hairy).

Classification according to growth habits The erect or bunch type: Include Arachis hypogaea sub species fastigiata Waldron –

short duration, early-maturing, high yielding, and almost free from dormancy.

The spreading or trailing type: Include Arachis hypogaea sub-species procumbens Lal.

Commercial classification of groundnut Coromandal type: It bears smaller pods, with thin husk. Oval shape smaller seeds.

Big Japan or Bombay bold type: The pods and seeds of this type are bigger than coromandal type.

Table Characteristics of main axis and laterals

Main & laterals

Types of groundnut

Erect Bunch Spreading Semi-spreading

Trailing

Main axis Short and erect

Long and erect

Very short and erect

Intermediate between bunch and spreading

Medium length and erect

Laterals Erect, slightly oblique to main axis but almost parallel

Oblique to main axis

Spread horizontally along the ground usually an inch above the ground except the tips

Prostate up to a few internodes and then begin to ascend in a bow shaped pattern

Trail along the ground, flat on the ground up to the extreme tip

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Botanical Description Groundnut is a herbaceous annual with a more or less upright central stem with numerous branches that vary from prostrate to almost erect depending upon the variety.

Root: The groundnut has a tap root with its laterals covering a depth of 35-40 cm and spread of 30-35 cm of radius.

Stem: The groundnut stem is cylindrical, hairy and becomes more or less angular with age. The central stem is usually taller and has a few laterals which form main basis for classification of different varieties and forms.

Leaves: Leaves of groundnut are pinnate with 2 pairs of leaflets borne on a cylinder and grooved petiole. There is a pair of stipules about 4 cm long with long alternate points which are fused with the petiole for about 1 half of their length. The leaves occur alternatively 1 at each node. The shape of leaflets varies from elliptic, ovate to oblong with the entire or ciliate margins, subcardate base and obtuse or shortly mucronate tip.

Flowers: Three to five yellow flowers are produced in the axils of leaves on reproductive branches. Usually flowering takes place between 24-30 days after sowing and is little earlier in bunch than in spreading types. The flowering period normally lasts for 3-8 weeks in case of bunch type and 6-10 weeks in case of spreading type.

The gynophore is commonly referred to as the peg. The peg carrying the ovary, pushes itself into the soil. It is after entering the soil that the ovary begins to develop and takes up horizontal position. At the same time, the pod begins to enlarge.

The pod formation and development of groundnut is greatly influenced by fertilizer application. Lime application causes better nodulation and pod development. Naphthalene acetic acid has a marked effect on pod formation and development, when applied at flowering stage. This reduces flowering period, increases fertility of genotype, and improves the pod size, resulting in higher pod yield. This hormone is commercially available as planofix and vardhak, which is applied at 40 ppm 40 days after sowing.

Seed: The fruit is an indehiscent pod containing 1-5 seeds. The shell of the pod which contains the seed is morphologically the pericarp, and the thin skin that covers the seed or nut is the testa. The nut is composed of 2 cotyledons which contain oil and other food materials. Climatic Requirements Groundnut is a day neutral plant, and its cultivation is spread in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world extending between 40oS and 40oN latitudes. Groundnut can be grown in areas with rainfall as low as 300 mm. However, its commercial production is spread in areas receiving 500-1,000 mm of rainfall. Well distributed rainfall throughout crop cycle is more important than total rainfall. The crop requires intermittent light showers with bright sunny days for flowering and their subsequent development. Excess rain during pod development and maturity are harmful to the crop owing to induction of vegetative growth, and germination. A temperature of 25-30oC appears to be optimum for growth, and flower production is adversely affected at temperatures above 35oC. It is susceptible to frost, however, it can withstand drought, once the crop is established.

Soil Loose and friable soils with high organic matter content (sandy and loamy soils) that facilitate in easy peg penetration and proper pod development are suitable for groundnut cultivation. Red soils that become hard on drying are not suitable for the crop. The soils with medium to high CaCO3 content in root zone and 6-8 pH are preferred by the crop. Water logging and alkalinity are deterrent to pod filling.

