A STUDY OF SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN INDIA

\AySi Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of

PETER ODERA

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (INDIA)

1 9 9 2

DS2336

In memory of my Mother

Jennifer Claris A. AJuoga

She was a constant source of inspiration to the family members. She left behind a legacy of love and compassion worthy

of emulation. Her towering personality left a deep and

everlasting impression on those who knew her.

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH INDIA.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Peter Odera worked under my

supervision for h is M.Phil , dissertation entitled "A Study of Social

Difficulties of Foreign Students in India".

Mr. Odera has been engaged in full time study for the

required period as prescribed In the Ordinances of the

University. He has fulfilled the requirements of attendance in the

department and residence in Aligarh as laid down by the Academic

Council.

I recommend that Mr. Odera 's dissertation may be sent

for evaluation for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Psychology.

ALIGARH

DATED : SJ&I-I^^ PROF. QAMAR HASAN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I do not find adequate words to express my gratitude

to my parents for what I am. I must gratefully acknowledge the

financial assistance, tender consideration, encouragement and best

wishes I continuously received from my affectionate father.

Let me take this chance to express my sincere thanks

to my highly esteem.ed supervisor Prof. Qamar Hasan whose guiding

abi l i ty , atti tude, encouraging remarks, painstaking and wholehearted

co-operation at every phase of my research project made it

practically possible for me to complete my dissertation successfully.

I am thankful to Chairperson, Prof. (Mrs.) Hamida Ahmad

and Prof. Afzal Kureshi, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim

University for their inspirations and assistance during my research

work.

The University Grant Commission (UGC) must go on record

especially for the financial support towards this piece of research

work.

I am most grateful to my brother David Ajuoga for his

initiative thought, efforts and financial aspects involved that enabled

me to come to India for further studies. Thanks to my brothers

John Ajuoga and Noah Ajuoga for their continuous best wishes and

constructive advice that inspired confidence in me. I am also

indebted to Dottie Owino and Bettie Tambo for their inspirations

that boosted my morale.

- 1 1 -

Thanks to madam Naima Khatoon for her sympathy and

encouragement when my supervisor was at Jamia Millia Islamia.

I should not forget to move vote of thanks to my colleagues; Anlsa,

Intekhab, Mrs. Irfana Asif, Irfan, Meena, Naved, Neelu, Rehana,

Sabuh and Shah Alam for their sincere co-operation and encouraging

remarks.

Special thanks to my friends and compatriots; Daniel

Keboga, Daniel Wanye, George Nuthu, Ondieki Manono, among others ,

for their encouraging remarks.

I am extremely thankful to my dearest friend Judith Atieno

Adero for her encouragement, emotional support and wholehearted

co-operation throughout my research work.

I am indebted to foreign students of Aligarh Muslim

University, Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia and Panjab

University for their co-operation and participation in attending to

the questionnaire during my field work for data collection.

Thanks to Ashfaque T.A. Programming, C.C.A.E. I must

register my hearty thanks to Kafeel Ahmad Khan who assisted me

to type out this manuscript and Sultan-uz-Zafar who bound the same.

Aligarh

Dated : 2 G . i'. i^^3 ( pETER ODERA )

CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgements 1-11

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

II

IV

Introduction

Review of L i t e ra tu re

III Research Methodology

Resul ts and Discussion

Conclusion

01-16

17-58

59-67

68-113

114-118

References 119-124

Appendix I Original Pool of Items 125-135

Appendix II Lis t of Items Selected For Factor Scales 136-140

:{c :ic sic 4 ijciicijc :{i lie «ic # ijcijoic

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Perhaps the contemporary transnational movements of students

and scholars bear the imprint of ancient times. People of different

cultures came in contact due to different reasons. The interaction

among people who belong to different cultures and ethnic groups of

the same nation or of different nations has been for certain concrete

purposes such as trade and commerce, to teach, learn, conquer,

convert, for amusement or enjoyment etc. Whatever i ts purpose may

be, the interaction provided the opportunity to members of one

culture to know about other cultures. The ancient gatherings of

pupils around their masters, the role played by missionaries to

impart knowledge and the eventual establishment of educational centers

in European countries brought together people across cultural

boundaries, added training to learning and awarded scholarships.

Sojourners who come from one land to another can be

divided into ten major categories: foreign students, scholars,

teachers; technical personnels, touris ts , business persons, defence

personnels, multinational corporation workers; bilingal group members,

field workers. Peace Corps and immigrants.

The traditional of overseas studies is as old as recorded

his tory . For instance during the reign of the Emperor Ashoka the

Great of India (273-232 B.C.) , the University of Taxila became famous

international institution for students from Asia Minor. Chinese Tang

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Dynasty (620-907) encouraged international education and Alexander

the Great provided scholarship to students from abroad.

However, the great moveirent of students and scholars across

cultural boundaries started after the end of second World War, but

it is very evident that the phenomenon is not new and so are the

socio-psychological problems associated with i t . New forces have

come into play and old forces have had an added impact as national

interests and multinational corporations' incentives have cast foreign

students in a new role . In 1980s, to study abroad was no longer

regarded as only an individual 's scholarly pursuit , it is also an

instrument of national reconstruction in the case of developing

countries; diplomacy, accumulation of goodwill and clout in the case

of technologically and economically advanced natioons.

Contemporary Universities are institutions of higher learning

at which not only overseas students converge and mingle up with

students of the host country, but also native students of a particular

country who desire to gain knowledge may hail from different cultural

or ethnic groups. The latter category of the students would no doubt

feel foreign in their own country if they joined Universities located

in a different cultural zone. They may share some of the problems

of living in an alien culture with foreign students. The native students

who come from different states to Aligarh Muslim University

(A.M.U.), India, to acquire knowledge may encounter the demand of

cultural readjustment, for instance, (i) Bihari students are habitual

of putting on ' lungi ' at the place of residence but th is type of at t i re

is not approved by the norms of A.M.U. This poses personal

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problems to the students concerned who have no alternative but to

comply with the Univeresity 's fashion of putting on "Kurta Pa jama"

only within hostel premises, ( i i) students from Tamil Nadu and Kerala

States are fond of walking bare footed but this habit is contrary

to the Universi ty 's traditions which do not even allow a pair of

s l ippers to be worn outside hostel premises. ( i i i ) Punjabi students

are good consumers of liquor which is not appreciated by

predominantly Muslim Students Community of A.M.U. Quite a good

number of students from Hindu belts may not be habitual of taking

beef and mutton while these are the staple food in the University

canteen and other food stal ls around the campus. Such students may

feel frustrated in the hostels where beef is often prepared or

consumed by their Muslim and Christian colleagues (Odera, 1990).

The above mentioned examples of the problems faced by

students from different parts of the country that go for studies to

a University located in a different cultural zone underscore the

gravity and the variet ies of problems which foreign students have

to face and overcome to accomplish their main purpose of arr ival

in an alien country. Overseas students come from their native lands

for the sake of studies i . e . "to acquire knowledge". Apart from this

main stated purpose, there are other purposes that motivate overseas

students to come over, namely; to get better opportunities for jobs

at home, receive University degrees, improvement in status,

opportunities for friendship and social life in India, recreational

facilities in India, political instabili ty in the country of origin,

future suitable marriage, to emulate illustrious family members, last

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but by no means the least , to develop healthy personality.

To a great extent the performance and realization of the

above purposes may be greatly influenced by situational factors when

individual student functions in an alien culture with completely

unfamiliar role expectations and conflicting verbal and non-verbal

cues. Keeping xenophobic isolation aside there is more practical

consideration that is significant and real decrease in trust of foreign

students v i s -a -v is local students, general citizens, social agents and

institutions of the host country.

Many problems faced by foreign students are contingent upon

their expectations, the factors involved in making a choice of the

country and the institution where studies are to be pursued, e.g.

(1) the quality or prestigious status of a University chosen by

students may not be known. A University may be chosen due to i ts

"sweet" name or because relat ives were alumni of the same.

Moreover, embassy officials of the country students anticipate to go

to may provide inadequate informations because the officials may not

only be acquinted with a few Universities but also may not be aware

of the latest classifications or requirements of particular Universities

abroad. Therefore, the students may end up choosing/joining a low

status University whose degree may not be recognized when they go

back home, (i i) a great anxiety is instilled in the students due to

long period of waiting for relevant informations or intimation letter

needed for student v isa , (i i i) to get the visa may generate mental

agony. The officials concerned may descent to give it until some

prerequisite are fulfilled by the students. Among other things.

- 5 -

the lat ter may be required to show intimation let ter , health

certificate, affidavit of the sponsor, (iv) evidence of abil i ty to

incur expenditure on overseas studies must be proved by the

students, (v) there is always a mixture of emotional feelings of going

abroad and leaving one's folks at home regardless of the country

one intends to go to. Such feelings may disintegrate personality of

the students, (vi) one may experience jet-lag in initial stages (for

weeks perhaps months) after reaching overseas. The difference in

time between the country of origin and the host country manifests

itself. The local time of the host country s tar ts to dictate terms to

the "fresher". The students may feel disoriented, puzzled and

homesick when meals are taken at different times compared with

country of origin. Jet-lag may also cause insomnia due to difference

in time of going to bed or waking up . Finally, the problems of

adjustment to an alien culture are added to the problems of

adjustment to curriculums (Odera, 1990).

Although it was expected that the contacts between different

people would be instrumental in the establishment of positive

relations among them, the available data shows that the attitude

of a person belonging to a given culture towards a person belonging

to another culture depends upon the context of the contact. Amir

(1969) reviewed the studies of inter-group contacts and reported that

a set of factors determines the outcome of culture contacts for the

inter-group relations. These factors are : eouality of status between

members of different groups coming into contact with each other,

intimacy and rewarding nature of relations, development of common

goals and existence of favourable social climate for inter-group

- 6 -

contacts. In order to achieve harmony, the contacts must be made

under favourable conditions and not under unfavourable conditions,

which are likely to result in tension, hosti l i ty or prejudice. In

fact, contact with other cultures is not likely to bring harmony

without careful planning.

Irrespective of the contact situation being positive or

negative, the initial contact of a person arriving in a new culture

setting is described as "culture shock". The term culture shock was

initially introduced by Oberg (1960) to denote the dis t ress

experienced by the sojourner in a new culture as a result of losing

all the familiar cues of social interaction. These cues may include;

how to shake hands, what to say when certain people are met, how

to make purchases, when to accept or refuse invitations, when to

give orders , when to take statements seriously and when not to;

excessive preoccupation with cleanliness of one's drinking water,

food and surroundings, great concern over minor pains, feeling of

hopelessness, strong desire to associate with people from one's own

country and a fixed idea that people take advantage of or cheat

one. These cues may be communicated by words, gestures, facial

expressions and customs that are acquired by all people in the course

of infant socialization. If the sojourners do not understand behaviour

patterns of members of the receiving country then they may face

frustrations of various intensities.

Small degree of anxiety is always a normal reaction by

strangers to a new group or culture but victims of culture shock also

- 7 -

experience a decline in inventiveness, spontaniety and flexibility

to the extent that it interferes with their normal behaviours (Heiss

and Nash, 1967). Having experienced culture shock before does not

prevent culture shock in future, even then it provides sojourners

with some insights into why they feel as they do in a novel culture.

In the view of initial culture shock, the newly arrived

persons have to undergo the gradual period of adaptation which is

reported to assume the shape of a U-curve; an initial period of

eagerness and fascination, a middle period of self assurance and

feeling of competence to deal with the demands of the new culture.

Fumham and Bochner (1982) who reviewed the li terature on the

process of culture adaptation and the outcome of culture contact have

suggested that the extent and duration of what is described to be

culture shock depends on the following factors :

(i) Cultural differences,

(ii) Individual differences,

(i i i) Sojourn experience.

Smalley (1963) proposed four stages of culture shock

formation that appears as combination of the culture shock notion

with the U-curve of adjustment hypothesis . The four phases are

as follows :

(i) Fascination with the new culture.

(ii) Hostility and fascination with the new culture, with possible

feelings that original culture is superior,

( i i i) Improvement and adjustment to the new culture.

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fiv) Biculturalism where the sojourner develops a full

understanding of the host cultures.

When the experience of an individual in an alien culture

was described in terms of culture shock, anxiety and maladjustment,

it was natural for psychologists to adopt distinct clinical flavour

in their professional advice to sojourners and the organizations giving

foreign assignment. One of the major research efforts came about

due to problems encountered by the Peace Corps movement in the

1960s. Quite a number of young American volunteer workers went

abroad to teach and provide medical, technical and welfare assistance

to the less fortunate peoples of other countries. The volunteers were

trained to adopt a life style similar to that of the native peoples

among whom they were expected to work. Many of these young

volunteers found the experience bewildering and quite a few

succumbed and had to be repatr iated. When these problems were

realized the Peace Corps asked for professional advice and many

psychologists with a clinical background became involved in research

and therapy (Guthrie, 1975; Guthrie and Zektick, 1967; Harris,

1973). This programme marked the first major attempt to prepare

people for work and study in other cultures.

Similar need arose in the private sectors with the increase

in multinational trade during the post-war reconstruction period. The

staff encountered difficulties to cope up with unfamiliar social and

business practices (Skinner, 1968; Triandis, 1967). Applied social

psychologists responded by devising various cross-cultural training

and orientation programmes of which a very good example are the

- 9 -

culture assimilators produced at the University of Illinois (Fiedler,

Mitchell and Triandis, 1971; Fao and Chemers, 1967; Triandis, 1975).

Sojourners who experience difficulties are considered to

have suffered a break down in their normal healthy psychological

functioning and require therapy and counselling. Many clinically

oriented psychologists have extended and applied traditional psycho­

therapeutic models and techniques to problems connected with

adjustment to an alien culture.

However, Bochner (1981) proposed a contrary view. This

view states that the major task that faces sojourner is not to adjust

to a new culture, but to learn i ts salient character is t ics . He pointed

out that if the sojourner was to work effectively in a new setting

and lead a relatively stress free and fulfilling life the person must

acquire the social ski l ls of the host culture. The following are the

consequences due to adopting a culture learning model of the cross-

cultural sojourn:

(i) F'ailures and problems experienced by the sojourners need

not to be regarded as symptoms of some underlying

pathology but rather due to lack of the necessary cultural

ski l ls and knowledge. The remedial measures should

involve imparting appropriate knowledge and sk i l l s . This

may be attained by using standard training methods v i z . ,

modelling, role-playing, video-feedback and homework.

(ii) "Adjusting" a person to a culture has connotations of

cultural chauvinism. This implies that the new comers

-10-

should abandon the culture of origin in favour of embracing

the values and customs of the host society. On the other

hand learning a second culture has no such ethnocentric

overtones. There are numerous examples in life when it

becomes necessary to learn a practice even if one does

not approve of it and then later abandon the custom when

circumstances have changed. For instance, Americans will

find that they have to stand much closer to an Arab during

interaction in the Middle East than they would with fellow

Americans at home. An English gentleman in Japan will learn

to push and shove his way onto the Tokyo subway, but

resumes his normal queuing practice after returning home.

The act a t t racts notice only when the appropriate ski l l

is not available or is used in an inappropriate

circumstances.

However, when sojourners lack certain vital ski l l s and

knowledge, they may be thought as selectively ignorant and in need

of education and training, particularly in relation to everyday social

encounters with members of the host culture, at homes, in market­

places, factories, offices and playing fields of the receiving society.

The contemporary social ski l l s model was developed and

used primarily in connection with the problem of intracultural social

inadequacy. The model accounts for the social incompetence of the

cross-cultural sojourner. The model was developed at Oxford

University for work within English society. It includes

cross-cultural social inadequacy. Argyle and Kendon (1967) pointed

- 1 1 -

out that interpersonal difficulties occur when organised and skilled

performance break down, falters or cannot be successfully initiated

in the first place. The model has implicit in it several reasons for,

and explanations of, unsatisfactory interpersonal encounters, for

instance:

(i) The individual 's goal may be inappropriate or unattainable

in the given situation.

(ii) The individual may fail to perceive or attend to some of

the messages and behaviours being emitted by the other

person.

(i i l) Some of the other person's behaviour and messages may

be misinterpreted or given the wrong attribution (Jones,

1976).

(iv) The individual m^y not know how to respond adequately

or make responses which in the circumstances are judged

as Inappropriate or inadequate by the other person.

Socially inadequate persons are people who have failed

to learn a wide range of interpersonal ski l ls due to poor child-parent

and poor group relationships and because of other forms of social

and physical deprivations. Such people are incompetent in certain

verbal signals; they are not masters of the social conventions of

the society at large and may also be unaware of many of the rules

of social behaviour pertaining to their own particular subgroups.

