invited literature review: the abuse of children in public care

The Abuse ofChildren in PublicCareViewed in its entirety, the literature on the abuse of childrenin public care could be said to have three marked features.The ®rst of these is its diversity. Although the amount ofresearch in this area is still quite modest, it is notable for thebroad array of issues which have been addressed. Having saidthis, it must be acknowledged that a second feature of theliterature has been its concentration upon sexual abuse,which probably re¯ects the predominance of this form ofmaltreatment among reported cases. The third characteristicof the literature is that much of it has been produced withinapproximately the last 10 yearsÐa period which equateswith the emergence of widespread concern over this subject.In an attempt to re¯ect the composition of the literature, thisreview is characterized by the same three features. However,the review does at times go outside these con®nes in order togive some sense of the full scope of relevant literature.Within these areas there are at least four major themes inresearch on the abuse of children in public care: the extentand nature of abuse; investigation and prevention.

The Extent of Abuse

The most signi®cant source of data on the extent of abuse tochildren in public care derives from research based uponcases known to agencies. One such study is that byRind¯eisch and Rabb (1984) of children living in residentialinstitutions. They found that there were 31 reportedallegations of abuse for every 1000 children. Nunno (1992)obtained a considerably higher annual ®gure for all lookedafter children of 158 reports per 1000 children. Studiestherefore suggest that, for certain groups of children at least,prevalence may be relatively high.Reporting and substantiation rates have also been dis-

cussed in the context of prevalence. In the study byRind¯eisch and Rabb (1984), one in ®ve allegations werereported to an investigative agency. Of the reported casesfeaturing in Nunno's (1992) research, one-third were `sub-stantiated' and two-thirds unsubstantiated. Other works

Child Abuse Review Vol. 8: 357±365 (1999)

CCC 0952±9136/99/060357±09. $17.50Copyright *c 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

InvitedLiteratureReview

Bernard GallagherCentre for Applied Childhood Studies,University of Hudders®eld

`Prevalence may

be relatively high'

have dealt with variations in prevalence between di�erentareas (McFadden and Ryan, 1992); the abuse of children inpublic care as a proportion of all child sexual abuse (CSA)reports (Finkelhor, Williams and Burns, 1988; Booth andHorowitz, 1992); and the comparative risk between institu-tions and the community (Nunno and Motz, 1988).A second source of information on the extent of

institutional abuse is statistics produced by agencies involvedin child protection. Greater Manchester Police, for example,is one of a number of police forces which publishes annual®gures concerning the work of its child protection teams. In1994, its child protection o�cers investigated 60 cases of`institutional abuse' involving persons such as social workersand foster parents (Greater Manchester Police, 1995). Thiswas a 26% increase on the previous year and a 55% increaseon the year before that. If these ®gures were representative ofthe country overall, then British police would be dealing withapproximately 1200 such allegations per annum. The 60allegations accounted for 4% of all child protectioninvestigations.

The Nature of Cases

In terms of the nature of cases, the literature has focusedupon three areas: victim characteristics; abuser character-istics; and the modus operandi of abusers. In terms of victims,a number of studies have shown that risk varies according tothe characteristics of both the child and the institution.McFadden and Ryan (1992), for example, found that thegroup most at risk of being sexually abused in foster homeswere girls and older children. The mean age of victims was13.8 years and 83% were female. Westcott and Clement(1992) suggest that whereas boys may be most at risk inresidential schools, girls may be at greatest risk in children'shomes.Variations in risk may be explained in part by the targeting

behaviour of abusers. An abuser may target particularchildren either out of `sexual preference' or from a beliefthat they are more susceptible to abuse and less likely todisclose it. Some of the characteristics which have beenidenti®ed as placing children at heightened risk includeprevious experience of abuse (Jones, 1994); physical or socialisolation (Sloan, 1988); and special needs (Westcott andClement, 1992).Another area about which much has been written concerns

the nature of children's experiences within institutions. The

`British police

would be

dealing with

approximately

1200 allegations

per annum'

