introduction to cognitive theory -...

Cognitive Construct Instructional Theories 1

Cognitive Construct Instructional Theories

Piaget, Bruner, Ausebel

Melek Erdoğan *

Kıvanç Semiz**

*Ms Student at Curriculum & Instruction

**Ms Student at Physical Education & Sports

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for EDS 544

Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu

March 26, 2010

TABLE of CONTENTS

PART I........................................................................................................................................................3

INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE THEORY.........................................................................................3

Comparison of Cognitivism and Behaviorism.........................................................................................6

PART II.......................................................................................................................................................7

PIONEERS OF COGNITIVIST THEORY.................................................................................................7

JEAN PIAGET....................................................................................................................................7

Basic Tendencies in Thinking..................................................................................................................8

Four Stages of Cognitive Development.................................................................................................10

Meanings of Keywords..........................................................................................................................11

Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Teachers........................................................................................13

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory....................................................................................................14

JEROME BRUNER..........................................................................................................................15

Biography..............................................................................................................................................15

Theory of Instruction.............................................................................................................................15

Theory of Cognitive Growth.................................................................................................................16

Discovery Learning...............................................................................................................................17

Spiral Curriculum..................................................................................................................................18

DAVID AUSUBEL...........................................................................................................................19

Biography..............................................................................................................................................19

Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.................................................................................................19

Expository Teaching..............................................................................................................................20

Advanced Organizers............................................................................................................................21

Bruner vs. Ausubel................................................................................................................................21

References.............................................................................................................................................22


PART I*

INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE THEORY

In the late 1950s, learning theory began to make a shift away from the use of behavioral

models to an approach that relied on learning theories and models from the cognitive sciences.

Psychologists and educators began to de-emphasize observable behavior and underlined instead

more complex cognitive processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept

formation and information processing. This shift from a behavioral orientation to a cognitive

orientation created a similar shift from procedures for using the materials to be presented by an

instructional system to procedures for directing student processing and interaction with the

instructional design system.

How does learning occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mantal structures.

Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the

issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is

conserned not so much with what learners do, in fact what they know and how they come to

acquare it. Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding

and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning

process.

Which factors influence learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in

facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations and illustrative examples are

considered to be supportive in guiding student. Cognitive theories assert that environmental

*Part I is summarized from the article “Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism”, written by Ertmer, P. A. & Newby, T. J. (1993).

“cues” and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that result from an

instructional situation. In addition, key elements include the way that learners attend to code,

transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and

values are also influence the learning process.

What is the role of memory?

Memory has an obvious role in the learning process. Learning occurs when information is

stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way. Teachers are responsible for assisting

learners in organizing that information in some optimal way. Forgetting is the ability to retrieve

information from memory because of interference, memory loss, or missing of inadequate cues

needed to access information.

How does transfer occur?

Information is stored in memory in an organized manner. That is, the rules, concepts and

knowledge of procedural steps are organized into a schema. When that information can be

applied by the learner in different scenarios and contexts, then transfer has occurred. Transfer is

a function how information is stored in memory. If a learner understands how to apply

knowledge in different conditions, then transfer occurs.

What types of learning are best explained by this theory?

Cognitive theories are considered more appropriate for explaining complex forms of

learning like reasoning, problem solving, information processing. The actual goal of instruction

is to communicate or transfer knowledge to the students in the most efficient, effective manner

possible. Behaviorists focus on the design of the environment to optimize that transfer, while

cognitivists stress efficient processing strategies.


What basic assumptions / principles of this theory are relevant to instructional

design?

Cognitivists make use of feedback (knowledge of results) to guide and support mental

connections. They look at the learner to determine his/her tendency to learning like “How does

the learner activate, maintain, and direct his/her learning?” They examine the learner to

determine how to design instruction so that it can be readily assimilated like “What are the

learner’s existing mental structures?”

According to cognitivism theory specific assumptions or principles that have a

connection with instructional design are in the following.

Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process

Use of hierarchical analysis to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships

Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate

optimal processing

Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make

connections with previously learned material.

How should instruction be structured?

Cognitive theory emphasizes making knowledge meaningful and helping learners

organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in memory. Instruction must be based

on student’s existing mental structures or shema, to be effective. It should organize information

in such a manner that learners are able to connect new information with existing knowledge in

some meaningful way. Anologies, metaphors, framing, outlining, mnemonics, comcept mapping,

advance organizers are some type of the cognitive strategies that can be used for instruction.

Comparison of Cognitivism and Behaviorism

Behaviorism Cognitivism

Learning means the changes in the form or

frequency of observable performance.