They are just like strangers in their own land and culture. Some

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of the specific behaviours which the socially incompetent persons

perform unsatisfactorily are : expressing at t i tudes, feelings and

emotions; adopting the appropriate postures; understanding the gaze

patterns of the people they interact with; carrying out ritualized

routines such as greetings, leave taking, self-disclosure, making or

refusing requests and asserting themselves. Ordinary everyday happe­

nings such as attending par t ies , making contact with a member of

opposite sex, ordering meals, travelling, shopping, using bathroom

which hi therto presented no problems suddenly become major hurdles

to them.

The social ski l l s model has clear implications for the

imderstanding and management of cross-cultural incompetence. It is

essential to identify specific social situations which trouble

particular sojourner, thereafter the specific training in those ski l ls

that are lacking may be given. (Argyle, 1979) gave seven social

ski l ls which are capable of being developed in socially incompetent

individuals. They are as follows :

(i) Perceptive sk i l l s : co-ordinating verbal and non-verbal

behaviour, encouraging the speaker and giving appropriate

feedback.

(ii) Expressive sk i l l s : speaking loudly and clearly with the

appropriate emotional tone in the voice.

( i i i ) Conversation sk i l l s : appropriate time, speaker exchanges,

topics and self-disclosure.

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(iv) Assertiveness : Standing up for one's own rights without

aggression or undue pass ivi ty .

(v) Emotional expression : the expression of a full range of

appropriate emotions in various situations.

(vi) Anxiety management : coping with social anxiety during

moments of s t ress , such as in decision-making.

(vii) Aff i l lat ive sk i l l s : being able to express feelings of

warmth, affection and sexuality where appropriate .

Like other sojourners, foreign students too face difficulties

in the area of social life in host countries. The social difficulties

are considered as some of the essential variables that influence

the students ' adjustment to their new culture. Obviously, quite a

number of studies have been conducted by educationists, psychologists

and sociologists to show a direct consequence of an alien culture

on foreign students in Western Europe, America and a few Asian

countries. Most of these studies have revealed that there exists

definite negative interpersonal relationships between the students and

nationals of the host countries. The students become conscious

about selves as well as about numerous discrepancies between the

country of origin and the receiving country when they reach overseas

for thei r studies. Consequently, such consciousness may inflict a

sense of frustration-inferiority complex or superiority complex

depending on the country of origin and general social attitudes of

the people of the host country.

-14-

By and large, successful social adjustment to an alien

culture involves social insight which may be defined as an

individual 's abili ty to see things through the eyes of others and

to see oneself as others do. Successful adjustment to a socially

accepted manner in an alien culture will depend solely on the ski l ls

provided during training besides one's insight. ' These are very

important components, especially to foreign students who come to

India for further studies.

The tension and emotional strains which foreign students

are subjected to in India may be so great for some students that

they may produce serious personality distortions. It has been noted

that foreign students become anxious regarding problems of courtship,

marriage, religions, family affairs at home, curriculum and teaching

programmes, socio-psychological relations, health and physical

developments, vocational futures, financial and climatical conditions,

finally, communication sk i l l s . Seriousness of these social problems

to some students will depend upon how strongly the derive is and

how drastically the conditions interfere with satisfaction of the

students' aspirations, needs and goals. Such social difficulties make

the principle of adjustment to become a vague term as a solution

to the students' problems. Therefore, psychological approach to

identify specific problems faced by foreign students in a social set

up like India is the most appropriate step to be taken to eliminate

if not to solve the students ' difficulties.

Psychological approach provides social ski l l s model through

organized orientation course, training or counselling that may prove

-15-

to be vital to the guest students who lack skil ls to improve

relationships with people from different cultural backgrounds.

Culture establishes boundaries, protect people from their enemies,

keep others out and sometimes keep others in. Therefore,

counsellors and advisers to foreign students should acquaint

themselves with specific and general knowledge about foreign

students and the host society before orientation programme is given.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the present study is to device an instrument

to measure difficulties faced by foreign students in India. Such an

instrument is needed for conducting a comprehensive study of the

factors involved in the outcome of interaction between alien students

and the host nationals.

The sorted out factors would enable qualified persons in

guidance and counselling to develop social sk i l l s model ideal for

constructive and nonstressful interaction between foreign students and

members of the host country. Further more, the model should be

aimed at providing both general and specific training sk i l l s . The

general ski l ls programme may induce self-awareness of the students '

own prejudices and basic values which would help them to develop

greater understanding and empathy to interact effectively with the

natives, but it does not imply that students high in self-awareness

will interact with members of the receiving culture more effectively

than those low in self-awareness.

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The specific training would be used to provide knowledge

in relation to specific problems most likely to be encountered by

foreign students in India. Moreover, identification of reasonable

training goals subjected to study may be modified or eliminated if

necessary.

Although measures of difficulties experienced by foreign

students in Western countries are available, the measures of

difficulties experienced by foreign students in India is to be devised

because the difficulties are specific to the level of socio-economic

development, cultural, social, and the living conditions specific to

the host country.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Events of the twentieth century have made the world to

appear very small due to vast interaction among peoples from

different cultural backgrounds, societies, nations and socio-economic

status. The movement of sojourners in the contemporary world is

motivated by varieties of coexisting and sometimes competing national

Institutional incentives and individual goals. Though travelling

abroad has been facilitated by the availabili ty of facilities of

modem international communication, many problems st i l l face

prospective sojourners in the receiving society. The difference in

motivation for moving out, inclusion of new nations and intermixture

of old cultures have combined to create entirely unique and new

situations for sojourners particularly foreign students.

The entire interchange activity is constituted of

inter-instltutlonal exchanges of professors, research workers and

foreign students often arranged on departmental or institutional bas is .

Various programmes such as individual scholarships offered by

international organizations, government agencies, educational

institutions and private foundations are some of the forces behind

international educational interchange and the beginning of massive

multinational and inter-cultural movements that exist today.

Theoretical Framework of the Problem

It is natural that sojourners get disoriented in a new

culture. At every stage of stay, sojourners try to integrate their

-18-

experience in a manner which minimizes conflicts and facilitates

adjustment to their new surroundings. However, adjustment always

involves interaction of an individual with the existing effective

forces in the new environment. From this point of view, personality

development may be conceived as a continuous process of adjustment

to a changing world. A well-adjusted person sizes up the whole

situation and evaluates i t s component relations and integration so

that he will be able to react to the situation after due consideration

of all relevant facts and circumstances.

Bochner (1986) focused on the importance of culture

learning. He reported that coping with unfamiliar cultures has been

regarded as a matter of adjusting the "culture t ravel lers" to their

new cultures. He rejected the adjustment model on the ground that

exposure to a second culture is essentially a learning process. It

is suggested that culture learning formulation: (i) avoids implications

of relat ive culture superiori ty, assimilation and culture erosion

inherent in the concept of adjustment, (ii) has specific implications

for the design, implementation and evaluation of culture training

programmes. The distinction between adjustment and culture learning

has theoretical, socio-political and practical consequences for the

development of multicultural societies.

A number of cross-cultural training programmes have been

deviced and carried out to help people to live happily in an alien

culture. A comprehensive review of cross-cultural training methods

has recently been given by Brislin and Pedersen (1976). The model

-19-

explicit ly considers both specific and general ski l l s imparted through

orientation programmes to those who opt to leave their country of

origin for a new country or those who find themselves in an alien

culture. Cross-cultural orientation programmes explain five major

areas of competency:

(i) It provides issues in cross-cultural orientation and

adjustment. Besides, it provides familiarity with questions

asked by persons to be involved within another culture.

(ii) It provides description of the target audiences which gains

from increased cross-cultural orientation, demonstrating that

cross-cultural training is appropriate for a wider range

of population.

( i i i) It provides a review of models to prepare and orient

sojourners for cross-cultural involvement.

(iv) It provides knowledge of how to evaluate programmes of

cross-cultural orientation to determine whether sojourners

will accomplish their stated goals or not.

(v) It provides a series of suggestions how to design and

implement a programme of cross-cultural orientation

appropriate to one's particular needs.

Spector (1969) gave a list of goals of special programme

for the Troop-Community Relations Programme in Korea. The military

has more access to resources for research training goals than most

other sectors of the American society. It provides guidelines for

-20-

training programmes related to sojourners in general. These are

as follows :

(i) To develop positive attitude towards the host nationals.

(ii) To develop an understanding of the fundamental similarit ies

among human beings.

( i i i) To develop habi ts of how to deal with each host national

on individual basis rather than a stereotyped level.

(iv) To provide the sojourners with a way of observing,

analyzing and integrating cross-cultural phenomena which

permit one to deal independently and realist ically with

the situations and problems that may be encountered while

staying in the receiving society.

(v) To prepare sojourners to stand culture shock.

(vl) To develop the responsibili ty in each person for the

improvement of relationships with host nationals.

(vii) To reinforce training through group facilitation and support

so as to develop within each individual a sense of group

involvement.

(vi i i j To impart specific information about host-nationals'

att i tudes, customs and the l ike .

Many workers (Guthrie, 1975; Eachus, 1968; Wedge et a l . ,

1988; Bass, 1969; Triandis, 1975) gave a substantial set of goals

- 2 1 -

which are desirable for cross-cultural trailning programmes :

(i) To improve awareness of customs and interpersonal sk i l l s .

(ii) To aid the students in developing basic communication ski l ls

by teaching key phrases in foreign languages and techniques

for speaking through interpreters .

( i i i) To impart knowledge about foreign culture complete with

ski l ls and know-how needed to get along satisfactorily in

the culture.

(iv) To impart sensitivity to others, reducing prejudice and

inducing respect , even towards those foreign cultural values

and practices that make l i t t le sense to the person.

(v) To induce enthusiasm for the job among those individuals

coming from different cultures.

(vi) To provide opportunities to maintain ski l l s during periods

of absence from other cultures.

(vii) Above all to emphasize honesty in relations with others.

It is apparent from the foregoing points that the

techniques and social ski l ls acquired by sojourners during training

must be deviced to transfer the favourable behaviours learned to

real world. This brings us to what has been referred to as "Lena

Horne-Harry Belefonte" problem. People sometimes interact with

out-group members as handsome as the entertainers on stage and

-22-

develop liking towards them. But there is no transfer from these

handsome people to average out-group members. On the contrary

a person who intends to go abroad or to any other society should

transfer the learned behaviours to the new society.

The outlines of the training goals given above lead to

precise operational specification of the experiences of a sojourner

in the host society. The labels such as culture shock, culture

fatique, culture strain, role shock or future shock (Oberg, 1960;

Guthrie, 1966; Byrnes, 1966) have been borrowed to describe less

dramatic and perhaps more commonly experienced s t r e s s . Each term

describes the accommodation of an individual to a new and unfamiliar

value system. The terms are loose and tend to refer to hypothetical

intrapsychic events which are not independent and open to objective

verification and yet are often used as explanatory principles

(Bochner, Lin and Mcleod 1980).

Kunkel (1983) identified social problems and suggested

reasons why attempts that have been made to solve or ameliorate

them have failed. These are as follows :

(i) Academic division of labour e .g. between sociologists and

psychologists.

(ii) Multifaceted social problems facilitate basic disagreements

among discipl ines.

( i i i) Most proportions about social problems are ex post facto.

-23-

(iv) Partial or ex post facto theories do not provide a firm

basis for preventing future problems or removing defici ts .

(v) Some social problems have no solutions because they are

aspects of urban-industrial society.

It is urged that the best way out of this situation Is to

recognize the fact that social problems are the problematic act ivi t ies

and deficits of individuals-delinquents, alcoholics, perpetrators and

targets of discrimination. Analysis of social problems should focus

on the behavioural of these global phenomena.

Variables Involved in Contact Situations

The outcome of any contact situations is not determined by

one factor, neither are the factors involved affect independently.

There is an interplay of the factors involved in contact situations.

Variables such as sojourner's contact, social network, phases,

attitude towards the host country and duration of stay may determine

the outcome of contact situations. Let us consider these variables

in deta i l .

The Sojourner's Contact, Social Network, Phases, Attitudes Towards

the Host Country and Duration of Stay

Richardson (1974) asserted that there was difference in the

relationship patterns of satisfied as opposed to dissatisfied British

immigrants in Australia, the dissatisfied migrants were found to be

- 2 4 -

having more compatriot and fewer host national friends. Sulltiz and

Cook (1962) found that sojourners who reported that they had at

least one close friend who was a member of the host country

experienced fewer problems than sojourners with no host culture

friends. Studies have revealed that sojourners found personal,

informal orientation much more effective than institutionally sponsored

assistance in relation to cross-cultural interaction.

Bochner and Orr (1979) reported that sojourning overseas

students tend to belong to three social networks:

(i) A primary, monocultural network consisting of close

friendships with other sojourning compatriots. This

network's main function is to enable sojourners to rehearse

and express their culture of origin.

(ii) A secondary, bicultural network consisting of bonds between

sojourners and significant host nationals such as academics,

landladies, student advisers and government employees.

Its main function is to facilitate the academic and vocational

aspirations of sojourners.

( i i i) A third network is the foreign student 's multicultural circle

of friends and acquaintances. Its main function is to

provide companionship for recreational, non-cultural and

non-task oriented act iv i t ies .

Adelman (1988) described the importance of social support

during cultural adaptation. Overview of social support given by

-25-

close ties (e .g. family and friends) and weak ties (secondary

contacts not linked to the primary network) during pre-departure

and initial entry phases of cross-cultural adjustment is provided.

The importance of social support in non-intimate relations (e .g .

customer-shopkeeper) is stressed and dysfunctional effects of

restrain of support are noted particularly when recipients and

providers are facing similar threatening and uncertain situation.

Conway (1969) postulated a model that depicts a universal

view of foreign students changing levels of self-satisfaction in a

U-curve which extends into a W-curve hypothesis , (Lysgaard, 1955;

Sewel and Davidson, 1961). The hypothesis has been of great

importance in describing cross-cultural adjustment. The hypothesis

was tested on foreign students in America.

The hypothesis is given as follows : when foreign students

arr ive in America there is a novelty effect and the promise of

significant benefit from their education experience that can provide

a high level of satisfaction. They are satisfied to function in the

role of an observer and are often perceived as something of an

interesting novelty by the generally receptive academic community.

These and other factors contribute to a halo or honeymoon effect

during the earlier part of the experience.

As the novelty wears off, areas of conflict appear that place

demands for accommodation on foreign students and they experience

the culture shock of their foreigner role. It is during this second

phase that serious problems ar ise .

-2( i

The process of adjustment begins to alleviate culture shock

in the third phase with more successful adjustment, resulting in

rewards of Increased satisfaction as students begin to realize some

of the earl ier goals of their expectations. Their fluency in English

and familiarity with social roles have increased to facilitate coping

with their stranger/foreigner role .

By about the time students are ready to return home their

level of satisfaction may have been restored. Restored levels of

satisfaction depends on their being successful in attaining their

academic goals. The prospects of being reunited with family and

friends and novelty effect of returning likewise contribute to their

high level of satisfaction. The first four phases are described as

the U-curve of adjustment.

In phase five the students are faced with difficulties of

readjustment and acceptance in their new roles . This phase is all

the more difficult for students who do not expect problems of

adjustment to their home culture and who fail to recognize the ways

in which they have been changed by their foreign experience.

Numerous practical problems of readjustment ar ise just as they did

when they arrived in America. This condition may be described

as the re-entry cr i s i s and it has not only been experienced by

foreign students returning to their home lands but also by Peace

Corps returnees to their home country (Brislin and Van Buren,1974).

If students are able to adjust satisfactori ly, the sixth

phase will provide opportunity for establishing themselves in a

-27-

satisfactory role, provided that such a role is available, making

use of their newly learned ski l l s and enjoying some increased

prest ige.

The seventh phase provides for re-establishing permanent

rewards of acceptance resulting in a high level of satisfaction. Those

who are unable to obtain this level of satisfaction frequently

emigrate permanently to America or some other culture, resulting

in a phenomena of a brain drain from the less developed to the more

developed countries.

Fischman (1986) asserted that the following factors are

involved in immigrant adjustment to life in the US; rural or urban

background, education or ski l l level , communication with family

living in the native land, conditions that spurred relocation, current

socio-economic status and number of children in the US. Adjustment

stages include the delayed realization of being cut off from families

and former way of l i fe . It was established that Immigrants

preferred to use family/social support networks rather than

professional mental health resources for adjustment to an alien

society.

Hertz (1988) studied patterns of migration and focused on

(i) the process of positive adjustment, (il) the nature of nostalgia

and ( i i i ) r isk factors and maladaptation. Three stages of positive

adjustment to migration are identified; pre-immigration, coping and

settlement. It is suggested that the move to a new environment can

be considered a cr i s i s situation because the consequences of such

- 2 8 -

a change are experienced as a localized time related and focused

life event. It was reported that the s t ress following migration can

affect coping mechanisms which then become maladaptive.