358 Gallagher

Copyright *c 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Child Abuse Review Vol. 8: 357±365 (1999)

literature has reported that some victims, in addition to beingsexually assaulted, have been subject to physical violence andemotional abuse (Booth and Horowitz, 1992).Although these abusers share some characteristics with

CSA perpetrators in general, such as the overwhelmingmajority being male, the literature suggests that there mightalso be important di�erences. In her study of abuse indaycare, Faller (1988) found that many perpetrators were`paedophiles' in that they had àctively sought situations thata�ord them the opportunity to sexually abuse', rather thanbeing the more òpportunistic' regressed o�ender, whoseprimary sexual orientation was towards adults. Work under-taken for the Department of Health supports the view thatmuch of this abuse is carefully planned (Rowlands, 1995,personal communication).There is less certainty about other abuser characteristics.

For example, some case studies have attested to the strongpersonality of these abusers (Sloan, 1988). By contrast, astudy of ®les held by the Department of Health foundthat while some perpetrators were àuthoritarian' or `charis-matic' (characteristics which they used to facilitate, andconceal, the abuse), others were judged to be `quiet',ùnassuming' or ìnadequate' (Rowlands, 1995, personalcommunication).A good deal has been learnt, in outline at least, as to how

some perpetrators facilitate their abuse of children. In manycases, abusers have not only targeted particular groups ofchildren but have also used quite sophisticated èntrapment'techniques. The term èntrapment'Ðused in preference tothe more euphemistic and therefore less suitable term`grooming'Ðinvolves the use of an array of material, illicitand emotional ìnducements' to draw children into abusivesituations and increases their di�culty in disclosing(Gallagher, 1998).The literature has also shown that a signi®cant amount of

this abuse is òrganized'. Finkelhor et al. (1988) found that17% of cases of sexual abuse in daycare involved `multipleperpetrators'. This overlap between institutional and orga-nized abuse has also been reported in the United Kingdom(White and Hart, 1995; Gallagher, Hughes and Parker,1996).Some of the knowledge concerning the behaviour of

abusers is quite detailed. Brannan, Jones and Murch (1993),for example, explain how an abuser in a residential specialschool set up a hierarchy among the victims, with a `top dog'at the apex, as a means of exerting greater control overchildren.

`Much of this

abuse is carefully

planned'

Ìllicit and

emotional

ìnducements'

increase their

di�culty in

disclosing'

Literature Review 359


Investigation

The literature has shown that there may be major di�erencesin investigating abuse in institutions compared to othersettings, such as families (Groze, 1990). This is due not onlyto the scale of investigations but also to a series of otherspecial challenges they give rise to. In terms of scale, scores ifnot hundreds of children may be drawn into an inquiry;many suspects may have to be arrested and interviewed; anda variety of agencies from a number of di�erent areas may beinvolved in the investigation. Though exceptional, it is worthnoting that the investigations of abuse in children's homes inCheshire and Merseyside produced 13 563 witnesses, 885complainants and 162 suspects (Merseyside Police, CheshireConstabulary, The City of Liverpool Social Services Direct-orate and Cheshire County Council Social Services, 1999).One of the major challenges an investigation will face is

ensuring that the (legitimate) interests of all these groups aremet (Barter, 1998). A particular risk, especially in large-scaleinvestigations, is that the interests of children are forgotten inthe welter of competing demands (Kelleher, 1987). Indeed,if not handled properly, an investigation may be quiteabusive to children (Clayden, 1992).From the child's perspective, an important contribution

from the literature has been to highlight inappropriateresponses from sta� in institutions and agency workers toconcerns or allegations of abuse. A number of studies havefound that sta� may ignore evidence of abuse, includingdisclosures by children (Dawson, 1983; Graham and Vann,1992). Where cases have involved children with specialneeds, there have been delays in reporting allegations (Boothand Horowitz, 1992). In some instances, sta�Ðespeciallythose in senior positionsÐmay cover up abuse, either to`protect the reputation' of the institution or to disguisefailings in their own practice (Gallagher, 1998).Following on from this, investigations may be beset with

problems. For example, sta� may be reluctant to cooperatewith an investigation or may try actively to thwart it (Nunno,1992). Police and social services may themselves encountermajor di�culties in working together, particularly if theallegations involve an employee from one of these agencies(White and Hart, 1995).