Learning means discrete changes between

states of knowledge.

Memory is not of great concern. More than

that, habit formation is the focus.

Memory is the primary concern. The way

information is processed and stored in memory is

important.

Transfer is the result of generalization.

Situations involving identical or similar

features allow behaviors to transfer across

common elements.

Transfer is a function of how information is

stored in the memory. When a learner

understands how to apply knowledge in

different contexts, transfer has occurred.

Reinforcement strengthens responses. Reinforcement is a means of feedback, or

information about what is likely to happen if

behaviors are repeated.

People are seen as blank slates [tabula rasa]

and passive receivers being influenced by

events in the environment.

People are active learners. They initiate

experiences, seek out information to solve

problems, reorganize what they already know

to achieve new insights.

The instructor/designer should arrange

environmental conditions so that students can

make correct responses and receive

The instructor/designer should arrange

practice and feedback so that new


reinforcement information is assimilated or accommodated

Experimental studies were based on animal

research in labs. They found general rules of

learning to apply to all beings.

Studies were on wide range of learning

situations. They did not try to find general

rules of learning as studies were on individual

and developmental differences in cognition.

PART II

PIONEERS OF COGNITIVIST THEORY

JEAN PIAGET

During the past half century, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget devised a model describing

how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information.

According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to

maturity because constantly strive to make sense of the world. How do we do this?

Piaget identified four factors that interact to influence changes in thinking. These are

biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration. First three factors are

explained in the following paragraphs and the last is explained in the next session.

One of the most important influences on the way we make sense of the world is

maturation. The main contribution of maturation to cognitive development is in neurological

growth (the growth of brain tissue) and the development of the endocrine system (Wadsworth,

1971).

Activity is another influence. With physical maturation, the increasing ability comes to

act on the environment and learn from it. When a young child’s coordination is reasonably

developed, for example, the child may discover principles about balance by experimenting with a

seesaw. Thus, as we act on the environment such as as we explore, test, observe, and eventually

organize information, we are likely to alter our thinking processes at the same time (Woolfolk,

2000).

According to Piaget, our cognitive development is influenced by social transmissions, or

learning from others. As we develop, we are also interacting with the people around us. The

events that take place in a class are most frequently the interaction of students with other students

and their teachers. There is also the interaction with parents and others in the environment. All of

these are important in cognitive development (Wadsworth, 1971).

Basic Tendencies in Thinking

As a result of his early research in biology, Piaget concluded that all species inherit two

basic tendencies. The first one is organization, the combining, arranging, recombining, and

rearranging of behaviors and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward

adaptation, or adjusting to the environment (Bybee & Sund, 1990).

Organization: People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into

psychological structures. These psychological structures are our systems for understanding and

interacting with the world. Piaget gave a special name to these structures; schemes. In his theory,

schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or

thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world.

As a person’s thinking processes become more organized and new schemes develop, behavior

also becomes more sophisticated and better suited to the environment (Bybee & Sund, 1990).


Adaptation: In addition to the tendency to organize their psychological structures,

people also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are involved

in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation: Assimilation takes place when people use their existing schemes to

make sense of events in their world. Assimilation involves trying to understand something new

by fitting it into what we already know; we may have to distort the new information to make it

fit. For example, the first time many children see a skunk they call it a “cat”. They try to match

the new experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals (Gorman, 1972).

Accommodation: If assimilation were the only cognitive process, there would be

no intellectual growth because an organism would simply go on assimilating its experiences

into its existing cognitive structure. However, accommodation provides a mechanism for

intellectual growth. It is the process by which the cognitive structure is modified (Gorman,

1972).

Every experience a person has involves both assimilation and accommodation. Events for

which the person has corresponding schemata are readily assimilated, but events for which the

person has no existing schemata necessitate accommodation. Thus, all experiences involve two

equally important processes; recognition or knowing, which corresponds to the process of

assimilation; and accommodation which results in the modification of the cognitive structure.

Such modification can be equated with learning and leads intellectual development (Hergenhann

& Olson, 2005).

Equilibration: According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be

seen as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place

through the process of equilibration; the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that

people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance.

In short, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an

event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce

a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us

to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation (Labinowicz, 1980).

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Keywords Characteristics

Sensorimotor

0 – 2 years

Object permanence

Goal directed actions

Begins to make use of imitation, memory, and thought

Begins to recognize that objects do not cease to exist

when they are hidden.

Moves from reflex actions to goal directed activity.