Penalosa (1986) reported that the central American

immigrants to the US faced problems related to heal th, employment,

welfare, housing, Interethnlc relations e tc . The most frequent

psychological problem among immigrants involved a sense of loss

and separation that is manifested in depression, anxiety and

confusion. There may be an adverse effect of the contact on young

ones. Children may suffer posttraumatic s t ress disorder (PTSD)

syndrome from having suppressed so much emotion in the struggle

to survive.

Attitude towards the host country bears significant relation

to duration of stay of the sojourner in the receiving society. The

general trend is a U-shaped curve with att i tude being relatively

favourable in 1st and 3rd or 4th years . Ganguly and his doctoral

student (1965) conducted a study on foreign students who were in

fourth year at Aligarh and Delhi Universities^ The findings showed that

all students except Thais had favourable atti tude towards India.

Thai students were the most anti-Indian of the entire foreign students

in the s tudy. All students except one were studying In honours

courses or in other specialized courses, not in the pass or general

courses. It was concluded that the duration of stay and course of

study may be responsible for the favourable attitudes foreign

students developed towards Indians in the 4th year of their s tay .

-29-

In regard to duration of stay and the image of the host

society, It is observed that in the beginning of one's stay in a

foreign country all images are ra ther mixed up and relatively

undifferentiated and determined mostly by overall feeling tone the

perceiver has for the new country. The accummulated problems of

living in a new culture modify these' images, especially in the first

year. They are made more differentiated, more discriminating and

less homogeneous or holist ic in character . Subsequently, when the

problems are solved successfully, there is tendency of the image

of the host country to be modified in a favourable manner. In other

words, the individual 's stereotype is determined by three factors:

(i) the overtone of friendliness, (11) the type of learning, ( i i l)

living problem faced in the new culture and success of the

individual 's coping effort.

Singh (1963) interviewed over 300 Indian students in Britain.

The students were asked about their friends, relations with the

opposite sex, leisure time activi t ies and adjustment. The findings

revealed that nearly half of the sample experienced difficulties that

they had not anticipated. The difficulties are related mainly to

loneliness, homesickness, lack of training in looking after

themselves, food difficulties, and worries about domestic problems

back at home. Nearly half of the students had academic problems

mainly due to language problems more so in expression, the high

standard of British Universities and difficulties in teacher-student

relationships. Academic difficulties were significantly negatively

correlated with adjustment. Adjustment was related to place of

-30-

residence (students had more difficulty at Oxford than provincial

Universit ies), social class (Upper class students were better adjusted

than middle class students), duration of stay (a U-shaped curve

of up to 3 years with high adjustment in the initial and last phases

and comparatively low adjustment in the middle) and social sk i l l s

(there was a positive correlation between social ski l l and

adjustment).

Finally, Singh reported that it may be misleading to

consider Indian students as an undifferentiated group. Their

problems of adjustment to different spheres of life-social, personal

and academic depended on various factors such as social class, age,

personality t ra i t s , level of study, type of University and duration

of stay in Britain. He asserted that it is important to emphasize

this point since most of the previous studies of foreign students

have over looked the differences between them.

Individual Differences : Basic Skills , Personality Traits and

ComiDunicatlon Network

Persons differ in their basic sk i l l s , personality outlook

and communication network. These var iables , among others, affect

sojourners differently in a novel culture.

Eide (1970) gave assumptions about the intrinsic social

value of transferring knowledge across cultural boundaries:

(i) more knowledge will create imaginations in people,

- 3 1 -

subsequently tolerance of other cultures will increase.

( i i) diffusion of knowledge about other cultures will lead to

a more homogeneous world.

( i i i) demonstration of how people from various cultures are

interdependent on one another might create peace.

(iv) learning about others may clarify knowledge of oneself and

may facilitate understanding which is necessary for a plural

society.

(v) the meeting of cultures and of minds is hoped to enhance

the development of all participants in some sort of

progress.

The role of similarity of situations encountered at home

and the country of vis i t was emphasized by Triandis (1971) who called

attention to the Skaggs-Robinson hypothesis and the Osgood transfer

surface which suggest that any new situation that involves the same

stimulus and the same response pattern is least difficult. For

instance, if one knew how to dr ive a car in the country of origin

then i t might be expected that such individual might experience

l i t t le difficulty driving another car in a different country. However,

when both situations and the required response are different then

the individual might be confronted with a simple situation of learning

without having to "un-leam" any previous response. When one is

prompted to behave in a foreign country according to back home

cues then many problems might a r i se . On the other hand, individual

- 3 2 -

In an alien land may be confronted with a much more difficult

situation when the same stimulus as in one's own country of origin

requires different response.

Koot and Venema (1985) evaluated the measurement of ethnic

identity with children from Surinam and Netherlands. The identity

in relation to self image and self concept were noticed in them

The study suggested that more attention should be given to the

subjective dimension such as ethnic identification and the image of

one's own group versus another group. It is further recommended

that ethnic identity may be investigated through observational

methods with special attention to process of group formation, group

dynamics, symbols that express ethnic identity and the factors that

influence identity, e .g . attitudes of peers, teachers, family, inter

alios.

Amir and Ben-Ari (1985) evaluated a cognitive intervention

aimed at improving relations between ethnic groups in general and

between Israelis and Egyptians in particular. One of the two groups

of Israelis was exposed to a booklet about Egypt and the other was

not, later both groups toured Egypt. The findings revealed changes

as a result of the tour itself and additional changes related to the

booklet hence the previous research which indicates that contact

per se as a tool to improve intergroup relations must be strongly

qualified by individual and situational factors was highly

supported.

-33-

Bar-Yosef (1968) referred to disturbance of the immigrant's

role system and the undoing of his socialized adjustment pat terns.

It was reported that as resocialization takes place in the course

of coping with an alien culture some old social learning is shed.

New responses are adopted in situations that would previously have

evoked different ones.

Baker (1988) highlighted the problems of refugees in the

US. He found that the two most significant factors in assimilation

were employment and English language sk i l l . A study in which 28

in-depth interviews were conducted with refugee families from Poland

and Czechoslovakia revealed that cultural similarity was helpful in

assimilation. The most prominent negative factor in assimilation

was unrealistic expectations about the strength of the US economy.

There is a considerable evidence that culture shapes

personality. People differ in their abil i t ies to endure frustration,

conflict and in the type of adjustment mechanism they employ in

an alien environment. The predisposing sources of adjustment are

not independent but interact in complex ways. Thus personality

varies quantitatively in proportion to the various intensities of

s tress and also qualitatively with respect to the particular area

of adjustment. Individuals who have social insight to see things

through the eyes of others and to see one's self as others do face

less problems than those who see things without insight in an alien

culture. Self insight as well as social insight are essential elements

a well adjusted person should possess.

- 3 4 -

Seipel (1988) administered an internal locus of control

(LOG) scale to 77 Korean immigrants to US. Results indicated that

LOG score was positively correlated with status consistency, life

satisfaction and economic satisfaction. Highly internal subjects (Ss)

depicted tendency to improve their environments and were more

likely to evaluate their positions more posi t ively. Ss indicated

ambivalence about public officials' abil i ty to meet immigrants' needs

but a high degree of civic mindedness.

Brein and David (1971) confirmed the importance of emotional

aspects for intercultural adjustment. Persons who experience more

difficulties in an alien culture and fail to cope with the new setting

also tend to be less flexible in their personality character is t ics .

Such individuals tend to depend on intellectual insights of a

rationally ordered existence in defining their a t t i tudes.

Taba (1953) conducted a psychological study on intercultural

adjustment of American University students overseas. Results

revealed that students with rigid personality t ra i t s and definite

preconceptions about culture of their home land are most l ikely to

form atti tudes through emotional reactions rather than intellectual

analysis.

Triandis, Bontempo, Asai et a l . (1988) conducted a study

to explore individualism and collective constructs. The first study

explored the meaning of these constructs within American culture.

The individual differences var iable , idiocentrism versus allocentrism

that corresponds to the constructs were identified. The result

- 35 -

suggested that US individualism is reflected in (i) Self-Reliance with

Competition, (ii) Low concern for In-group, ( i i i ) Distance from

In-group. Further analysis suggests that subordination of In-group

goals to Personal goals may be the most important aspect of the US

individualism. The second study revealed that responses depend

en in-group, the context and the kind of social behaviour. The

third study indicated that allocentric persons perceive that they

receive more and a better quality of social support than do

idiocentric persons. Idiocentric persons reported that they were

lonely than allocentric persons.

Heaven et a l . (1985) interviewed 106 South African Whites

regarding their attitudes towards South Africa (SA) and towards Blacks.

Authoritarian personality and confirmity were measured. 101 South

African Asian Indians also completed the same measures except that

their att i tudes towards Whites ra ther than Blacks were assessed.

Results asserted that attitudes towards South Africa show only a

slight relationship with racism among both samples. This suggests

that the theory underlying ethnocentrism concept of W.G. Summer

(1906) and T.W. Adomo (1950) ( i . e . that thinking well of one's

own group entails looking down on members of other groups) is

essentially false.

Daniel (1985) studied cultural influences on moving or

staying of sojourners and asserted that the way people arrange their

priori t ies influences their decisions to stay in or to move from their

region of origin. In another study, Woon (1986) conducted an

-36-

interview on 20 Vietnamese and 30 Sino-Vietnamese families living

in North America. The data indicated that the individual 's

background and cultural heritage affect one's willingness and abili ty

to adjust to settlement. This cultural baggage along with the

conditions and opportunity structure of Canada produced mind set

and emotional state that affected the Individual 's interaction with

other family members and kin.

Thomas (1986) reviewed the Black experience in the US.

He asserted that members of ethnic minority groups experience

uncontroUability more than members of the majority culture and

therefore exhibit the deficits associated with learned helplessness.

It is further suggested that building on the strengths of an ethnic

minority by using their indigenous l i terature to reduce the

motivational and cognitive deficits associated with learned

helplessness can make difference.

O'DriscoU and Feather (1985) carried out a study on role

of communication in creating positive attitudes towards members of

out-group. 68 Australian undergraduates were given written

communications that evaluated Aborigines and White Australians either

favourably or unfavourably. Results confirmed the existence of

positive prejudice in responses and also indicated that Ss' reactions

to the communications were influenced by predispositional variable

of ethnocent rism. Analysis of delayed recall of the specific

descriptions from the written communications and of the agreement

with an independent ethnic attitudes questionnaire suggested that

positive prejudice did not generalize beyond short-term

-37-

' inconsequential reactions.

Annes and Ward (1989) Investigated the relationship in

regard to cross-cultural traditions and sojourners' adjustment in

Singapore. 61 English speaking sojourners in Singapore were

interviewed. Findings show that knowledge, att i tudes and personality

variables related differentially to various aspects of adjustment

process. Hypothetlcally, knowledge alone was found to be unlikely

to ensure psychological adjustment. Besides, personality disposition

of a sojourner was found not to affect adjustment in a straight foward

manner.

Bama (1972) cited five bar r ie rs to accurate communications

across cultures :

(I) The barr ier of language differences.

(II) Postures and other metamessages on which sojourners depend

on for communication.

( i l l ) The preconceptions and stereotypes tendencies.

(Iv) The habit of evaluating, approving or disapproving the

content of communication received from others .

(v) The typically anxiety that shrouds cross-cultural

communications when one deals with unfamiliar experiences.

It is to be noted that in addition to language differences

Barna stressed the importance of non-verbal

communication.

-38-

OUTCOMES OF CONTACT

Attitudinal Changes, Stereotypes, Maladjustment and Situations of

Contact

The outcomes of contact depend upon: nature of contact and

communication; similarity-difference in cultures; individual differences

e.g. personality and basic skills-language; social support, social

networks and pictures people form in their minds about o thers .

Attitudes towards other people and groups are linked to the way

in which the targeted persons are perceived. Attitudes and

perceptions are very much interrelated and the two influence each

other in mutually reacting sp i ra l .

Ganguly (1965) conducted research on foreign students at

Aligarh and Delhi Universities to find out the students ' expectations,

images and attitudes towards India. The sample was constituted

by 85 foreign students. They were tested on 28 items distributed

along the following attitudinal areas; living conditions in India (5

items), India 's internal policy and economic conditions (5 i tems),

educational system in India (6 i tems), international policy of India

(5 items) and social life and social practices in India (7 i tems).

The total score of the above study was based on overall

attitude of favourableness-unfavourableness towards India. The results

were presented with reference to students ' ethnic backgrounds, the

nature of the course studied and the length of stay in India. The

overall results are given below :

-39-

(i) Satisfaction towards living conditions in India: Students

of Indian Origin (S.I .O.) and the Arab groups were most

satisfied with conditions in India. The Thai group was

most dissat isf ied. The African group came in between.

The ' t ' tests showed that the Thai ' s and S.I.O. differ

significantly.

( l i) Satisfaction with India 's internal policy and economic

conditions: The Thai students had the most adverse attitude

towards India ' s internal policy and economic conditions.

The African students held the most favourable at t i tude.

The Arabs and S.I.O. were in between. None of the means

was significant.

( i i i ) Satisfaction with educational system in India: The Thai

students were found to be the most satisfied group with

the educational system in India. The S.I.O. were least

satisfied. The African and Arab students were in between.

The Thais ' favourable attitude may be due to the fact that

educational system is something concrete and prejudice is

not so operative as in the case of vague and general

policies. On the other hand the S.I.O. might have had

higher expectations regarding the Indian educational system,

an expectancy due to part ly emotionally attached to India

and satisfaction therefore was poorer.

(iv) Satisfaction towards India 's international policy: The Thai

students were the most dissat isf ied. The other three

- 4 0 -

groups held more favourable and similar attitude towards

India 's international policy. None of the differences

between means was significant.

(v) Satisfaction with social life and social practices in India:

S.I.O. were found to be having the most favourable attitude

towards various social practices existing in India. African

students had the most unfavourable a t t i tude . Arab and

Thai students were in between these two extremes. None

of the differences between means was significant.

The findings show that Thai students are most dissatisfied

and S.I.O. most satisfied with India. The African and Arab students

occupy middle position. There is effect of location. Thais in

Aligarh are more favourable to India than Thais in Delhi, whereas

it is the reverse for the African students. The S.I.O. and Arab

have similar and favourable atti tude towards India i rrespect ive of

whether they are in Delhi or Aligarh.

The term stereotype is related to perception. It refers

to the images or pictures which persons have of each other

(Klineberg,. 1966). Some psychologists maintain that the very

existence of stereotypes must mean that they have a "Kernel of

truth" and a well deserved reputation (Zawadski, 1948). Others are

of the view that the stereotypes can develop without any basis in

reality and are often completely false (Katz and Braly, 1933; LaPiere

1936). According to the lat ter group the out-group provides a

- 4 1 -

"living Inkblot" onto which the beholders project their neurotic

motives and concerns. Neverthless, the real issue is not whether

the content of stereotypes is true or false but the casual

misinterpretations that accompany them.

There is no doubt that stereotypes are shaped by social,

economic, political and historical antecedents. They are used in

order to justify the subjugation, exploitation and even elimination

of o thers . They then serve as rationalizations of the status quo.

Wallase Lambert and his colleagues at McGill University (1960)

Canada, conducted study on students to test their ability to judge

character, intelligence and other qualities from the sound of the

voice. The result showed that those who spoke in French

(Canadian) were judged to be inferior to those who spoke in

English, although unknown to the judges it was the same bilingual

speakers. It occurred even when the judges were themselves French

Canadians and the inferiority disappeared when French accent was

Parisan rather than Canadian. Stereotype arose probably because

of the inferior economic and social position of the Franco-phones

in Canadian communities. But s t i l l the fact remains that the images

of the English and French groups affected the perceptions and

judgement presumably attitude and actions related to inter-group

contact.

In many cases people seem to make inferences about other

people 's behaviour on the basis of indirect information. Ihe

classical studies on stereotypes refer very often to national or

-42-

cultural groups who have never, or rare ly been in contact with each

other (e .g . Katz and Bra ly , 1933). However, the genesis of these

stereotypes must be considered as dif ferent from stereotypes which

might emerge through cross-cultural interact ion. Moreover, i t seems

more l i ke l y that the lat ter kind of stereotypes and the at t r ibut ional

processes that imply are more basic in the sense that no one ever

enters into cross-cultural interaction without any preconceptions about

other cultures. For th is reason (LeVine and Campbell, 1972)

considered stereotypes between autonomous, independent groups as

dist inct from stereotypes held by ethnic groups which are integrated

within a single po l i t i ca l and economic order. In the f i r s t si tuat ion,

when l i t t l e or no actual opportunity for mutual observation ex is ts ,

the groups are more ambiguous st imul i for each other and allow more

autist ic perception.

Bond (1986) explored the structure of mutual stereotypes

held by 130 Chinese and 27 American undergraduates in Hong Kong.