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Land preparation Groundnut requires a fine seed bed which can be obtained by ploughing time with M.B. plough, followed by 2 cross harrowings and planking. The field must be thoroughly levelled to avoid water logging in the season. In high rainfall areas and in regions with shallow water table, modified land configurations of ridge and furrow and broad bed and furrow system are preferable to normal flat sowing. These methods help in ease of drainage.

Varieties There are 3 types of varieties in groundnut as detailed below.

Bunch types have light green foliage, comparatively broad leaflets and mature easily. However, they are usually susceptible to tikka disease.

Spreading types usually have dark green foliage with smaller leaflets. These are usually late in maturity.

Semi-spreading types: These are intermediate between the bunch and spreading types.

Table 1. Important varieties of groundnut recommended for different states of India

State Varieties

Andhra Pradesh Tirupati-2, Tirupati-3, Tirupati-4, JCG-88, J-11, Vemana, Kadiri-71-1, Kadiri-2, Kadiri-3, Kadiri-4, Kadiri-5, Kadiri-6, TMV-2, Apoorva, Pragathi (RSHy-1), VG 9521, ICGV-86590, ICGV-86325, ICGS-76, ICGS-11, ICG 10, ICG-4, Girnar, Jagital-88

Tamil Nadu ALR-1, ALR-2, ALR-3, BSR-1, Co 1, Co 2, Co 3, Co 4, DSR-1, Vemana, POL-1, POL-2, TMV-1, TMV-2, TMV-3, TMV-4, TMV-6, TMV-7, TMV-8, TMV-9, TMV-10, TMV-11, TMV-12, VRI-1, VRI-2, VRI-3, VRI-4, VRI-5, VRI Gn-6, Apoorva, JL-24, Pragathi, ICGV-86590, KGV-86325, ICGS-76, ICG-10, ICG-4, VRI Gn 5

Gujarat TG 26, Somnath, Phule Pragati, PG-1, LNG-2 (Manjira), JL-24, GAUG-1, GAUG-10, GG-2, GG-5, GG-11, GG-12, GG-20, ICGS-44*, ICGS-37*, Girnar-1, GG-7, GG-6

Maharashtra Phule Pragati (JL-24), Phule Vyas (JL-220), Kopergaon-3, Kopergaon-1, Konkan Gaurav, Karad 4-11, J-11, B-95 (Koyana), Girnar-1, TMV-10, TKG-10-A, TG-26, TG-17*, TG-1 (Vikram), GG-3, TAG-24, TAG-19-A, SB-XT, Pragati, TG-14, ICG-10, UF-70-103, VG 9521, J-9 (E), ICGV-86590, ICGV-86325, ICGS-76, ICGS-44*, ICGS-37*, ICGS-11, AK 12-24, Prakash

Karnataka KRG-1*, DG-40, Dh 3-30, DH-8, TMV-2, S-230, S-206, R-9251, R 8808 (Apoorva), VG 9521, ICGV 86590, ICGS-76, ICGS-11, ICG-10, ICG-4, Girnar 1

Kerala ICGV-86590, ICGV-86325, ICGS-76 Punjab M-522, M-335, M-197, M-145, M-37, M-13, ICGS-1, SG-84,

PG-1, C-501, C-364, Chitra, Amber, GG-14 (JSP-28) Haryana ICGS-1, C-364, Chitra, Amber, GG-14, MH-2, MH-4, MH-1 Bihar & Jharkhand TG-22, BG-1, BG-2, BG-3, Birsa Bold, BAU-13, Chitra,

Prutha (Dj-86)* Uttar Pradesh ICGS-5, T-64, T-28, ICGS-1, BAU-13, C-364, Chandra,

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Chitra (MA-10), Prakash (CSMG-884), Amber, HNG-10, GG-14

Madhya Pradesh Jyoti, JGN-3, TG-6, J 9(E), ICGS-44*, ICGS-37*, ICGS-11, AK 12-24, HNG-10, GG-3

Rajasthan RG-141, RG-144, RS-1, RS-138, PG-1, ICGS-1, AK 12-24, BAU-13, Chitra, Prakash, Amber (CSMG 84-1), HNG-10, GG-7, GG-14