Preoperational

2 – 7 years

Semiotic function

Reversible thinking

Conservation

Decentering

Egocentric

Collective monologue

Gradually develops use of language and ability to think

in symbolic form.

Able to think operations through logically in one

direction.

Has difficulties seeing another person’s point of view.

Concrete

operational

Identity Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problems in logical


7 – 11 years Compensation

Reversibility

Classification

Seriation

fashion.

Understands laws of conservation and is able to

classify and seriate.

Understands reversibility.

Formal

operational

11 – adult

Hypothetico-Deductive

Resoning

Adolescent Egocentrism

Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion.

Becomes more specific in thinking.

Develops concerns about social issues, identity.

Woolfolk, A. E. (2000). Educational Psychology.

Meanings of Keywords

Sensorimotor: Involving the senses and motor activity.

Object permanence: The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence.

Goal directed actions: Deliberate actions toward a goal.

Operations: Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally

performing the actions.

Preoperational: The stage before a child masters logical mental operations.

Semiotic function: The ability to use symbols – language, pictures, signs, or gestures – to

represent actions or objects mentally.

Reversible thinking: Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning.

Conservation: Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes

in appearance.

Decentering: Focusing on more than one aspect at a time.

Egocentric: Assuming that others experience the world way you do.

Collective monologue: Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really

interact or communicate.

Concrete Operations: Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations.

Identity: Principle that a person or object remains the same over time.

Compensation: The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in onother.

Reversibility: A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations – the ability to think through a

series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to starting point; also called reversible

thinking.

Classification: grouping objects into categories.

Seriation: Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or

volume.

Formal Operations: Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of

variables.

Hypothetico-Deductive Resoning: A formal – operations problem solving strategy in which an

individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and

systematically evaluates specific solutions.


Adolescent Egocentrism: Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and

concerns.

Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Teachers

Understanding Students’ Thinking

The students in any class will vary in their level of cognitive development and in their

academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble

because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because solve the problems that you

presented. What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation?

Are they fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and

forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem.

Listen to their strategies. The students are the best sources of information about their own

thinking abilities (Bybee & Sund, 1990).

Matching Strategies to Abilities

An important implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is what Hunt (1961) years ago

called 1the problem of the match”. According to him, disequilibrium must be kept “just right” to

encourage growth. Setting up situations that lead to errors can help create an appropriate level of

equilibrium. When students experience some conflict between what they think should happen

and what actually happens, they may rethink the situation, and new knowledge may develop. It is

possible for students to be introduced to atopic together, then work individually on follow-up

activities matched to their level (Bybee & Sund, 1990).

Constructing knowledge

Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding;

learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, you will also want to

see that students are actively engaged in the learning process. They must be able to incorporate

the information you present into their own schemes. To do this, they must act on the information

in some way. As a general rule, students should act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or

write about what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for

thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their

thinking abilities (Bybee & Sund, 1990).

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory

The Trouble with Stages

Some psychologists have questioned the existence of four separate stages of thinking.

One problem with the stage model is the lack of consistency in children’s thinking. Psychologists

reason that if there are separate stages, and if the child’s thinking at each stage is based on a

particular set of operations, then once the child has mastered the operations, he/she should be

somewhat consistent in solving all problems requiring those operations (Herhenhann, & Olson,

2005).

Underestimating Children’s Abilities

According to many researches preschool children know much more about the concept of

number than Piaget thougt. When preschoolers work with three or four objects, they can tell that

the number remains the same, even if the objects are spread far apart or clumped close together.

Infants are more competent than Piaget thought. We may be born with a greater store of

cognitive tools than Piaget suggested (Herhenhann, & Olson, 2005).


Cognitive Development and Culture

One final criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it overlooks the important effects of the

child’s cultural and social group. For example; when individuals from the Kpelle people of

Africa were asked to sort 20 objects, they created groups that make sense to them – a hoe with

potato, a knife with an orange. The experimenter could not get the Kpelle to change their

categories; they said this is how a wise man would do it (Herhenhann, & Olson, 2005).

JEROME BRUNER

Biography

Bruner, one of the best known and influential psychologists of the twentieth century, was

born in New York (1915). He educated at Duke University and Harvard from which he received

a PhD in 1947. He works as a Professor of psychology at Harvard (1952-72) and then as Watts

Professor at Oxford (1972-80) and now at the New York University School of Law.

Theory of Instruction

According to Bruner (1966), a theory of instruction should include four main features:

1. A theory of instruction should specify the experiences which most effectively implant in

the individual a predisposition toward learning. Teacher should design an instruction that

arouse curiosity for learning the subject.