The structural stereotypes held towards in-group (autostereotype)

and out-group (heterostereotype) members of the two societies were

brought out. The differences between autostereotype and

heterostereotype were great and comprehensive. Chinese were

perceived to be more emotionally controlled but less open to others.

They were less extraverted than the Americans. The Chinese

believed to be misperceived by the Americans.

Studies have revealed that most sojourners face vast

problems to adjust to a new culture. The indiv iduals who are

-43-

maladjusted are also inadequate and lack social ski l l s to enable

them to cope with a new culture. They may resort to a great

variety of subterfuges and t r icks to conceal their failures,

shortcomings, dissatisfaction or to evade reality of their receiving

culture. Such sojourners retreat from the ugly facts of life Into

i l lusory, subjective nirvana. Maladjusted individuals are not only

unable to cope with the new environment but also lack the capacity

for shaping i t effectively. Basic human social processes like

dialogue, bargaining, status awareness, emotional control and sense

of obligation are essential elements without which an individual may

fail to cope with the receiving society.

Many writers have -reported that there are five main

situations that involve cultural adaptation : Sojourning, settling,

sub-cultural mobility, segregation and changes in society. The first

two imply geographical locomotion but the last three do not. Examples

of non-locomotive changes that reouire coping with new cultures have

been dealt with on adult socialization, resocialization and

reculturation which refer to such situations as the treatment of

social deviants, adjustment to retirement and induction into a

profession (Riley et a l . ,1969; Coulter and Taft, 1973).

There are studies of adjustment of set t lers who have

immigrated from one community to another with the intension of

participating as a member of the new society (Taft, 1966).

Immigration represents a classical situation where a newcomer is

required to cope with an unfamiliar culture. An immigrant needs

- 4 4 -

to be concerned with his relationship to the new society while a

temporary sojourner or traveller e .g . a tourist does not necessarily

have to do so.

Interaction between different groups was studied in work

situations. The findings In these areas have not supported the

assumption that there are absolute changes in members of the

majority group towards members of the minority group. Saenger

and Gilbert (1950) conducted a study in the US and found that

customers might treat Negro personnel in business interaction as

equals but s t i l l maintain their overall anti-Negro at t i tude. It was

found that equal status work contact produced willingness to work

with Negroes on an equal basis but had no significant change in

willingness to accept other relationships with the Negroes.

The pilot study and interviews conducted on foreign

students in India by (Odera, 1991) conform to the above findings.

It was found that relationships between foreign students and the

indigenous people is quite superficial or false despite of interaction

on and off campus. There seems to be no change in mutual attitudes

of the two groups on matters pertaining to social behaviour

patterns.

Brislin (1979) gave five types of cross-cultural orientation

programmes : (i) self-awareness training, in which sojourners learn

about the cultural bases of their own behaviour, (ii) cognitive

training, in which people are given information about another culture,

(i i i) attribution training, which features the characterist ic

-45-

explanations of social behaviour from another culture 's standpoint,

(iv) behaviour modification, (v) experimental learning exercises.

Both Williams (1947) and Allport (1954) regarded

co-operative and competitive as important factors in inter-group

contact. The same opinion has been shared by many psychologists

who have conducted studies on inter-group contact among students

in foreign countries. Schild (1962) concluded from his overseas study

tours that most effective way of inducing lasting attitude changes

is through "participation" involving joint interaction, shared

interests , common goals and active and take contact situations.

Specific inter-group contact does not necessarily have to

produce changes in inter-group relations in everyday life. This

is evident in the US public schools where compartmentalization

occurs when schools are newly desegregated. Relationships between

the White and Negro students within the schools are friendly, but

the two groups go their separate ways outside the school (Williams

and Ryan 1954).

Why is it that inter-group contact in work situations does

not bring about full attitudinal changes at all? It may be due to

casual versus intimate nature of contact. Perhaps general work

situations involve superficial interethnic contact and even when the

relationship becomes more personal it is generally confined to the

work situation only. However, better acquaintance, intimacy and

being close between members of different groups may reduce

- 4 6 -

prejudice and hos t i l i ty .

Amir (1969) reviewed the studies of inter-group contact

and reported that a set of factors determines the outcome of culture

contacts for the inter-group relations. Factors that favour conditions

which tend to reduce prejudice are :

(i) Equality of status between the members of different culture

groups coming into contact with each other ,

(ii) An intimacy other than a casual nature of contact,

( i i i ) Rewarding nature of relations,

(iv) The development of common goals,

(v) The existence of favourable social climate for inter-group

contacts,

(vi) Contact between members of a majority group and higher

status members of a minority group.

Besides, Amir (1969) reported some of the conditions which

strengthen prejudice in contact situations :

(1) Competition between groups.

( i i) Contacts which are unpleasant, involuntary and tensionladen.

(i i l) Lowering prestige of one group by the other.

(iv) Frustrations among the group members.

(v) When different groups have ethnic standards which are

not accepted by each other,

(vi) When members of the minority group are of lower status

than the members of the majority grooup.

- 4 7 -

Some writers have described situations in which primary

resocialization has occurred under pressure (e .g . concentration camp

inmates, Bettleheim, 1943; Prisoners of war, Schein, 1956; and

returned prisoners of war, Curie,1947). In each of such cases the

change occurred due to shock effects involving heightened emotions

associated with suffering and the importance of social relationships

either between authorities and inmates.

Sanchez (1984) reviewed cognitive processes in transcultural

psychology and the validity of the natural and empirical approaches.

The study revealed that cognitive behaviour is an adaptive process

to the ecological and social environments.

Smith (1943) carried out a study on students from

Teachers' College, Columbia University, US. The students visited

homes of prominent Negro families, Negro leaders and Artists in

Harlem. There were two groups, experimental and controlled. The

attitudes towards the Negroes were tested at three occasions.

Firs t ly , before the independent variable was introduced, then after

it and finally after eleven months. It was revealed that members

of the experimental group changed their attitude favourably due to

the contact situation. The control group remained persistent even

after elapse of eleven months from the visi t to Harlem.

Dommisse (1986) reviewed social, moral and political

influences of Apartheid situation in SA. Insecurity and powerlessness

are felt by Blacks in such a system. Identification is done in terms

of racial categories handed over by the classifying authority.

- 4 8 -

Individual personality structures are affected. Organic brain

syndromes occur due to malnutrition and physical debility from

Apartheid system. Police repression and torture have direct

psychiatric Implications. Mental health services for Blacks are

inferior to those of the White population. It is suggested that the

world should be firm against Apartheid until it absolutely collapse

and the society becomes fully integrated.

In the light of the above findings (s tudy) , a note of the

fact that apartheid system is on the verge of collapsing in SA due

to the international pressure and adamant attitudes of Black leaders

against the White minority rule. Subseouently, it is anticipated

that there would be a plural society of non-racial discrimination

between Blacks and the Whites.

Hoskin (1984) examined theories that foreign workers :

(i) pose a direct threat to jobs and services , ( i i) polarize an

otherwise consensual system, ( i i i ) heighten personal insecurit ies,

(iv) exacerbate cultural differences. It is concluded that none of

the popular theories is supported by empirial evidence and that

reluctance to integrate foreign workers is not defined in terms of

triaditional political or socio-economic conflict in Germany. It is

suggested that the political leadership has both the opportunity

and the burden of lending definition to the positive or negative side

of permanent integration for foreigners.

McGregor (1986) described the phenomenon of prejudice.

He reported that i ts roots are not purely cultural. The proclivity

- 4 9 -

for prejudice appears to be deeply rooted in the human psyche.

Nevertheless, it was revealed that prejudice promotes the process

of speciation.

Bond and Hewstone (1988) carried study on inter-group

relations in Hong Kong between 256 bri t ish and Chinese students

whose age ranged from 15-16 yea r s . Findings showed no phase

effects. Extensive differences were detected between the two groups

along the commonly perceived factors of (i) identification with the

group, ( i i ) inter-group differences, ( i i i ) resistance to change, (iv)

satisfaction with status quo. Differences between the two groups

were discussed in terms of cultural dynamics, focussing on Chinese

avoidance of conflict and political logic especially Hong Kong's role

as mediator of modernization for China.

The above studies suggest that casual contact between ethnic

groups is not sufficient to change attitudes of individuals . Moreover,

high frequency of contact does not necessarily have to foster positive

ethnic relations. It may increase prejudice, hos t i l i ty , segregation,

grief, and tension as shown from the above s tudies . It may be

concluded that individuals involved in contact with the out-group

members might have not become real part of the same social group

and evaluated their own way of life as outsiders and not as fellow

members of the same group. Sharif and Sharif (1953) observed that

"contact i s l ikely to produce favourable atti tude changes between

members of socially distant groups only when the contact involves

their joint participation as members of an in-group whose norms

favour such par t ic ipa t ion . . . "

-50-

Role Ambiguity, Conflicting Demands and Re-entry Problems

Duality s t ress and conflict of values may adversely affect

sojourners In the receiving society. Children who are born In or

brought up in an alien culture may undergo through intrapsychic

conflicts of cultural values due to influence of culture of origin and

the receiving culture. In addition, going back home from an alien

culture may further pose readjustment which may facilitate problems

to the returnees.

Ihe re Is likelihood that children of persons born overseas

or children that are bom overseas may belong to two social

networks e .g. monocultural and bicultural l i fes tyles . They may

reject the culture of origin and become absolutely assimilated since

it is practically possible to resocialize the basic values of the

young ones unlike the adults, may remain adamant and find faults

with everything In their receiving society, they may be

marginalized, finally, they may be integrated into two cultures and

become bicultyral mediating individuals.

Bochner and his students carried out two studies at New

South Wales to explore second generation migrant-host country

relat ionship. The first study was by Novakovic (1977) on children

bom in Australia of parents born in Yugoslavia. The children were

caught between the traditional culture of their parents and the

Australian culture of their contemporary school and social

environment. The two cultures differ a great deal especially in

regard to the social role of adolescent. Such children are faced

- 5 1 -

with approach - avoidance conflict, i . e . either to accept or reject

their culture of origin or to find some compromise. The peer group

was found to be second only to the family and may even outweigh

parental influence as socializing agent for growing children and

adolescence (Stone and Church, 1968).

Novakovic tested the hypothesis , whether the children

would retain the Yugoslav culture or adopt the Australian culture.

The age limits ranged from 9 to 16 years . It was predicted that

Ss with all Australian friends would have the highest rejection rate ,

Ss with Yugoslav friends would have the lowest rejection rate and

subjects who have friends from both cultures would be intermediate

between the two other groups.

The hypothesis was confirmed. The result fell precisely

into the expected pattern. The middle group children achieved

a degree of biculturality and were supported in their bicultural

stance by their bicultural peer group.

In the second study Crowley (1978) looked at the effect

of multicultural friendships on third generation Australians. A group

of children descendants from older generation were exposed to either

xenophobic tradition of their parents, alternatively they could

become part of movement towards a multicultural Australian society.

The hypothesis was the same as the one tested by Novakovic, i . e .

if peer group would affect Ss ' atti tudes towards cultural d ivers i ty .

The sample was constituted of both boys and gir ls whose age ranged

between 10-15 years .

-52-

It was predicted that as the children got older they would

become more world-minded to the cummulative effect of multicultural

Influences from sources outside of the parental home. The

acquisition of world-mindedness would not be uniform for all children

but would depend on the ethnic composition of their peer group.

Children who had at least one close migrant friend should be more

aware and appreciative of cultural differences than children with

only Australian friends. The hypothesis was confirmed as the result

fell precisely into the expected pattern.

The above two studies asserted the importance of multi­

cultural contact under intimate conditions. The peer group in

adolescence was found to be the most cohesive group and also engaged

in marital issues. The group maintains high s t r ic t conformity in

i ts members due to i ts high cohesiveness. The adolescence Is the

stage when most attitudes are formed including the attitude of

cultural mediation. Students who go abroad for studies continue

the same theme into post-adolescence showing the continuing influence

of fr iaidship network on cultural a t t i tudes.

Pereda Olarte (1982) asserted from his study of second

generation of Spanish immigrants in Holland that they showed

confusion and disaffection among those who completed their education

and began to work. The language conflict involved more than

bilingualism. The success was found to be dependent on mastery

of Dutch while emotional ties to the family encouraged the use of

Spanish. Religious and cultural ideas about the importance of

-53-

family, work and reaction posed problems. Younger persons who

were born in Holland had less or no ties to Spain as did their

parents. The young ones desired to be integrated into Dutch social

and political l i fe. Assimilation was a divisive factor and some

discriminative attitudes among Dutch employers towards immigrants

hindered the development of transcultural or bicultural feeling.

Ascher (1985) described sources of s t ress e .g. under

employment social disruption for Southeast Asian parents and children

of the US. It was found that adolescents who arrived in the US

alone and those who had undergone shifting role identities faced

difficulties. Tension resulting from the role conflicts due to lack

of ski l l for psychological adjustment was experienced by the

Southeast Asian students. It is recommended that cross-cultural

training should be given to such individuals. The above findings

support Novakovic (1977) study which revealed that adolescent

children are faced with approach - avoidance intrapsychic conflict

when caught between traditional culture of their parents and an alien

culture of their contemporary social environment.

Brim and Wheeler (1966) reported that it is impossible to

resocialize the basic values of adults, they suggested that the

only changes that can be hoped for would be in overt role

behaviour. Therefore, an adult sojourner can be pressed to conform

to role requirements but not to agree with the values underlying

i t . Sometimes a sojourner becomes, fully resocialized as a result

of group support, institutional legitimation of the new identity and

the presence of new significant others in order to form a new

-54-

identi ty.

In en attempt to study Inter-cultural adjustment Lee (1966)

described the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values

as the "Self Reference Criterion" held by people of all cultures.

We observe others from our own point of view, comparing them with

ourselves as the standard of normal. He asserted that there are

obvious dangers in being tied to our own point of view.

Padilla, Cervantes, Maldonado and Carcia (1987) examined

psychological s tressors experienced by 31 male and 31 female adults

who were immigrants to the US from Mexico and Central America.

Difficulties in obtaining employment, language barr iers and problems

with lifestyle adaptation were identified. Use of a social support

network was effective in coping with those difficulties. Few Ss

attempted to become proficient in English and many expressed

concern over US moral standards and the future of their children.

Males scored higher than females on the Depreseion subscale of SCL-

90, suggesting greater role strain associated with family

responsibi l i t ies . Self-esteem and competence were negatively

correlated with depression and anxiety in females and Mexicans.

Uehara (1986) compared 58 overseas sojourners between

19-41 years of age with 74 domestic t rave l le rs . Questionnaire

findings showed that the returnees from abroad experienced much

greater re-entry adjustment problems. Results asserted that changes

in the individual 's value structure were vital factors associated with

-55-

re-entry adjustment.

Martin (1986) investigated the role of communication in

173 student sojourners' perceptions of positive and negative changes

in 3 types of re-entry relationships (parent, sibling and friend).

Results of a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed

that the degree of positive and negative change reported by Ss

varied with the type of relationships (e .g . relationships with

parents and siblings were perceived to have changed more positively

than negatively. This contradicts previous research characterizing

re-entry relationships as problematic. Relationships with friends

were perceived to have changed both negatively and posit ively.

The above study underscores the previous findings by

Brislin and Van Buren (1974) which postulates that returnees to their

native places are highly expected to face readjustment difficulties

due to re-entry c r i s i s .

Foreign Students in Third World Countries

The bulk of li terature on international students experiences

has been mostly oriented towards the impact of Western culture on

the guest students from the less developed countries. A few reports

do exist that have looked at how students from the Third World

Progress in a nation that is itself underdeveloped. There are some

investigations too of Western students in Third World countries.

These studies have come up with results identical to those pertaining

to Asian and African students in Western countries. However, Zaidi

- 5 6 -

(1975) in a survey of foreign Muslim students in Pakistan, reported

widespread social isolation with only a very few students having

personal relations with local families. On the other hand, Yeh

et a l . (1973), revealed that social relationships between the

American students and their hosts (Taiwan) were seen by both

groups as being superficial, limited and unsatisfactory.

The American Open Dorrs (1980) revealed that relatively

few (34%) US students study outside of Western Europe, primarily

because these students lacked the opportunity to learn the

non-traditional language before they enrol in course work abroad.

Third world countries provide few language support programmes for

foreign students in general.

In 1970, more than half of the 30,000 US students were

studying in Europe (55%), North America (16%), Latin America

(15%), the Far East (7%) the Near and Middle East (5%) and Africa

(1%). The American students abroad faced many difficulties,

therefore, predeparture cross-cultural training was organized which

turned out to be helpful (Wilder, 1965). Most American students

do not have adequate preparation in host country's language for

serious academic work, no proper prerequisi tes for the anticipated

courses, not acquainted with methods of instruction and University

system abroad.

Ganguly and his student (1965) conducted series of studies

on foreign students at Aligarh and Delhi Universities, as mentioned

ear l ier . A study conducted on 79 foreign students of Delhi

University revealed the following points:

-57-

(i) Prejudice against an Indian was highest in the Thai group.