Prevention

The area about which, perhaps, most has been written isprevention. The literature has identi®ed at least three areas in

`A particular risk

is that the interests

of children are

forgotten in the

welter of

competing

demands'

360 Gallagher


which preventative e�orts should be concentrated: children,sta� and organizational practice.

Children

A number of authors have argued that some preventionmeasures should be targeted directly at children. Based uponhis study of Castle Hill special school, Jones (1994) statedthat the risk of abuse in residential institutions could bereduced by raising children's self-esteem, increasing theircontact with the community and placing them nearer theirhome town.Others have suggested that e�orts to prevent abuse should

focus upon perpetrators, and in particular attempts to stopthem gaining employment in children's institutions. Rossand Grenier (1990) have underlined the importance ofproper vetting of sta�. Smallridge (1992) has taken up thispoint and suggested that vetting procedures for residentialsta� should be as rigorous as those currently applied toprospective foster parents but with the addition of psycho-logical testing. Boyle and Leadbetter (1998) have underlinedthe importance of ongoing supervision and monitoring ofsta� as ways of preventing abuse.

Sta�

It has been recommended that conditions be created where-by sta� are more willing and able to report concerns they mayhave. This should begin with sta� being made aware, duringthe course of their induction, of the possibility of CSA ininstitutional settings (Utting, 1991). While the duty to reportshould be covered in basic training, it is essential that it isalso seen as a part of ongoing responsibilities (Hunt, 1994).Reports on abuse in Leicestershire children's homes revealthat sta�, like the children they are responsible for, may workunder very oppressive conditions, where challenging acolleague, especially if he or she is in a more senior position,is extremely di�cult (Clayden, 1992; Ogden, 1993). Thecorollary of this is that abuse will be prevented by manage-ment styles which are open and egalitarian, rather than oneswhich are closed and autocratic.

Operational Issues

Several studies have highlighted the ease with whichperpetrators have been able to abuse children and avoiddetection. They have gone on to argue that if this situation isto be altered, then consideration needs to be given to the way

`Conditions be

created whereby

sta� are more

willing and able to

report concerns'



in which institutions function and operate. Utting (1991)advised that no child should have an exclusive relationshipwith a member of sta�. Others have suggested that thereshould be rules on physical contact between children andsta�, and that buildings should be designed to permitadequate supervision of all those in an institution (Hunt,1994). McFadden (1989) has called for greater monitoring offoster parents so indications of abuse are picked up sooner.Improved coordination and communication between

agencies has been put forward as an additional means ofpreventing abuse. There should, for example, be adequateliaison between social service and education departments inthe same area; neighbouring authorities should ensure theyhave a good understanding of one another's practice; andadequate checks must be carried out with previous employ-ers prior to appointing sta� to work in institutions (Brannanet al., 1993; Kirkwood, 1993).Several writers have maintained that abuse, and its

prevention, is dependent upon factors more fundamentalthan those associated with the personality or behaviour ofindividuals, be they children, abusers or sta� members.Contemporary concerns over institutional abuse are predatedby work over several decades regarding the abuse of adultsand children in psychiatric hospitals (Go�man, 1961;Martin, 1984). According to these arguments, institutionstend to evolve an ethos or culture in which the needs andrights of `users' are increasingly disregarded. Under suchregimes, abuse eventually becomes legitimized and normal-ized. More recent writers have suggested that institutionalchild abuse can be explained by the same processes(Wardhaugh and Wilding, 1993).In a similar vein, it has been asserted that some abuse,

especially that in children's homes, can be explained by thelong-term and extensive neglect of institutions by the state inparticular and society in general (Utting, 1991; Westcott,1991). This lack of concern has manifested itself in a varietyof ways, such as minimal policy or practice guidance; lack ofresources; sta� who are inadequate for the work by dint oftheir quali®cations, experience or personal skills; andinadequate recruitment, training and supervision of sta�(Gallagher, 1999).