2. A theory of instruction must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be

structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Any subject matter can be

presented in a basic form that any learner can understand it in a recognizable form.

3. A theory of instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to present

the materials to be learned. Sequencing should be from enactive (hands-on, concrete), to

iconic (visual), and at the end symbolic.

4. A theory of instruction should specify the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments

in the process of learning and teaching. Reinforcements such as teachers’ praise effects

extrinsic motivation. Besides, when a problem solved, it effects intrinsic motivation.

Theory of Cognitive Growth

Bruner claims that people represent knowledge in three ways, which emerge in a

developmental sequence (Schunk, 2008):

1. Enactive Mode (action-based)

Enactive represantation involves motor responses or ways to manipulate the

environment. Actions such as riding bicycle or eating by the help of spoon are

represented largely in muscular actions. Learning by doing is most effective at this

stage.

2. Iconic Mode (image-based)

Iconic represantation refers to action-free mental images. Children acquire the

capability to think objects that are not physically present. For instance, a child can

draw a picture of a house without seeing it.

3. Symbolic Mode (language-based)

Symbolic represantation uses symbol systems to encode knowledge. Such systems

allow one to understand abstract concepts. Children can communicate with language

or mathematical notation.


Discovery Learning

Discovery is a form of problem solving, it is not simply letting students do what they

want. In other word, discovery is learning through personel experiences. Learning become more

meaningful when students explore their learning environment rather than listen passively to

teachers.

Bruner claims that learning is most meaningful to learners when they have the

opportunity to discover relationships among concepts on their own. Providing learners the

opportunity to make discoveries had four important benefits (Hohn, 1995, pp. 187-188 ) :

It increases intellectual potency, or the learners ability to construct and organize what is

encountered, to learn how to go about the very task of learning.

It facilitates a shift from extrinsic to instrinsic rewards. Bruner suggests that discovery

learning is rewarding in itself and that it contributes to a sense of competence in the

learner.

It contributes to the learninjg of certain heuristics, or generalized strategies that will allow

the learner to continue learning well beyond the classroom.

It allows the conversation of memory, in that information learned by discovery will be

remembered longer.

Bruner advocated a hypothetical mode of instruction, where students are free to form and

test their hyphotheses. Such kind of instruction contributes to an inquiring attitude toward

learning in which students not only discover new relationships, but also recognize that not all

ideas are perfectly correct or well developed. Becoming aware that knowledge is ever-changing

and that learning must therefore be continual is also acquired through a hypothetical mode.

Learning should therefore proceed inductively, from the specific to the general, following the

steps a scientist might take in formulating hypotheses and laws.

Proponents claims that there are many advantages of this theory like:

encourages active engagement

promotes motivation

promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence

the development of creativity and problem solving skills.

a tailored learning experience

However, some critics cited disadvantages like:

creation of cognitive overload

potential misconceptions

teachers may fail to detect problems and misconception

Spiral Curriculum

Spiral curriculum is defined as allowing students to revisit a subject matter's content at

the different levels of development of the subject matter being studied. Bruner asserts that for

transfering the thinking processes from one context to another, children needs to learn the basic

principles of subjects rather than just master facts. He advocated learning through enquiry, with

the teacher providing guidance to accelerate children’s thinking, and recommended that the early

teaching of any subject should emphasise grasping basic ideas intuitively. After that, he believed,

the curriculum should revisit these basic ideas, repeatedly building upon them until the pupil

understands them fully.


DAVID AUSUBEL

Biography

Ausubel ,born in New York (1918), is an American Psychologist and the follower of Jean

Piaget. In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time to his psychiatric practice. He

retired from professional life in 1994 to devote himself full time, at the age of 75, to writing and

passed away on July 9, 2008.

Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning

The other name of this theory is “subsumtion”. During meaningful learning, the person

“subsumes,” or organizes or incorporates, new knowledge into old knowledge. The theory

suggests that our mind has a way to subsume information in a hierarchical or categorical manner

if the new information is linked/incorporated with prior knowledge/familiar patterns. Meaningful

learning refers to the learning of ideas, concepts and principles by relating new information to

knowledge in memory. In contrast to the inductive reasoning used in discovery learning, the

ausubel model advocates deductive reasoning: General ideas taught first, followed by spesific

points. (Schunk, 2008, pp. 284)