Most of them called Indians orthodox, religious, quarrelsome and

ta lkat ive. Some perceived Indians as shameless and mannerless,

(ii) Arab students were more open verbally and applied more

adjectives to Indians. They perceived Indians as religious and

orthodox too. Additional unfavourable t ra i t s perceived in an Indian

are hypocritical and carelessness by S.I.O. It was also noted that

one-third of the African students saw a superiority complex in

Indians. This might be tied up with some of their complaints of

being discriminated against by Indians in small things because of

their skin. The older respondents had a more favourable image

of Indian as indicated by such terms as faithful, kind and

intelligent. The older students mentioned both favourable as well

as unfavourable qualities about Indians as compared to the younger

group whose mentions were mostly unfavourable.

Odera (1990) conducted a pilot study on foreign students

at A.M.U. to gather informations regarding the i r perceptions about

the host nationals and difficulties they face in India. A group of

32 students comprised the sample. The informations were coded.

Subsequently, the findings revealed that foreign students in India

face the following problems; dilute educational system, food habi ts ,

economic/financial, transportation, extreme cllmatlcal conditions,

health, communication, cheating or unfair dealings, social,

accommodation, poli t ical , personal, religious and time taken to

render services .

-58-

Conclusion

It is evident from the above studies that knowledge of

social sk i l l s of the host society is necessary for students to

minimize their problems in the receiving society.

It is Important to arrange Orientation Programmes before

the students leave for a foreign country and sometime after their

exposure to foreign culture following their a r r i va l . There i s also

need to provide the opportunities for Interaction between the host

nationals and guest students in pleasant situations.

Local organizations such as rotary clubs, foreign students '

committees and students ' unions should invite foreign students to

social functions where they can be able to interact spontaneously

with members of the receiving society. Such social situations

would promote friendly, co-operative and understanding atti tudes

between the two groups. Moreover, it would reduce sources of

prejudice, grief, host i l i ty , aggression, discriminatory behaviours

and xenophobic feelings between the host nationals and the guest

students.

- 5 9 -

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the study is to device an instrument to

evaluate specific difficulties faced by foreign students in India.

Such an instrument is required for conducting a comprehensive study

of factors (e .g . cultural differences, individual differences and

sojourn experience) Involved in the outcome of interaction of the

students in India in respect to their feelings of realization of goals,

satisfaction of wants, attitudes towards the host nationals in general.

Institutions of the host country and change in perceived dimensions

of similarities or differences between country of origin and India.

Measures of difficulties encountered by foreigners in alien

countries are available but such measures were not considered to

be useful for assessing difficulties faced by foreign students in India

due to the fact of cultural traditions of India and socio-economic

conditions peculiar to this country. One can however expect that

the basic dimension of difficulties to be the same in India as they

are elsewhere.

The attempt of construction of the device was divided into

two phases:

(1) Collection of items with the help of pilot study in which

foreign students were interviewed so as to have an

exhaustive l is t of their experiences in India.

-60-

(ii) Making use of the informations in the first phase for the

construction of the instrument.

Items Generation

An intensive pilot investigation was conducted in order

to have a pool of i tems. A group of thir ty-two (32) foreign

students studying at A.M.U. comprised the sample. The sample

was recruited from African, Middle East, South East and South West

Asian countries. However, there were odd students from some

countries whom pilot study was not extended to.

The Ss were asked to give informations about their

particulars and difficulties experienced since arr ival in India.

Those who are/were proficient in English wrote down their

difficulties on their own, but those who have/had problems with

the language were assisted by the investigator to write down their

experiences. Ss in the study are in the age range from 18-40 years

and have been staying in India for at least three months. Both

male and female foreign students were interviewed. It was

considered imperative to have the students interviewed for a period

of one month.

The Ss mentioned a wide range "of problems v i z . ,

intellectual and academic, food habits and services offered at

places of meals, financial or economic, negative or discriminatory

behaviours of transportation agents and difficulties in travelling,

harsh climatical conditions, dirty environment and persons al ike.

- 6 1 -

feeling hesitant to express oneself, dishonesty by both members

of the host country as well as some fellow foreign students,

relationships with members opposite sex, indigenous men becoming

aggressive especially when male foreign students talk to indigenous

members of opposite sex, the way of putting on, none availabili ty

of proper accommodation, lack of freedom of expression and political

turmoils at home, nostalgic feelings, relgious faith and one's

position among those who belong to different religious groups and

too much time taken to render services in public offices.

The above collected informations from the students were

arranged under different categories of problems; educational system,

food habi t s , economic, transportation system, weather, health,

communication, cheating or unfair dealings, social or cultural,

accommodation, poli t ical , personal, religious and time.

Construction of the Questionnaire

The sample of the students included in the pilot study

gave a total of 104 informations regarding their social difficulties

in India. An additional l is t of 32 problems that were not mentioned

by the Ss was added by the researcher increasing the total number

of problems to 136. It was later thought appropriate to add 14

more social situations items from the earl ier study conducted by

Fumham and Bochner (1982) on foreign students who were studying

in England. The final total number of items was raised to 150.

-62-

The items from Fumham and Bochner's study were intended to be

"markers" of the factors extracted from their study so as to

ascertain whether the dimension of social difficulties of foreign

students in India are the same as those of. foreign students in

England or not.

Sample

The study was conducted at the four Northern India

Universities v i z . , A.M.U., Delhi University (D.U.) , Jamie Millia

Islamia (J .M.I . ) and Panjab University (P.U.) by Odera (1991).

Foreign students from the four Universities comprised the sample

of the study. The sample was chosen because it is expected that

with their respective cultures and backgrounds the students may

have different expectations and experiences in India.

Two hundred and eighty foreign students from the four

Universities were given the questionnaire. The students were

approached by the researcher to accept the questionnaire. On the

other hand random sample was drawn from Kenyan students at P.U.

in Chandigarh because of their large number. I h e sample closely

resembles the actual proportion of the students population as given

by official s ta t is t ics from the offices of advisers to foreign students

of the four Universit ies. Moreover, not more than five Ss from

available countries at the time of research were interviewed with

exception of Kenyan students at P.U. whose number was a bit larger

by five students more than the rest of other nationals.

-63-

The breakdown of number of the questionnaire fully

coirpleted and returned back to the researcher from the respondents

from the four Universities are as follows : A.M.U. (67

questionnaire), D.U. (42 questionnaire), J .M.I. (26 questionnaire)

and P.U. (65 questionnaire). The administration of the questionnaire

was done according to the instructions given in appendix I .

Problems in Data Collection

This section i s about the problems experienced by the

researcher at the time of interaction with respondents at the four

Universities mentioned ear l ier . The researcher encountered problem

of contacting the respondents. This problem was aggravated by means

of transportation due to i l l timings of city buses, traffic jams which

subsequently led to late arr ival to contact the students. Besides,

there was over charging of fare by transportation agents especially

the rickshaw pullers and auto-rickshaw d r ive r s . Moreover,

respondents stay in different residential flats and far apart from

each other leading to contact with only a handful of respondents

in a day. The above problems were experienced both at D.U. and

J.M.I, in Delhi which are none residential campuses. Though P.U.

is not Integrated residential University, s t i l l this problem was not

acute since it i s easier to locate residences of the students.

Further more, intra-city bus network available in Chandigarh is

better organized than in Delhi.

-64-

Contact wi th students in A.M.U. was the easiest becaause

i t is a residential campus with a sizeable major i ty of the students

staying in hostels or wi thin v i c in i t y of the campus.

Co-operation from the entire students who were contacted

and interviewed was not forthcoming. Some students accepted the

questionraire may be to please the researcher yet others d id not

because of beinp defensive to avoid accepting the same whi le "others

were wi l l ing to co-operate. A good number of the students ended

up not attending to , misplaced or even used as rough papers the

questionnaire that was given out to them. These problems were

more prevalent in A.M.U. and D.U.

Some of the students readi ly accepted the qjuestionnaire

and promised to return the same after certain period of time but

did not do so, would later on use "having no time" as defence

mechanism to jus t i fy the i r l imi tat ions. Otherwise, some indiv iduals

who were approached to take Questionnaire straight away declined

to do so, they excused themselves for not having t ime; some were

reticent about or had phobic feelings to expose thei r problems in

India. Some declined to part ic ipate in the study on ground that

they did not wish to hurt sentiments or reveal feelings of fellow

compatriots towards India. The problems mentioned above were

experienced from the students belonging to the four Univers i t ies.

F ina l ly , some of the students gave responses that were

not so easy to c lass i fy , for example, " I do not know", some used

cross-mark ( x ) ) twice against the same item or used both cross-

mark (x) and t ick-mark ( \ / ) against the same i tem.

- 6 5 -

The details of completed questionnaire returned by the

respondents of the four Universities are as follows :

University

A.M.U.

D.U.

J.M.I.

P.U.

Questimmaire Accepted

85

90

35

70

280

Questionnaire Returned

67

42

26

65

200

Percentage Returned

78.8

46.6

74.3

92.8

71.4

The questionnaire was comprehensive, even then the

students were given opportunity to mention other problems that the

researcher might have not included in the questionnaire. The

problems mentioned by the students were found to be rephrased

versions of the problems already covered in the questionnaire.

Selection of Items

Factor analysis was used for the selection of items to

be included in the scale for measuring social difficulties of foreign

students in India. Factor analysis helps to identify dimensions

of social difficulties experienced by the students. it shows

the number of factors underlying the intercorrelations among the

responses given to the initial pool of items and thereby enabling

us to categorize items into different groups on the basis of factor

-66-

loading of the items on different factors. Factor analysis tells

us how many independent scales are to be developed so that all

the difficulties experienced by foreign students are subsumed by

the scales.

To carry out factor analysis, a matrix of inter-correlations

among 150 items was obtained using Pearson's product moment

correlation. The 150 x 150 matrix was factor analysed using

principle component method. The analysis yielded 14 factors with

more than 1 Eigen value. Out of these, 8 such factors were

retained which we are making substantial contribution to the

percentage of common variance accounted for. The rotation of axes

was done using Kessler ' s Varimax method which is the orthogonal

method that seeks to rotate factors so that the variation of squared

factor loading for a given factor is made large. The factor

analysis and rotation of axes were done with the help of computer

and SSP PACKAGE.

Factor scores for the eight retained factors were obtained

and eight pairs of high and low groups were found on the basis

of Q.l and Q.3 as the cutting points. Items analysis charts were

prepared for each of the eight factors in which the responses of

the Ss classified as high and low were tabulated. Significance

of difference between means of high and low groups for every item

was determined by using "t" test

The selection of items to be included in each of the eight

subscales was done on the basis of five cri teria :

- 6 7 -

(i) Factor loading of the items should be high.

(11) Discriminative index of the items as indicated by

significant "t" value. There should be no dispari ty in

the suitabili ty of items as indicated by the cr i ter ia i

and 11.

( i l l ) In order to remove overlapping among different factor

scales, an item which has high loading on more than one

factor shall be included in the scale for the factor on

which it has relatively higher loading.

(Iv) If a decision is to be taken to include an item which

has equally high loading on more than one factor, the

item shall be included In the factor scores where the

pool of items with high loading on the factor is smaller.

(v) If a large number of items have the four specifications

mentioned above, then only ten best items shall be

Included in a factor scale.

-68-

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of the study was to construct a multi­

dimensional instrument for the assessment of social difficulties

encountered by foreign students in India. The present chapter

reports the findings arrived at different stages of the construction

of the instrument. Of the three strategies of the test construction

(rational-theoretical, empirical and factor analytic) factor analytic

approach was preferred because it leads to the identification of

number of independent dimensions required for comprehensive

assessment of domain.

Using items formulated in the light of informations

collected during the pilot study, the matrix of intercorrelations

of responses given to the items on a 5-point scale was factor

analysed using principle component method.

Table I presents the matrix of intercorrelations. The

matrix of eight retained rotated factors is given in Table II . The

percentages of common variance explained by eight factors are :

14.22, 23.07, 9 .11, 7.61, 11.07, 21.96, 6.92 and 6.00

respect ively.

-69-

Tiblt 1. Kalrix of InlercorreUliDns anong lUns •

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26 28 29 38 30 41 24 27 19 27 35 32 43 29 30 28 29 18 26 32 29 36 25 20 29 19 35 25 29 21 25 22 20 12 02 36 32 30 38 29 36 26 30 25 12 21 26 25 37 29

85

16 34 37 26 26 39 31 33 34 30 46 39 33 34 34 19 22 21 28 37 21 28 34 22 31 29

26 31 34 23 22 26 35 16 17 32 29 27 32 27 37 27 29 31 11 19 34 27 32 20

86

27 30 25 40 18 26 28 33 22 28 37 25 19 19 30 22 20 21 29 24 30 32 42 36 34 23 36 24 30 20 23 22 16 10 19 43 24 40 21 29 3B 23 26 18 11 23 24 26 27 18

87

28 41 27 40 28 28 20 30 35 30 33 22 43 31 19 29 26 18 28 24 21 36 21 33 26 34 40 17 33 26 19 25 33 15 16 45 23 51 43 32 34 27 36 26 14 04 27 23 20 18

88

30 39 24 39 28 35 I"-36 29 31 34 35 42 32 24 26 27 31 27 33 17 34 19 15 30 30 39 19 26 24 24 20 28 10 11 34 30 44 45 26 40 20 36 28 11 09 20 27 26 24

89

22 33 23 33 26 2fc 19 ?4 31 34 37 26 37 38 29 17 30 19 23 34 15 29 39 26 28 34 32 24 23 28 18 24 28 08 15 34 28 33 28 V 29 24 43 35 11 18 25 28 32 29

TO

35 35 43 39 38 4? 26 56 34 41 37 29 44 39 33 27 35 30 26 39 25 30 41 23 38 31 32 25 24 27 24

31 35 17 09 32 37 4t 36 ?9 3« 3t 38 16 19 08 37 40 26 29

-82-

lleis 91 9£ 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 10H 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120

101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Ml 11? 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 1?0 121 1?? 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 13? 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150

18 25 09 18 32 31 17 15 05 19 30 19 19 21 21 12 17

16 07 ?3 12 10 27 17 13 ?7 27 15 26 09 16 14 33 1? 19 26 27 30 26 26 14 15 26 16 01 09 29 31 26 ?5

24 ?3 38 37 38 1C 33 22 24 20 11 18 21 23 27 33 17 ?1 44 ?8 38 25 35 22 37 28 29 3? 13 44 28 27 16 09 19 28 18 14 23 41 31 20 13 06 36 26 11 23 28 ?7

33 25 29 ?7 30 37 17 3C 20 27 31 32 28 30 18 29 26 27 19

30 21 36 30 ?6 28 3? 26 16 40 15 27 29 42 ?3 32 35 39 45 38 29 32 43 44 29 16 14 43 39 17 26

40 12 39 37 43 14 39 35 35 12 15 20 17 08 24 30 23 29 35 13 14 33 38 06 37 27 36 50 23 30 29 30 12 01 15 30 21 16 20 35 30 28 00 09 55 34 12 14 20 33

42 19 38 42 41 23 29 27 38 24 27 32 32 28 19 36 21 25 37 22 34 38 35 13 32 27 43 43 40 27 22 36 27 16 15 36 21 ?1 33 36 27 34 21 27 34 26 24 ?0 30 38

24 24 29 40 21 28 24 29 32 34 19 41 23 18 23 30 27 13 43 38 23 27 26 17 25 16 34 29 39 34 24 26 17 18 20 30 29 27 34 3? 38 20 18 ?0 20 16 24 15 16 24

30 38 33 32 25 26 21 27 32 26 30 24 25 29 16 33 19 25 26 29 25 34 29 23 31 30 32 31 43 23 27 30 27 15 12 32 30 21 33 30 36 34 16 13 18 26 26 20 25 23

27 25 38 44 37 33 19 ?1 34 26 22 31 28 43 21 36 27 16 33 24 16 37 31 18 28 33 33 30 33 31 29 25 24 26 22 34 30 27 37 36 34 35 39 26 28 17 24 17 26 26

38 25 40 41 40 33 36 31 30 29 36 32 32 29 36 41 35 21 26 13 38 39 40 16 34 30 38 39 43 23 24 39 37 19 16 35 24 21 30 42 40 24 32 14 24 24 26 25 23 38

44 22 41 46 38 29 24 40 41 27 25 40 33 41 24 42 29 19 39 25 34 43 42 29 42 41 32 26 26 32 27 34 25 31 26 34 20 34 31 39 29 36 27 19 35 19 17 30 33 26

11.0)33

33 ( 39 46 47 19 32 46 39 It 25 26 23 36 32 49 32 23 30 26 47 37 49 27 42 45 54 40 35 33 34 45 30 15 22 37 20 30 30 41 31 35 20 22 36 31 16 31 41 19