Orissa Smruti (OG-2-1), Pragati, MA-16, Kiran, Jawan, AK 12-24 West Bengal Pragathi, Prutha*

* Rabi/summer season

Seed and Sowing Seed rate and spacing Seed rate depends on type of groundnut grown, season and availability of water for irrigation. In Spanish bunch types that account for 2/3 of the total groundnut acreage, most of pods are formed within a radius of 10 cm from tap root, hence under irrigated as well as rainfed conditions, 10 cm is optimum plant to plant spacing with a row to row distance of 20-30 cm. For this, 100-150 kg/ha seed is required. Spreading valentia types need wider row spacings (50-75 cm), thus less seed will be required (60-70 kg/ha).

Method of Sowing The seeds are sown by placing them behind the furrow opened by plough or using a seed drill. In case of irrigated crop, dibbling seeds on ridges prepared by plough is preferred. In either of the cases, the depth of sowing should be 5-8 cm in light soils and 4-6 cm in other moderately heavy to heavy soils.

Time of sowing It is a predominantly rainfed kharif crop. The sowing of rainfed kharif crop depends on onset of monsoon, and generally sown from June to July. Under irrigated conditions of north, the crop is sown from April-July. For Rabi groundnut in south, raised on residual moisture, the optimum time of sowing is November. As irrigated summer crop, December-January sowing is ideal in the south, whereas for West Bengal, mid-February is optimum. In north-west plains zone, first fortnight of March is optimum for sowing.

Seed treatment: Treat the kernels with thiram or captan 5 g/kg of kernels before sowing so as to check seed and soil-borne fungal diseases. Seed treatment with Trichoderma harzianum at 4 g/kg of seed and soil application of castor-cake have given fairly good control of alfa rot, collar rot and stem rot diseases. Sometimes rodents and crows are noticed to take away the seeds from the field, therefore, use of some repellants like pinetar and kerosene for seed treatment are recommended to keep the intruders away. However care should be taken to avoid any injury to the kernels. Seed should be inoculated with proper strain of Rhizobium culture, particularly in those fields, where groundnut is to be raised for the first time.

Manures and Fertilizers Groundnut is a heavy feeder of soil nutrients. Application of FYM @ 6 (rainfed) to 12 t/ha (irrigated) has been recommended. FYM application besides supplying nutrients, reduces soil crusting/compaction and enhances water holding capacity under rainfed conditions.

In general, groundnut is fertilized with 20-60-40 (rainfed) and 40-100-40 kg/ha of N-P2O5-K2O (irrigated conditions), all applied as basal. Seed inoculation with effective Rhizobium strain is necessary besides a starter dose of N. Among P fertilizer sources, single superphosphate is ideal as it contains two other essential nutrients required by groundnut i.e. calcium (19.5%) and sulphur (12.5%). However, gypsum (containing 29.2% Ca and 18.6% S)

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application @ 250-500 kg/ha by band placement 30 days after sowing is recommended to meet Ca and S needs of crop. Among micronutrients, deficiency of zinc (in sandy and sandy loam soils), iron (in vertisols of Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra) and boron (in Tamil Nadu) are encountered by groundnut crop. In such soils, soil application of 25 kg ZnSO4/ha and 12.5 kg FeSO4/ha at sowing and foliar spray of 0.1% borax at peak vegetative-flowering stage has been recommended for better crop performance. Water Management Groundnut is predominantly a rainfed crop with only 17.6% of its total acreage under irrigation in 2000-01. This irrigated area is mainly in rabi and summer seasons mainly. The critical stages of irrigation in groundnut are flower initiation, pod initiation and pod formation. The moisture stress during these phases under rainfed conditions owing to prolonged drought spells in monsoon drastically alters the country’s production. A supplemental irrigation at pod formation stage results in successful rainfed groundnut cultivation. Under irrigated conditions, besides a pre-sowing irrigation, supplemental irrigation should be given at critical stages based on rainfall distribution. In rabi and summer seasons, 3-4 irrigations are required. The last irrigation should be given prior to harvesting so that entire pods from soil can be recovered. Though flooding is a common method of irrigation, but in light soils and water limiting regions, sprinkler irrigation is found suitable for water economy and higher productivity.