Conclusion

The literature has highlighted the abuse of children in publiccare but has also identi®ed more e�ective ways of responding

`Some abuse can

be explained by the

long-term and

extensive neglect

of institutions'

362 Gallagher


to this phenomenon. The Utting review concluded that thesafety of children living away from home was signi®cantlyimproved (Utting, 1997). While the literature conveys somepositive messages then, it has to be remembered that otherreports, such as those by the Social Services Inspectorate(1998) and the Health Select Committee (1998), point toongoing problems in the protection of children in publiccare. If the abuse of these children is to be prevented, thenthere is no room for complacency. Rather, this issue mustalways be under the spotlight of not only policy and practice,but also research (Gallagher, 1999).

References

Barter, C. (1998). Investigating Institutional Abuse. London:NSPCC.

Booth, S.M. and Horowitz, A. (1992). Child abuse in care settings.Paper presented at the Ninth International Congress on ChildAbuse and Neglect, Chicago

Boyle, M. and Leadbetter, M. (1998). Enough is Enough. London:Specialist Recruitment Services.

Brannan, C., Jones, J.R. and Murch, J.D. (1993). Castle HillReportÐPractice Guide. Shrewsbury: Shropshire CountyCouncil.

Clayden, M. (1992). The aftermath of betrayal. Community Care,October 15.

Dawson, R. (1983). The Abuse of Children in Foster Care:Summary Report. Ontario: Ontario Family and Children'sServices of Oxford County.

Faller, K.C. (1988). The spectrum of sexual abuse in daycare: anexploratory study. Journal of Family Violence, 3, 283±298.

Finkelhor, D., Williams, L. and Burns, N. (1988). Nursery Crimes:A Study of Sexual Abuse in Daycare. Newbury Park: Sage.

Gallagher, B. (1998). Grappling with Smoke: Investigating andManaging Organised AbuseÐA Good Practice Guide.London: NSPCC.

Gallagher, B. (1999). Institutional abuse. In N. Parton and C.Wattam (Eds), Child Sexual Abuse: Responding to theExperiences of Children. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 197±210.

Gallagher, B., Hughes, B. and Parker, H. (1996). The nature andextent of known cases of organised child sexual abuse inEngland and Wales. In P. Bibby (Ed.), Organised Abuse: TheCurrent Debate. Aldershot: Arena, pp. 215±230.

Go�man, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation ofMental Patients and Other Inmates. Middlesex: Penguin.

Graham, D. and Vann, G. (1992). Survey of abuse of children inresidential care. Paper presented at NSPCC Conference on theInstitutional Abuse of Children, London

Greater Manchester Police (1995). Family Support Section VA 3/7. Departmental Child Abuse Statistics, 1994. Manchester:Greater Manchester Police.

`Ongoing

problems in the

protection of

children in public

care'



Groze, V. (1990). An exploratory study into institutional maltreat-ment. Children and Youth Services Review, 12, 229±241.

Health Select Committee (1998). Children Looked After by LocalAuthorities. London: House of Commons.

Hunt, P. (1994). Report of the Independent Inquiry into MultipleAbuse in Nursery Classes in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Newcastle:City Council of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Jones, J.R. (1994). Organised/multiple abuse within institutions:a causal analysis highlighting issues of prevention anddetection utilizing perspectives from victims of the CastleHill regime. MA dissertation, The University of Birmingham

Kelleher, M.E. (1987). Investigating institutional abuse: a postsubstantiation model. Child Welfare, 66, 343±351.