39 1.0)26

46 37

26 (1.0)47

37 27 34 14 34 28 29 18 32 30 33 21 27 28 38 15 28 24 25 25 32 26 39 27 23 29 26 16 26 34 17 17 29 36 29 36 28 29 23 20 18 08 19 30 32 29 25

47 1

44 29 45 28 43 31 26 27 40 36 43 44 29 29 36 31 34 34 47 20 47 35 40 42 32 36 34 34 30 11 15 39 17 26 36 40 36 29 23 27 42 27 26 30 27 37

47 27 44

11.0)47

47 31 33 38 41 31 24 35 40 38 35 43 22 26 30 35 26 52 43 26 44 39 51 40 36 35 37 45 25 16 26 44 34 33 42 45 44 37 32 18 32 29 30 27 35 37

19 34 29 31

(1.0)16

16 1

27 33 31 30 31 30 31 32 29 45 35 26 34 25 44 39 45 17 41 43 49 40 29 36 29 46 27 11 31 31 25 26 30 46 39 37 30 18 37 24 20 30 33 34

32 14 45 33 27

:1.0)34

34 28 27 17 33 31 26 22 31 26 40 27 14 40 17 24 25 26 20 22 22 28 30 16 07 16 23 19 02 35 41 30 28 19 29 20 46 32 06 12 39 24 23 30

46 34 28 36 33 28

(1.0)30

30 '

37 26 30 29 23 17 38 35 27 22 42 36 36 30 31 25 44 35 41 47 29 41 27 25 26 01 16 30 23 17 30 42 35 19 17 16 41 33 24 25 26 35

39 28 43 41 31 27 37

11.0)44 44 32 34 40 32 31 29 33 25 25 26 27 34 33 31 19 34 29 30 33 46 31 26 33 33 23 22 31 38 36 37 35 42 40 22 19 23 22 22 32 28 18

36 29 31 31 30 17 26 32

(1.0)38

38 23 33 39 36 26 44 32 17 34 29 30 34 34 25 45 39 34 40 31 50 22 39 33 20 16 38 27 28 30 41 34 27 25 22 24 19 31 15 23 24

25 18 26 24 31 33 30 34 23

(1.0)38 38 44 37 39 29 35 34 20 27 38 25 24 30 24 30 29 31 21 25 29 22 32 34 11 22 33 29 36 28 29 39 30 25 25 11 16 32 28 25 26

26 32 27 35 30 31 29 40 33 44

(1.0)40

40 32 32 29 16 36 23 21 36 28 31 28 15 24 26 29 27 34 25 26 23 29 13 12 36 27 35 25 37 35 30 34 27 12 20 28 35 32 27

23 30 40 40 31 28 23 32 39 37 32

(1.0)38

38 42 30 32 31 15 26 35 21 23 25 14 39 31 26 26 32 24 23 19 32 22 27 24 30 30 43 31 38 26 28 29 20 18 24 31 28 21

36 33 38 38 32 22 17 31 36 39 32 42

11.0)40 40 24 34 29 28 29 34 18 40 28 14 35 32 34 29 27 30 21 27 29 21 12 35 22 32 44 34 39 34 30 40 22 15 28 20 21 28

32 21 43 35 29 31 38 29 26 29 29 30 24

(1.0)29 29 39 30 25 16 28 ZZ 36 31 24 33 41 28 27 36 31 31 19 30 22 19 36 39 32 38 32 28 32 40 29 14 09 26 40 34 22

49 27 44 43 45 26 35 33 44 35 16 32 34 39

(1.0)26

28 36 23 36 28 40 29 22 19 34 28 27 32 23 32 22 27 27 07 10 27 19 21 32 39 36 17 24 18 29 32 20 22 33 36

32

28 29 22 35 40 27 25 32 34 36 31 29 30 36

(1.0)32

32 35 32 22 33 36 39 26 38 33 48 36 40 41 27 33 26 17 20 30 26 28 33 40 36 20 21 24 34 23 34 27 30 26

23 36 29 26 26 27 DO

2'j

P 20 23 1'. 28 25 23 35

(1.0)23

23 25 35 30 19 32 21 20 32 27 26 25 26 26 24 21 23 12 31 30 23 32 25 31 19 37 20 20 21 23 22 25 26

(1.01

27 22 13 28 31 16 30 Zt 20 2'* Zi It 23 13 16 07 19

31 25 25 27 24 31 22 15 18 22 21 25 20 21 26

30 15 38 30 34 14 4̂ 26 ji

?: 2' H» ?•)

16 36 32 25 27

26 28 31 35 25 40 3t

" ,-a

(8 it

[<'^.

<4 i& 28 32 35 ?2

(1.0)36 36 35 39 34 Itj

46 32 30 3̂ It

46 •) •

41 22 15 22 29 12 23 36 47 40 31 18 14 42 35 21 23 24 31

(1.0

28 34 T. I'

Z't

Jc ;••!

Zt ;<;

;' 4' 21 19 3o 32 36 H* 33 45 27 JO

14 16 22 36 33 36 21

-83-

Ite»5 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 14« nc

101 102 103 104

105

106 107

108 109

110

111

112

113 114 115 116

117

114 119

120 121

122

123

124 125

126 1?7

128 1?9

130 131

132

133

134

135

136 137

138 139

140

141

142

143 144

145

146 147

148 149

150

47 24 34

it 44

17

36

34

30

25

28

21

18

22 40 33

30 13 35

28 11.0)

38

31 17

35 ?9 39

32

28 29 31

41 27

18 14

40

25

26 24

50

3? 31 19

11

39

28

15

30

?1 34

37

25 34

52

39

24

30

33

34

24

31

23

40 36 ?o

36

liJ

28 39 34

38

49

25 47

43

45

25

31

31 34

30

28

25

28 31 3? 39

3? 31 34

35 31

(1.0)52

27 32 20

26 17

26

?5

19

35

24

15

14

14

34 19

26

21 16 16

21 17

29

5? (1.0)25

29 45

29 36

40

31 31 31

37

30

16

16

42 34

34 3?

45

44

38

31

08

30

25

35

30 31 39

42 26 47

44

41

20

44

34

45

30

24

39

35

33 34

38

20 30 46

24

35

45

42

25 (1.0)34

42 35 46

3° ?8 33 30 37

23

08

17

41

?2 25 21

42

38 28 ?9

18

34

33 24

32 37

30

34

25 IB

20

21 21 21 17

26

16

17

31

16

19 22

26

22 15 14

12

13

17

28 17

16 20

45 39 35

39

43

22

35

29

39

29

26

31

32 41 26 33

32

25 32 16 29

29

35

25 (1.0)44

44 44

49

33 49 38

36

21

16

27

42

23 39

36

52

46 34

18 17

39

29

?9

29

28 36

54 27 40

51 49

22

41

30

34

31

29

28

34

28 27

48

37

20 30 32

39

36

46

18 44

(1.0)41

41

32

25 40 34

40

36

09

30

34

24

27 37

40

31

30

3?

32

25

25 27

32

32 33

40 23 42

40

40 28

47

33

40

21 27

26

29

27 32 36

26 29 37

24

32

40

39

20 49

32 (1.0)44

44

38 30 41

43 24

03

18

42

22

33 34

44

42

27 25

29

38

29

23

32 36 29

35 29 32

36 29

30

29

46

31

25

34

32

27

36 23 40

25

22 16

28 28

31

28

21 33

25 38

(1.0)40

40 45 38

43

25

10

11

38

28 24 29

42

33

26 14

16

56

42

29

20

?5 41

33 26 38

35 36

16

41

31

50

29

25

24

30

31 32 41

26

16 46 29 29

31

33

21 49 40 30

45

(1.0)18

18 37

33 37

28

26 27

35

31 43

31

38 32 27

28

21

17

33

22 24 24

34

16 34

37 29

07

27

26

22

22

26

23

21

31 22 27

26

23 27

23

31

31

30

21

38 34 41

38

37

(1.0)30

30

35

21

11

19

32 30

17

19

46

28

26

21 13

27

25

21

22 25 27

45 26 34

45 46

16

25

33

39

32

23

19

27 19 2 7

33

24

13 41

21 41

37

37

17

36

40 43

43

33 35

(1.0)32

32

38

OH

13

26

20 24

32

37

39

36 TO

15 34

32

20 24

19 24

30 34 30

25 27

23

26

33

33

34

29

32

29

30 27

26

21 16 22 41

27

30

23

26 21

36 24

25 37

21 38

(1.0)40

40

15 27

26

20

25 34

41

36

35 21

13

36

32

30

27

23 37

15 17 11

16 11

19

01

23

20

11

13

22

21

22 07

17

23 07

15

21 18

16

08

16 16

09 03

10

28 11 02 15

(1.0)28

28

36

24

24

30 36

37

39

34

22

18

19

24

33

43

25 26

22 17 15

26 31

02

16

23

16

22

12

27

12 19

10 20

12 19 22 19

14

16

17

17 27

30 18

11

26 19 13 27

36

(1.0)34

34

18

24

18 27

18

15 20 27

00

02

00 31

18

14 10

37 29 39

44

31

35

30

31

38

33

36

24

35

36 27

30

31

31 29

36 40

42

41

31

42 34 42

38 27

32 26

26 24

18

(1.0)26

26 23

25 31

29

31

27

16

21

17

14

23

22

23

13

20 38 17

34 25

41

23

38

27

29 27

30

22 39 19

26

30

25 12

32

25

34

22

18 23 24 22

28

35

30 20 20 24

24

23 (1.0)41

41

56 37

50

45

38 33

26 24

16

37

29

30

30

30 29 28

33 26

30

17

36

28

36

35

30

32 32 21

28

23

25 23

36

26

34

25

19

29

27 33

24

31 17 24

25 30

18

25

56

(1.0)40

40 42

25

26

30 37

18

09

12

44

25

30 29

30 36 36

42 30

28

30

37

30

28

25

43 44

38 32 33

32

27 36

29

24

32

21

22 36 37 34

29

43 19 32

34 36

27

31

37

42

(1.0)44

44

32

37

36 33

27

21

11

35

35

22

22

41

28 40

45 46

19

42

35

41

29

37

31

34

32 39

40

25 24 47

33

50

45

42

26 52

40 44

42

31 46 37

41

37

18

29

50

25

32 (1.0)40

40

46

35 30

33 34

20

35

30

30 39

31 29 38

44 39

29

35

42

34

39

35

38

39

28 36

36

31 31 40

45

32

44

38

22

46 31 42

33

38 28 39

36 39

15

31

45

26

37

46

(1.0)45

45

41

23 19

39

32

23

35

26

43

35

23 29

37 37

20

19

40

27

30

30

26

34

32 17

20

19

22 31

27

31

38

28

15 34

30 27

26

32

26 36 35 34

20

27

38

30

36 35

41

(1.0)34

34

28

29

30

34

40

37

31 29

20 20 23

32 30

46

17

22

25

25 34

28

30

40 24

21

37

15 18 30 19

31

29

14

18

32 25

14

27

21 10

21

22 27

16

33 37

33 30

23

28

(1.0)25

22

18 27

18 18

32

16

19

22

25 27

29

40 29

18 24

20

18 14

14

11

08

18

12 17

32 29

16

28 13 15

13 18

00

21

26 18

27

33

19

29

18 25 (1,0)32

18

26

15

28

25

20 27

32

03

09

32

40

26 22

36

08 42

32 37

08

41

23

24

11

12

20

22

14 29

34

20

22 42

18 39

30

34

13 39

25 38

56 21

27 34

36 19

02

17 24

09

21 34

39

30

26 03

(1.0)19

19

08

19

16

22 19

31 19 27

29 24

12

33

22

29

16

20

18

15 09

Yd

23

21

21 35 22

28

25

33

17 29

25 29

42

17 25 32 32 24

00

14

16

12

11 20

32

34

15 09

08

(1.0)41

41

14

21

09

36

16

30 26 30

20

39

24

22

31

32

28

24

26

26 20 34

23

25 21

36

15

35

24

28

29 27 23 29

33

21 20

30

33

31

23

37 44

35 35

23

40

28

32 19

14

(1.0)17

17

22

26 34

31

32 30 27

30 24

25

32

15

28

35

31

20

40 22 27

2?

20 23

33 30

30

32

17

29

32 32

20

22

22 24 27

43

18

<;2

29

25

35 30

35

37

25 W 16

21

22

(1.0)37

37

23 28

(1.0

31 27

41

2'i 27 35

33

23

26

28

23

25

32

28 ^1

34 33

iO

25

L'I

24

38

21

31

37

16

28

32 36

25

24

ib 1")

1-3 9t

14

/:. 30

iO

22 30

26

31

20

26

22

09

26

23

) 31

IS

2̂ 37

3"

34

30

35

16

24

26 27

21

26

'i? 3c.

dk

'it

26 31

21

34

39

30

20

36

33 29 41

i;4

?? 24 3'

ib

\ >:, 30 2S-

24 39

43

29

27 22

19

36

34

26

27

(1.0)27

27 (1,01

• DeciMls aniUed

-84-

Table II The rotated factor matri?-;

I terns II III IV V VI VII VIII CommunalxtiB-

1 2 7?

4

6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 y.'7

-ji.j.

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 A3 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

04 09 01 31 14 06 01 06 02 02 04 36 18 11 04 03 26 05 02 15 24 02 02 13 07 27 02 18 13 26 14 07 11 06 08 41 -T 4

21 11 1 1 10 01 ~T~T

19 00 13 Ci7 10

29

07 14 12 14 15 07 16 "TO

14 15

24 04 '?3

28 46 15 11 36 14 12 2^ 02 25 13 38 27 10 00 08 29 t=r-y

27 56

28 21 32 29 40 17 34 15 21 3 3

11 18 34 16

18 00 16 36 01 05 07 01 31 16 26 32 00 12 18 02 11 29 29 17 33 18 14 40 "T*^

21 43 49 54 34 23 25 '"?0

25 07 26 25 25 25 41 16 00 16 08 26 34 '7'7

13 09 41

02 09 04 02 25 03 04 12 10 35 30 11 16 17 05 01 12 03 11 18 08 41 11 12 36 21 22 01 15 05 25 02 14 10 19 03 03 10 17 25 37 04 11 09 23 14 21 01 17 00

'^T

41 16 32 18 12 15 34 29 23 00 17 26 06 44 05 13 22 25 03 00 23 31 04 O T

05 18 18 01 07 17 10 "7 "7

43 04 11 36 44 47 02 03 40 17 07 00 y?

16 29

18

34 28 48

50 18 27 26 19 06 15 25 38 47 31 37 IS 44 10 13 27 11 42 02 19 10 04 15 28 20 11 17 42 11 41 30 15 13 29 01 37 15 13 38 06 21 44 20

03

30 12 02 04 03 59 40 18 07 16 12 04 13 17

19 00 29 07 21 06 16 02 14 01 06 04 "T'7

04 03 12 20 17 10 06 07 00 24 06 00 07 04 30 -1̂ -7

36

21 13 26 14 07

12 16 17 18 26 01 17 13 02 06 03 10 11 13 03 34 40 17 34 59

19 O'T?

13 36 20 O T ;

01 11 14 y,y.

02 01 01 11 C'O 04 11 10 01

03 24 26 13 11 06 20 08 1 1

44 47

27

41 31 38 45 A7 42 39 47 48 36 36 38 28 49

51

28 ^ .-' 42

59 34 42 43 46

42 40 40 42 46 54

38

38

-85-

5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6

8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9

1 0 0

0 3 3 0 2 4 1 2 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 5 1 4 1 5 3 4 1 0 1 3 1 7 1 9 1 4 1 7 2 9 1 7 2 4 2 7 1 9 4 0 2 8 1 0 2 2 1 8 1 9 3 0 3 2 1 5 2 1 1 7 1 2 2 8 2 0 4 8 3 6 1 9 2 6 1 2 1 2 2 4 0 1 2 8 3 0 3 6 3 7 2 1 4 0

0 7 1 0 0 0 2 8 3 6 2 3 3 6 2 5 3 3 2 5 3 4 2 9 5 1 5 9 4 3 2 0 1 6 2 6 4 1 1 8 1 5 3 7 3 4 0 7 2 7 1 0 5 2 1 5 1 3 1 2 0 3 2 4 1 8 1 8 1 5 1 4 0 4 0 6 0 6 1 2 0 0 4 4 0 9 7 1 5 1 2 2 2 8 2 2 3 7 3 6

4 2 3 1 0 6 1 2 0 1 0 6 0 7 1 8 2 8 1 7 1 5 2 0 2 7 1 4 3 1 2 9 4 9 1 9 0 1 0 2 1 5 0 8 1 2 1 7 0 9 1 5 0 3 0 5 0 5 0 7 3 3 1 0 1 9 0 9 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 6 0 6 0 3 0 2 2 5 1 5 0 7 1 5 0 4 2 1 0 7 0 7

1 6 OO 5 9 2 3 2 5 0 2 5 4 2 6 0 8 1 7 1 8 y."^ 1 0 0 4 1 5 1 6 0 3 2 4 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 0 9 0 6 0 3 0 8 0 1 0 4 1 3

1 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 5 'P '?