David Ausubel describes meaningful learning as the assumption that like knowledge

accumulates in schemas within the brain. It is like arranging files in folders on a computer’s

desktop. The consistency of like knowledge within each schema or folder allows individual parts

to be easily recalled. If someone asked you to recall everything you know about birds, you would

think to your animal schema and then to your bird schema and recall individual items such as

feathers, wings, beaks and maybe worms. When asked to recall information we tend to think of

the whole and then filter down to the parts that contain the desired items. To think of birds you

would probably not think to your electronics schema and then to your computer schema and

recall that web “worms” can be damaging to your PC. (Retrieved March 24, 2010 from

http://teachercandidate.lcsc.edu/~jhuling/Ausubel.html )

Expository Teaching

In Ausubel’s approach to learning, teachers present material in a carefully organized,

sequenced, and finished form. Students receive the most usable material in the most efficient

way in this manner. Before entering into the expository lesson, Ausubel dictates the use of his

most famous contribution to cognitive educational psychology: the Advanced Organizer.

Expository teaching offers the educator the most direct route for laying a foundation for

higher order thinking. Ausubel believes most teachers favor this method of instruction.

Expository teaching is an efficient and effective way of organizing classroom learning. Even

laboratory sciences--which lend themselves to the discovery method--can be taught as well by

using the expository method. Though expository teaching has been criticized as being

authoritarian, such criticism is unjustified. Ausubel claims that "There is nothing inherently

authoritarian in presenting or explaining ideas to others as long as they are not obliged, either

explicitly or implicitly, to accept them on faith" . Teachers have an obligation to share their

understanding with their students. To cast out the teacher's understanding because it might

impose some structure on the students' thinking is an idea too foolish to require refutation.

"Didactic exposition has always constituted the core of any pedagogic system, and, I suspect,"

adds Ausubel , "always will, because it is the only feasible and efficient method of transmitting

large bodies of knowledge" .

http://teachercandidate.lcsc.edu/~jhuling/Ausubel.html


Advanced Organizers

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers. The

strategy basically means to classify/categorize/arrange (organize) information as you proceed

(advance) to the next complex level. Therefore, learning is based on the superordinate,

representational, and combinatorial processes which occur during the presentation of

information.

Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the student's schemas

and the material to be learned. To foster this association, Ausubel suggests that the lesson always

begin with an advanced organizer like below :

Bruner vs. Ausubel

Both Bruner and Ausubel emphassized the interaction of the individual’s organized

learning structures with stimuli in performing cognitive tasks such as solving problems. In that

respect, both positions have much in common with Piaget’s constructivist view of cognitive

development (Hohn, 1995, pp.189).

Comparing the two theories, in the instruction of Bruner’s theory, students are more

involved and more active than in the Ausubel’s expository learning. Besides, teacher behaves

like a guide, instead of giving information directly. Hence, the instruction type, which Bruner

suggests, takes more time than the Ausubel’s. Also, Bruner advocates that the inductive

reasoning like from spesific information to general laws, on the other hand, in Ausubel’s theory,

the deductive reasoning is eligible as from general information to spesific ones.


References

Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Bybee, R. W., & Sund, R. B. (1990). Piaget for Educators. Waveland Press, Inc.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement

Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-70.

Herhenhann, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (2005). An Introduction to theories of learning. Pearson

Education, Inc.

Hohn, R. L. (1995). Classroom Learning & Teaching. New York: Longman Publishers.

Gorman, R. M. (1972). Discovering Piaget: A Guide for Teachers. Bell & Howell Company.

Kinnes, T. (2007). Jerome Bruner. Retrieved March 23, 2010 from http://oaks.nvg.org/jerome-

bruner.html.

Kristinsdóttir, S. B. (2001). Jerome Bruner. Retrieved March 23, 2010 from

http://starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/jbruner.htm_3.htm

Labinowicz E. (1980). The Piaget Primer Thinking Learning Teaching. Addison Wesley

Publishing Company.

Schunk, D. (2008). Learning Theories: An Educational Perpective. (5th ed.). New Jersey:

Pearson Prentice Hall

Senemoğlu, N. (2004). Gelişim ve Öğrenme : Kuramdan Uygulamaya (9th ed.). Ankara : Gazi

Kitabevi.

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http://oaks.nvg.org/jerome-bruner.html

http://oaks.nvg.org/jerome-bruner.html

Smith, M.K. (2002) 'Jerome S. Bruner and the process of education', the encyclopedia of

informal education. Retrieved March 23, 201, from

http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm

Wadsworth, B. J. (1971). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. David McKay Company,

Inc.

Woolfolk, A. E. (2000). Educational Psychology. Needhan Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

http://www.coe.ufl.edu/webtech/GreatIdeas/pages/peoplepage/ausabel.htm

http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html

http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html

http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html

http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html

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