Weed Management Weeds cause enormous yield losses (30-70%) in groundnut owing to its slow initial growth and short stature. The yield losses are more in bunch than spreading types. For effective control of weeds and to keep the soil loose for pegging, 2 hoeings or weedings are essential. The crop is given first hoeing at 20-25 days after sowing (DAS) and the subsequent at 40 DAS. No weeding or hoeing should be done at pegging stage as it is detrimental to pegging and pod development. Earthing up should be done simultaneously with hoeings which facilitates penetration of pegs. The herbicides used for weed control include fluchloralin @ 1.0-1.5 kg/ha (pre-plant incorporation), pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha, nitrofen @ 1.0-2.0 kg/ha and alachlor @ 1.0-2.0 kg/ha (pre-emergence). Integration of these herbicides with one hand weeding at 40 DAS is effective to herbicides alone.

Use of Hormones Groundnut usually suffers from 2 drawbacks – the first is that the crop being non-determinate keeps on flowering and production of pegs simultaneously until maturity, and the second is that the pods start germinating once after reaching physiological maturity. As a result more than 50% of plant energy is lost in producing non-effective pods and germination of effective pods, if there is a rain or irrigation. Thus both the conditions lead to very poor yield and quality of the produce. Application of MH (maleic hydrazide) near maturity results in inducing dormancy in the pods for about 20-30 days, which checks the germination of matured pods even if they get water. Application of NAA in the form of planofix or vardhak at the time of flowering has been found to reduce excess vegetative growth and flowering period, ultimately resulting in more of effective pods/plant, test weight and yield/unit area. The most ideal time for hormone application is 40 and 80 days after sowing and the best concentration is 20 ppm.

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In Punjab, sequential spray of 2 growth regulators viz. indole acetic acid (IAA) and ethrel has been found to increase the yield, particularly of variety M 13. IAA @ 1.5 g/ha should first be dissolved in small quantity of alcohol/sprit (10-12.5 ml) and then mixed in 250 litres of water and spray on the crop 40- days after sowing. This spray should be followed by another spray of ethrel (40%) @ 15 ml in 250 litres of water/ha, 7-10 days after IAA spray. These sprays may increase the yield by 15-25%.

Cropping Systems Groundnut is grown in rotation with wheat, gram, pea, barley etc. It is grown as mixed crop with maize, pearl millet, castor, sorghum and cotton. Groundnut can also be followed by safflower, where early varieties are raised and moisture remains in the soil at the time of harvest.

Mixed cropping Groundnut+sorghum (3:1) Groundnut+pigeonpea (3:1)

Groundnut+castor (3:1) Groundnut+soybean (1:1)

Intensive crop rotations of groundnut Maize (summer season)-groundnut-gram or sarson

Groundnut-onion or garlic Mungbean-groundnut-wheat

Maize-groundnut-pea Lobia-groundnut-wheat

Groundnut-wheat-mungbean/urdbean Groundnut-wheat

Harvesting and Threshing The harvesting of groundnut depends upon the type of variety grown. Usually groundnut crop takes 120-140 days to mature, and the harvesting is done in October-November. In case of bunch types, the plants are harvested by pulling, whereas in spreading types, harvesting is done by spade, country plough or groundnut lifters. The harvested crop is left in small heaps for 2-3 days for curing. After curing collect the crop at one place and detach the pods either by hand or using groundnut plucker for separating the pods form the plants.

Yield By adopting improved technology, it is possible to obtain about 1.5-2.0 tonnes of pods/ha from bunch types and 2.0-3.0 tonnes/ha from spreading type varieties. The shelling percentage is 70%, whereas oil to nuts in shell is 28%, oil to kernels crushed is 40% and cake to kernels crushed is 60%. The yield attributes (range) of groundnut is as below.

Attribute Value

Pods/plant 5-12

Seeds/pod 1.1-1.5

1,000 seed weight (g) 200-240

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