4 6 1 5 1 0 3 8 2 5 3 1 1 6 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 5 2 6 1 0 1 ^

1 3

2 1 2 0 27^

2 0 1 6 1 7 0 9 1 2 0 7 2 3 0 4 5 3 2 0 2 2

0 0 0 0 1 6 3 1 1 4 4 0 1 5 2 4 0 2

0 1 2 9 0 9

3 1 1 3 2 0 1 1 1 7 0 0 3 2 3 4 2 5 2 0 2 0 0 4

3 6 0 8 0 1 0 3 1 6 0 2 j-jij-j

1 1 2 7

3 2 -TO

1 1 5 0 2 3 0 9 1 9 3 4 3 4 4 6 1 8 1 2 1 2 0 7 0 0 3 4 3 1 0 0 0 0 2 6 2 3 3 0 3 1 6 1 2 2 3 3 3 0 6 2 4 0 5 3

3 8 5 4 6 5 5 4 4 5 2 5 2 3 4 2 4 6 4 5 4 9 0 2 5 2 0 3 0 8 1 7 1 3 1 3 3 5 0 9

OS 2 9 1 9 1 1 1 4 ~T~T

0 9 2 7 1 1 0 0 0 7 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 3 0~T

1 5 3 4 0 3 1 6 2 4 0 8 0 8 0 1 0 9 0 5 1 0 1 5 0 7 0 6 1 6 0 9 C>3 2 8 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 8 2 0 0 3 1 4 0 8 1 0 -T r~^

2 4 0 6 4 3 1 2 ?sO

1 2 0 2 0 5 1 8 1 8 1 6 0 8 0 6 0 2 1 2 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 7

1 3 0 1

0 5 1 6 3 0 0 0

0 9 0 7 0 5 2 6 0 3 1 4 -lilo

0 5 2 1 0 1 0 5 \0

•':•' 1

OS 0 2 T'iT

0 6 0 1 0 2

1 '^•^

--'\ ~^.

OB ' - ' 7

3 4 1 0 1'-1

1 0

38 43 5 3 51 4 3 41 cr -• vJ i

40

43 34

crcr

43 4 6 a-?

4 0 3 7 3 0 41 3 7 4 9 50 4 7

38 48 54 49 42 45 46 42 4Q

4!^

4^ 55 48 2 0 42 52 46 51

-86-

101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142

T O

46 25 34 26 18 07 42 49 37 13 44 39 46 05 36 18 15 19 17 14 19 13 23 27 42 25 06 41 O T

04 28 31 44 42 30 37 38 47 20 25 "TO

143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150

01 09 23 16 28 00

12 50 46 53 07 53 35 36 14 14 21 21 18 41 49 25 27 43 21 54 39 46 13 55 36 52 70

44 41 44 14 02 14 29 15 07 25 48 rrcr - J» -_'

24 03 11 68 51 11 16 30 46

08 07 07 06 13 09 04 11 07 12 15 13 09 14 15 15 00 20 05 03 07 10 00 10 00 12 11 09

01 35 08 18 02 19 01 09

19 10 17 16 12 19 17 05 15 24 00 04

14 T O

05 18 10 06 02 02 02 07 13 06 01 19 IB 10 00 15 11 15 06 20 46 23 14 21 15 09 04 04 14 15 24 00 06 14 06 07

13 13 11 12 05 03 25 08 33 29 15

10 02 17 25 05 07 25 04 27 21 15 01 14 09 12 19 02 01 28 26 16 24 14 31 28 07 17 06 06 43 07 09 OS 06 10 41 05 30 •J!

41 21 11 17 01 11 00 17 21 01 07

16 27 20 24 25 63 24 25 07 27

32 29 38 18 44 25 05 41 17 27 20 11 14 17 18 20 28 07 09 08 23 16 07 34 43 36 32 15 •'2

16 51 28 01 14 45 31 30 34

02 01 13 10 06 26 00 01 22 05 12 16 26 09 06 04 27 05 24 04 00 10 12 03 01 04 09 08 01 05 20 13 05 01 30 02 06 02 08 10 5)3

19 19 18 14 06 08 10 03 12

01 08 13 04 01 01 24 11 12 13 18 Ol 04 OS 09 00 07 02 15 10

•->^,

08 05 10 09 07 03 04 19 06 16 27

07 10 01 03 oo 1 A

19

09 07 22 16

10 05

43 44 51 46 52 47 40 53 33 42 40 41 41 41 48

41 35 44 39 53 26 50 41 45 56 45 46 40 42 :̂-9

4«?

36 44 45

43 29 54 4-t

* Decimals omitted

-87-

In order to understand the psychological nature of

extracted factors a factor analyst has to rely on his own

theoretical insight and common sense. Alternatively, one can

postpone an attempt of understanding the extracted factors and the

factors naming t i l l the time when enough empirical findings are

accumulated to help him to understand psychological nature of the

extracted factors. The lat ter is often recommended but not

followed. If one has to make choice of the first alternative he

has to give the variables importance in determining the meaning of

factors in proportion to the magnitude of their loading. A factor

analyst would be in a position to have a clear definition of factors

which have high loading of a number of var iables ; in the absence

of considerable loading of at least some of the items the nature

of the factors becomes ambiguous.

The naming of factors that emerged in a new study becomes

relatively easier when marker variables asterixed (*) included to

represent factors that emerged in a well planned earl ier study are

factor analysed with a new set of items and are found to have high

loading on new factors. However, when some of the items used

as markers of a factor identified earl ier are found to have high

loading not on a single factor but are scattered on different factors

then markers become source of confusion rather than c lar i ty . With

these remarks let us consider the factors that emerged in the

present study.

-88-

Factor I

Items Loading

Restriction imposed by landlords or landladies .492

Unfriendly attitudes of some female foreign students from

other countries •481

Aviiarding of marks by some teachers .470

Dealing with Indian poondas (thugs) .461

Dealing with those who are responsible for renewal of

residential permit .443

Foreign students who stay off campus are often

apprehensive of strange restrictions imposed on them by landlords

or landladies. Across-sectlon of the students reported that time

Is fixed for them to be in their respective rented rooms beyond

which gates may be locked or threats to vacate rooms are given

by the owners of houses. Entertainment of one's guests-especially

members of opposite sex no matter of the relat ionship, to relax

in balconies and to interact freely with family folks of landlords/

landladies are some of the behaviour patterns not condoned in

India.

In most cases, if not all cases, the students are expected

to pay rent at a fixed date of each month and there is no

compromise about it whether one has money or not. Moreover, there

are numerous pathetic cases whereby the guest students are ordered

to vacate their rented rooms by landlords due to simple reason

of late payment or accumulation of rent for a period of time. The

-89-

possibll i ty of one's reirittance petting delayed from sponsor is never

realized by landlords/ landladies. The African students who study

at A.M.U. in Allgarh, but stay off campus revealed that landlords

are least interested in welfare of their tenants. The rentered rooms

are not maintained, no proper security provided to the students

and their proper t ies . Some of the students reported that landladies

are more understanding and considerate than their counterparts. In

addition to the above difficulties, rents and electricity charges

are exorbitant. There is no doubt that such problems cause anxiety

to the students concerned and make them hopeless.

Some female foreign students are indifferent to some male

foreign students from other countries. The African male students

from Sub-Saharan Africa reported that female foreign students from

Afro-Arab, Arab and other Asian countries depict bizzare behaviours

towards them. This typical behaviour of majority of female

students from the above mentioned places may be due to negative

connotations that the host nationals attribute to and heterostereotype

mentalities generally female students have towards the male students

from particular countries, some female overseas students are

apprehensive of consequences from their male compatriots if they

dare to interact freely with male students from other countries,

a female student may hail from a conservative society and finally,

communication barr ier may cause such volition at t i tudes. By and

large female foreign students have a tendency of ignoring or cold-

shouldering their male counterparts. Ultimately, the male counterparts

feel embarassed, this has precipitated an unfriendly atmosphere b e t ­

ween male-female foreign students.

-90-

The students belonging to A.M.U., D.U., J .M.I , and P.U.

asserted that some teachers are indifferent to foreign students and

manifest discriminatory attitudes against the l a t t e r . The cardinal

point to note is that Indian teachers in general have strong belief

that foreign students are more mentally incapacitated than their

local counterparts. The African students reported that awarding

of marks by some teachers is not objective, that they do not get

marks they deserve no matter how much they become labourious

in their s tudies. Such negative qualities manifested by some

teachers have demoralized the students. Consequently, some of the

students do not work hard for their scholastic achievement because

of lack of positive reinforcements by some teachers .

On and off foreign students are under threats of goondas

(thugs). Some of them intentionally provoke the students because

they are aware that the students are he lp less . This is

psychological intimidation by the host thugs which frightens the

overseas students. One can not dare to differ with or engage into

physical conflicts lest should he be ganged up or shot at by hired

host thugs. This very behaviour by anti-social elements of the

host nationals has instilled xenophobic feelings into the students

to an extent that one hesitates to express h is opinion about the

indigenous people or against India.

The officers and their subordinate staffs who work at

Foreign Registration Offices and are responsible for the renewal

of residential permits to enable foreign students to stay in India

are often "mischievious" and bul l ies . The students may be taken

- 9 1 -

in or punished for t r ivial matters that do not deserve any penalty.

Malpractices of bribe taking and requests for foreign gifts by

officers in F.R.Os. are deep rooted and have become sing songs

to the students.

Considering the above facts it may be concluded that the

relationships between the host nationals and the students are not

friendly, intimate and genuine. Interactions between the two groups

are superficial and limited, hence it is thought appropriate that

factor I be given the t i t le "Relations with the Host Stewards".

Factor II

Items Loading

Indians' habit of "polluting" the environment .717

Violation of traffic rules by the host nationals .700

Indians' habit of spitting in streets .687

Overcharging of items by shopkeepers and

vegetable vendors .595

Absence of wholehearted co-operation from

Indian counterparts .550

Belief the native people have that foreign students

have too much money . .543

There is remarkable difference between popular culture

of the host society and cultural behaviours brought by those

students who come for the sake of studies. The students do not

appreciate much some of the habits of the indigeneous people.

The host nationals' l i festyle, customs, environmental

-92-

cleanliness, food habi t s , languages are strange to most overseas

students. The discrepancy in cultures coupled with dir ty

environmental sights of open drainage and sewage systems which expose

foul l iquids and waste organic matters, defecation that is carried

out everywhere at any time with least inhibitions are the reasons

of lack of more than casual interaction between the native people

and guest students. Those who serve in hostel messes, canteens,

hotels, food and tea stal ls are often untidy. They are habitual

of dipping their fingers into drinking water and glasses of tea.

Choice of restaurant for meals or market place for vegetables or

butchery for beef is problematic because they are not only filthy

but also not inspected for cleanliness; the natives do not comply

with health codes.

Often the hosts violate traffic rules which at times inflicts

the students. Drivers and motor-cycle r iders derive an ecstasy

of delight in following short-cuts , driving/riding at a very high

speed, disobeying traffic l ights , unnecessary hootings and using

improper traffic signs or failure to use traffic signs. Besides,

some of traffic jams are caused by dilapidated conveyers; and

carrying of excess passengers are horr ible sights in India. These

behaviour patterns of the host nationals not only i r r i ta te the

students but also make them anxious and hesitant to accept lift

offered by the native dr ivers or r i de r s . Even if such offers are

accepted by the students s t i l l they become panic s t r icken.

The host nationals have a common belief that foreign

students have too much money. This is a belief which has made

-93-

the students to fall victims of shopkeepers, vendors and

landlords. Daily used items, food stuffs, rents and fare are ever

overcharged when it comes to dealing with guest students.

Nevertheless, some teachers impose tuition on foreign students just

to get money from them. Even if it was genuine tuition initiated

by the students s t i l l they are overcharged as compared to their

local counterparts. Such situations make the students helpless and

frustrated.

Movement from one cultural zone into another presents

certain physical , mental and social challenges to alien students.

The students in India may undergo mental shock of having to adjust

to a new country which may be dramatically different from their

own. The inconsistent behaviours of the host nationals as mentioned

above demoralize the students to an extent that uncontrollable fear

is created in them. As a result the students may become

maladjusted to the receiving society. Therefore, it is suggested

that factor II be given the t i t le "Stress due to Habits and Lifestyles

of the Hosts".

Factor III ,

Items Loading

Getting food at the right time .542

Limit of certified amount for annual expenditure

by University authority .499

Lifting of properties from one's room by the host

nationals or foreign students .496

Drainage and sanitation system ,434

- 9 4 -

Provislon of Foundation courses and compulsory subjects .420

Many overseas students during pilot study at A.M.U. and

the study carried out at the four Universities v i z . , A.M.U., D.U.,

J .M.I , and P.O. by (Odera, 1991) indicated that the students

experience social difficulties that arise due to treatments given

by the native people whose attitudes are not considerate. The

students reported that they wait in queue for long before any services

are rendered. Public servants lack sense of duty. The natives

do not observe punctuality, the principle of first come first served

is not s t r ic t ly followed in the receiving society. Some students

referred to the natives as "racists" because of their preference

always to serve and be considerate to fellow Indians. Servicemen

in shops, waiters in restaurants and hotels attend to the natives

first but not the students even if the lat ter came f i rs t . Meals

are served to the guest students at inappropriate time coupled with

unpleasant state of food. Despite of such prejudice behaviours

against the students, s t i l l waiters demand tips for their poor

services . Failure to give tips implies that next time services

would be even worst.

A section of the students who were interviewed pointed

out that the host nationals look down upon them due to their poor

monetary status. This is as a result of less certified amount for

the whole academic session by the University authorities in

collaboration with respective embassies of different countries the

students come from. The act of certifying the annual expenditure

automatically influences amount to be remitted by one's sponsor.

Most of social difficulties and psychological s t ress arise due to

-95-

lack of substantial amount remitted to the students. Consequently,

one's studies may be messed up with because of lack of enough

funds for subsistance, books, captivation or development funds that

have been introduced to various Universities such as A.M.U. by

the government of India and rents , if any.

The students are apprehensive of the host nationals'

motive to steal thei r proper t ies . The guest students ' houses/rooms and

properties are mostly targeted by the hosts as well as some of

the guest students. Such anti-social activit ies are extended to the

alien students because criminals are aware that the affected students

are helpless to recover their stolen properties or even to convict

the guilty to be punished by law. Even when such cases are

reported to police, they never take action and sometimes ask for

bribe before investigation is carried out. Such attitudes make the

students to bear hardships rather than to lodge complaints against

the native people.

The provisions of Foundation courses, compulsory subjects

and local languages are of no use to foreign students when they

go back to their home lands. Retrospective reports by the students

in the pilot stage revealed that they were coerced to accept certain

subjects or to forgo their studies at particular Universities. In

such situations the students are left with no alternative but to

accept courses/subjects which they have no Interest in and which

may not be of great value to their societies. In the light of the

above arguments it is suggested that factor III be given the t i t le

"Treatment Meted Out".

-96-

Factor IV

Items Loading

Company of opposite sex and sometimes longing for a spouse - .597

Limited scope for recreational facilities - .467

* Making ordinary decisions affecting others - .380

Preparing one's meals - .370

Lending money to friends - .330

Getting remittance from sponsor - .325

Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations

beyond artificial interaction with the native people - .325

Across-section of the students revealed in the phase of

pilot study that they feel lonely due to lack of interaction with

members of opposite sex . The African male students expressed

strong feeling of deprivation not only for lack of company of

opposite sex but also an earnest desire for a suitable marital

partner. This may be due to the fact that the African students

are more advanced in age than Afghan, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian,

Sri Lankan, Thai students, inter alios. Of all the foreign students,

the African students are concerned with marital issues more than

the r e s t . Iranian students and S.1.0. were reticent about issues

of marriage because quite a good number of the former are married

while the lat ter became evasive over such issues due to the

conservative nature of their society. Female foreign students

particularly from Sub-Saharan Africa argued that they too desire

to have company of suitable men who are trustworthy and are

committed to the course of wedlock.

-97-

A section of the African male students at A.M.U. and P.U.

voiced out that complexion of their skin place them at a distance

from Indian members of opposite sex while the Arab students have

advantage of the same. Nevertheless, the two above mentioned

categories of students asserted that Indians are orthodox, hypocrites

and narrow-minded. In the pilot stage, a section of the students in

Aligarh reported that the host nationals are only occupied with

thoughts about sexual relationships whenever a foreign student talks

to or gets on intimate terms with a member of opposite sex, no

matter of the nationality of the partner .