Kirkwood, A. (1993). The Leicestershire Inquiry 1992. The Reportof the Inquiry into Aspects of the Management of Children'sHomes in Leicestershire between 1973 and 1986. Leicester:Leicestershire County Council.

McFadden, E.J. (1989). The sexually abused child in specializedfoster care. In J. Hudson and B. Galoway (Eds), SpecialistFoster Family Care. New York: Haworth Press.

McFadden, E.J. and Ryan, P. (1992). Preventing abuse in familyfoster care: principles for practice. Paper presented at theNinth International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect,Chicago

Martin, J.P. (1984). Hospitals in Trouble. Oxford: Blackwood.Merseyside Police, Cheshire Constabulary, The City of LiverpoolSocial Services Directorate and Cheshire County CouncilSocial Services (1999). You Told Me You Loved Me. Liverpool:Liverpool City Council.

Nunno, M.A. (1992). Factors contributing to abuse and neglect inout-of-home settings. Paper presented at NSPCC Conferenceon the Institutional Abuse of Children, London

Nunno, M.A. and Motz, J.K. (1988). The development of ane�ective response to the abuse of children in out-of-homecare. Child Abuse and Neglect, 12, 521±528.

Ogden, J. (1993). School for scandal. Social Work Today,January 14.

Rind¯eisch, N. and Rabb, J. (1984). Dilemmas in planning for theprotection of children and youths in residential facilities. ChildWelfare, 63, 205±215.

Ross, A.L. and Grenier, G.L. (1990). Moving beyond the evilempire of institutional abuseÐmay the organisational forcebe with you! Journal of Youth and Child Care, 4, 23±24.

Sloan, J. (1988). Institutional abuse. Child Abuse Review, 2, 7±8.Smallridge, P. (1992). Protecting children within institutions.Paper presented at NSPCC Conference on the InstitutionalAbuse of Children, London

Social Services Inspectorate (1998). Someone Else's Children:Inspection of Planning and Decision-Making for ChildrenLooked After and the Safety of Children Looked After. London:Department of Health.

Utting, W. (1991). Children in the Public Care: A Review ofResidential Care. London: Her Majesty's Stationery O�ce.

364 Gallagher


Utting, W. (1997). People Like Us. The Report of the Review of theSafeguards for Children Living Away From Home. London: TheStationery O�ce.

Wardhaugh, J. and Wilding, P. (1993). Towards an explanation ofthe corruption of care. Critical Social Police, 37, 1, 4±31.

Westcott, H.L. (1991). Institutional Abuse of Children: FromResearch to PolicyÐA Review. London: NSPCC.

Westcott, H.L. and Clement, M. (1992). NSPCC Experience ofChild Abuse in Residential Care and Educational Placements:Results of a Survey. Draft Summary Report. London: NSPCC.

White, I.A. and Hart, K. (1995). Report of the Inquiry into theManagement of Child Care in the London Borough of Islington.London: London Borough of Islington.

Call For Papers

ISPCAN 13th International Congress On Child Abuseand Neglect

3±6 September 2000Durban, South Africa

The theme of the Congress is `Implementing the United Nations Convention on the Rights ofthe Child: Myth or Reality'. Oral or Poster Papers would be welcome on the following topics:Prevention and Protection, Children and Violence, War and Refugees, Children and HIV/Aids, Child Labour and Sex Exploitation, Children and Poverty, Legal Issues and LawEnforcement, Culture and Children's Rights, O�enderManagement and Treatment, MedicalIssues.

Abstracts should provide a title, authors and a�liation with content not more than 250 wordsfor Oral Presentations (20 minutes) or Poster Presentations. These should be sent to the SouthAfrican Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect by email `[email protected]' or fax 2731 3129 441 by 29 February 2000. For further information pleasewrite to SASPCAN, Private Bag X37, Greyville, 4023, Durban, South Africa.



invited literature review: the abuse of children in public care

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