There is scarcity of recreational facilities in India.

Hobbies workshops and well organised cultural activit ies are

lacking in the receiving society. Constructive drama, lectures,

symposiums, educative film shows are rare events, even when

organised are often conducted in local languages which are alien

to most of the students, if not a l l . As a matter of fact, there

is no enthusiasm for both individual and collective sports (e .g .

jogging, skitt ing, badminton, tennis, boxing; excursions, football,

volleyball , basketball , Rugby, sight seeing). Informal

intercollegiate, intramural or interuniversity games and organised

debates are ways to meet people, to excercise, have leisure, to

vent out emotions and above all to pause from studies .

Watching TV and listening to radio are pleasurable. These

sources of entertainment are easily available in India but

presentations of items/programmes are dominated by local events

and broadcasting is done in local languages too, so a few students,

if any, derive pleasure from such ac t iv i t ies . Exchange of ideas

-98-

between the guests students and host nationals may be a suitable

way of confidence building and reduction of psychological s t ress

caused by mental and physical fatigues. Besides, discussion may

eliminate stereotype mentalities held by each group towards the

other. The African students asserted that the Arab students and

the host counterparts become withdrawal when discussion is

init iated.

Significant majority of foreign students at A.M.U. and P.U.

contend that they feel shy and hesitant to make ordinary decisions

that may affect o the rs . This is so because they want to keep

themselves away from controversies and blame that may follow

making decisions that affect o thers . Such individuals may easily

decline to take up social tasks, lead, preside over any social

gatherings and are less vocal. They are l ikely to disintegrate if

they are compelled to take up the above mentioned t a sks .

Moreover, they can be easily manipulated by other students and

the natives who are attention seeking personali t ies.

Lending money to friends may be pleasurable especially

when one has money and equally warmhearted in helping o thers .

However, a handful of the students at the four Universities

mentioned ear l ier , revealed that most of overseas students and

indigenous people whom money is lent to never keep their promises

and are not punctual in returning back the borrowed money. Some

debtors keep money and totally ignore the lenders, some take long

before paying back the money, others assume better financial

conditions of the money lender and yet others go back to their

-99-

native places without paying back their debts to the students.

Such unbecoming behaviours cause anxiety and great dis t ress in the

students who lend out money.

Getting remittance is a remote way of interaction with

sponsors and family folks. It is a token of love and care on the

part of sponsors. Without remittance or any delay of the same

by rerspect ive sponsors creates psychological s t ress on part of

the guest students. Besides, lack of substantial financial support

in India causes unnecessary frustrations to the students. It becomes

difficult to cope with normal daily life of buying books,

subsistence, dealing with landlords and shopkeepers as mentioned

ear l ier . The pilot investigation carried out at A.M.U. indicated

that lack of substantial amount compels some students to become

psychopathic while others terminate thei r studies prematurely.

The African students studying at the four Universities

asserted that studying in India is becoming expensive day by day

yet the amount sent by most sponsors is ever constant even after

inflation and price h ikes . Substantial remittance will not only enable

the students to manage their studies in India but also would enable

them to go out for excursions to other places away from where their

Universities are si tuated, observe/learn the culture of the host nationals

and to find their own sense of identities among the hos ts .

The pilot study carried out on ^ alien students in Aligarh

revealed that they are never encouraged to develop deeper cordial

relations beyond superficial interaction with the host nationals.

-100-

To a higher extent relationships between the hosts-students are

always loaded with suspicion of each other . The students are

antipathic to the local people due to their pronounced ignorance

about the students and their countries of origin. The guest students

are not motivated to develop intimate relationships with the hosts

because the l e t t e r ' s disposition of asking childish or meaningless

questions. Interaction with members of the host society is not

friendly and candid. The host nationals befriend the students with

ulterior motive to gain from them. The native friends hesitate to

or never extend invitation to the guest students to vis i t their

homes, villages or attend social functions. The students have burning

desire to meet the local inhabitants and study the i r culture. As

a consequence, friendship between the two groups is superficial

and not cordial . Keeping in view the content of items with high

loading on the factor, IV may be named as "Pleasure-Unpleasure

of Interaction".

Factor V

Items Loading

Being perceived as an inferior by host nationals .556

Telling Indians what one feels about them .478

Indian men becoming aggressive and hostile finding a

male foreign student talking to an Indian member of

opposite sex .446

Foreign students are expected by host nationals to

adjust to local t ra i ts .441

Being called by insulting names .437

-101-

Being asked foolish/meaningless questions about

ourselves and our home lands .432

Despite the fact that foreign students have been coming

to India for studies for at least the last four decades s t i l l the

host nationals have not understood the former and vice versa . The

pap between the two groups is so enormous that they do not

acknowledge and appreciate each o the r ' s l i fes tyles . A section of

the students reported that the hosts are of the view that they come

to India because it has good Universities, condusive climatical

conditions and humble people. The students from Africa are

perceived as poor and hail from "dark continent" which lacks higher

Institutions of learning and better standard of l i fe . An ordinary

native person considers himself to be better off than African

students in all aspects of l i fe. In general foreign students are

perceived as inferior beings by the native people. As a

consequence, the host nationals' atti tudes reduce self-esteem of the

students.

The students are called names by the local people.

Derogatory remarks are ever passed to the guest students-especially

to those who hail from Africa. They are often called "khalu",

"hapsi", poor, Negroes and less intelligent people. Arab students

are treated with a bit of tolerance though they are sometimes

referred to by the host nationals as "stupid people". All these

remarks increase gulf between the students and hosts , ultimately

hosti l i ty and isolation from each other crop up .

-102-

Across-section of the students who were interviewed during

the pilot investigation in Aligarh, expressed their regrets at the

host nationals' attitudes of being inquisitive to ask nonsensical or

meaningless questions about the students and their respective native

places, th is may be because host nationals are puzzled by the way

the students generally behave or respond to unfamiliar situations

in India. African students are ever irr i tated by the conducts of

the hos t s . Their hair and other parts of their bodies are explored

by the hos ts . They ask senseless questions such as "where did

you originate from?" "Who gave you bir th?" "Do you have

Universities in your country?" "Do you live in jungles?" "Does your

country have aeroplanes?" "Why did you come to India? These

questions and the like embarass the students and demoralize them

both socially and psychologically.

The pilot study carried in Aligarh and the study conducted

on foreign students studying at the four Universities indicated that

Indian men become aggressive, hosti le and sometimes become violent

to the students whenever they are seen talking to Indian lad ies .

These unbecoming behaviours of the local people have in fact

facilitated Indian ladies to ignore even the familiar guest students

in public places. The host men's temperaments towards the students

in relation to-Jndian ladies create psychological s t ress and extreme

social anxiety to the guest students. Subsequently, interaction

between the hosts and guest students is not intimate. The

friendship between the two groups is often personalized in nature.

The natives expect much from the students. They are

expected by the native people to adjust to local t r a i t s . This is

-103-

one way traffic which may disintegrate personalities of the students.

The members of the host society should understand end accommodate

to some extent behaviours brought by the students. Absolute

dismissal of the guest students' infant socialization may affect them

adversely which may lead to future re-entry cr is is since they are

expected to behave according to home cues when they return to their

home lands. Since items with high loading on the factor refer to

negative aspects of relationships with the hos t s , the factor may

be named as "Suspiciousness of Hosts-Guests Relations".

Factor VI

Items Loading

* Meeting strangers and being introduced to new people - .651

Adjusting oneself to foreign students ' community - .626

Understanding the prescribed books - .614

Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times - .549

* Seeing a doctor - .534

Generally foreign students disl ike to meet with strangers

and being introduced to the same because of shocking narrations

about strangers passed over by alumni, unpleasant past experiences

with strangers or fear to shoulder responsibi l i ty . A significant

number of the students from A.M.U. and P.U. revealed that foreign

students studying in Bombay and Delhi are indifferent and evasive

to fellow unfamiliar guest students. It is evident that the students

are often not at ease when introduced to new people because some

of the host members and guest students alike have tendency to

befriend certain alien students due to material needs from the la t te r .

-104-

Besides, they are often apprehensive to go into a room full of

unfamiliar host nationals. This behaviour has been infused into

the minds of the students because of immature conduct of the hosts

who are fond of shouting, booing, staring and laughing at the

students without apparent reason. These tendencies restrain foreign

students from participating in recreational act ivi t ies and other kinds

of social gatherings. As a consequence, interpersonal relationship

between the host nationals and overseas students is res t r ic ted .

Most of the students find it extremely difficult to adjust

to the foreign students ' community. Quite a number of the students

manifest introversion tendencies and a few who mix freely do so

with fellow compatriots. Bodies l ike Foreign Students' Associations/

committees or sororit ies do not exist in many Universities such aas

A.M.U. and J .M.I . Such bodies are important organs to enable the

guest students to interact with each other and may enable them to

have collective approach to their problems. Despite of the efforts

and enthusiasm put by some Universities, for example, D.U. and

P.U. to have active foreign students ' bodies, s t i l l some students

are reserved. They do not show inclination to participate in such

bodies. A cause of concern is the communication barr ier among

foreign students. Afghan, Afro-Arab (Egyptians, Libyans, Moroccans,

Sudanese) Arab, Persian and Thai Students find it a bit difficult

to express themselves in English which is expected to be commonly

spoken and unifying language among foreign students. Such students

feel shy and are embarassed to express themselves before an

audience of several hundred of fellow overseas students.

-105-

Significant majority of the alien students find it a problem

to understand prescribed books. Most of such unfortunate students

are those who are handicapped in English language which is the

medium of instruction in most Universities in India. This may be

due to the fact that such students hail from none-English speaking

countries as mentioned in the above paragraph. Most of such

students have problems with their exams too as compared with

other students who have background of the language.

The students who come to India for studies find the

receiving society to be having unique culture as mentioned ear l i e r .

Significantly, it creates culture shock to the students concerned. Some

students at A.M.U. reported in pilot stage that the University

authority has prescribed ceremonial dress (Sherwani and Kurta

Pa jama) which the students do not prefer and have audacity to

wear. On the other hand, some female foreign students generally

feel uneasy to put on certain styled dresses and sk i r t s due to the

fact that the indigenous people stare at or tease them. Moreover,

such wears are not appreciated by the members of the host society.

Therefore, the students are compelled to put on some wears that

they are not habitual to. This causes considerable discomfiture

to the students.

Foreign students hesitate to go for medication from the

native doctors. This may be due to what they are told about the

negligence of doctors by alumni or colleagues. Alternatively, it

may be due to personal experiences at the hands of those who give

medication. A large section of the overseas students from the four

-106-

Universities asserted that most doctors never diagonise patients

thoroughly. The native doctors have characterist ic of tackling

ailments even when one has no expert ise in the branch of medicine

dealing with particular disease. They seldom refer patients to

other doctors. The students revealed that they are charged much

fee for medication than the native patients. Moreover, doctors

never keep secrets of their patients, this may embarasse some

international students. Of recent time there has been hues and cries

among the students about the results of sample tests being biased

against them. Taking the above points into consideration it may

be concluded that the native doctors do not comply with professional

code of e th ics . Subsequently, the students have become hesitant

to see doctors. In the light of the above discussions it is

suggested that factor VI be given the t i t le of "Reaction to

Unfamiliar People and Situations".

Markers (Items No. 80,93 and 111) included to represent

the factor "Formal Relations/Focus of Attention" and (Items No. 91

and 120) included to represent the factor "Managing Intimate

Relationships" respectively in the study conducted by Furnham and

Bochner (1982) are found to have loading of magnitude of - .532,

-.523 and - .522; and -.490 and .412 respectively on the sixth factor

of the present s tudy. It is to be noted that the markers which

were found to have loading on different factors in the earl ier study

are found to have loading on the same factor in the present s tudy.

It can be pointed out that finding oneself in an unfamiliar situation

makes a person anxious or uneasy. Keeping this implication in view

the markers selected to represent the factor. Formal Relations/

-107-

Focus of Attention are regarded to have the connotation of reaction

to unfamiliar people and situations.

Factor VII

Items Loading

Getting a room in hostel -597

General environmental cleanliness .533

Sharing a room with host counterparts .436

Going on public transport ( trains, buses, aeroplanes e tc . ) .407

Getting a private accommodation off campus .375

Getting foreign exchange when going back to one's country .349

India is a densely populated country, therefore, one

expects large crowds in most p laces . Accommodation in public

places, bus stops, University hostels , hospi ta ls , means of

transportation ( t ra ins , buses, aeroplanes, rickshaws) often become

problematic and chaotic due to unruly crowds of people coupled

with other factors. Getting a room in hostels of various

Universities poses problems to foreign students. Most problems

that affect the students ar ise because of lack of proper

accommodation. Generally they are not easily alloted to hostels ,

but those who are lucky to get hostels may have to share rooms

with other students. Sharing a room with others is quite

frustrating because there is no pr ivacy, studying in room becomes

difficult and there is no comfort in summer due to heat and presence

of roommates. Lack of accommodation for the students at some

Universities (e .g . A.M.U. and J .M.I . ) has facilitated the

authorities to pronounce the policy of "no hostel accommodation"

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for foreign students. Those who study at A.M.U. and P.U.

reported that International Students' Hostels (I .S.Hs.) were

constructed in the two Universities for the students but the

authorities of these Institutions converted the I .S.Hs. into general

hostels to accommodate both foreign students and their local

counterparts.

Sharing a room with local counterparts is regarded as a

major problem by the students of the four Universities. Across-

section of the students asserted that the Indian counterparts are

not considerate, culturally sensitive and fond of indulging in

conversion with their own fellow country men. These are some

situations that create unnecessary barr iers between the guest

students and their host counterparts. The two groups of the

students do not trust each other. Their interaction is not friendly

as such. Foreign students do not believe in friendship with their

local colleagues inspite of practicing i t , this is so because majority

of the local students indulge in petty talks but avoid any

constructive discussions. They also attempt to show their

superiority over their guest counterparts. As a resul t , the guest

students may feel alienated from their local counterparts. The two

groups end up not gaining from each other and remain as strangers

to each other. Eventually the above behaviours reduce interpersonal

relationships and may be sources of the hosti l i ty between the guest

students and their host counterparts.

Most foreign students do not derive pleasure by going on

public transport due to lack of proper management. It is quite

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hectic to travel by ordinary buses and trains, which are the only

means the students can easily afford. Most buses are dilapidated

and are not maintained. Both buses and trains are ever crowded

coupled with filthiness which emanates from crowds especially

during summer. Besides, the local people drive speedly and least

comply with traffic regulations as mentioned in factor I I . The

efforts to get reservations in aeroplanes and trains are often

thwarted due to rush. These conditions create s t ress and

depression to the students especially those who had higher expectations

about the host society.

Indian banks authorities have discriminatory behaviour

to deny the students foreign exchange when they return to their

home lands. The students ' request to have foreign exchange is

often not accommodated. This demoralises those who wish to do

shopping in other countries when en route to their respective

countries of origin. It is unduly behaviour to deny the students

such facilities while they give the same to the host country during

the period of their stay in India. Taking into consideration the

above mentioned facts, factor VII may be called "Accommodation

and crowding".

Factor VIII

Items Loading

Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex .593

Getting admission to a University one desires .402

Quality of food in University messes, canteens and

affordable restaurants .367

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Nagging beggars who go to an extent of bargaining .348

Understanding English spoken by some Indians in Public

Places .347

Getting a course one desires .341

There is no doubt that foreign students who come to India

experience culture shock due to psychological feelings of

hopelessness coupled with homesickness that are part ly axacerbated

by the way host nationals generally behave towards the students.

Such feelings lead to loss of identit ies of the students, they become

maladjusted. Ultimately, academic performance and general studying

habits of the students are adversely affected. One can not lose

sight of the fact that the hosts are less flexible to understand

the guest students ' problems.

Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex no

matter of the nationality of the partner poses problems to many

foreign students. Indian society being orthodox does not easily

permit such relat ionships. Male foreign students at A.M.U., D.U.

and P.U. reported that whenever they attempt to make advances

to Indian ladles , the lat ter have willing obedience but fear of

being treated as out-casts by the fellow nat ives . As a result

there is low level of interaction between the male students and the

native ladies . The cardinal point to take note of is that

relationships between the host males and male foreign students is

of antagonistic in nature due to simple fact that some foreign

students get so intimate with the native ladies as many relationships

end up in wedlocks. Male students from the Sub-Saharan Africa

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and Europe reported that Afro-Arab and Arab students too become

aggressive and violent when other students get on intimate terms

with ladies from thei r respective countries. On the other hand

female foreign students generally revealed that Indian men are

desirable but they lack guts to approach lad ies . Moreover, they

do not know how to conduct themselves decently.

Quite a number of foreign students end up studying at the

Universities which were not of their choices. Only a handful of

the students succeeded in getting admissions to Universities that

they desired and applied to . Most of the well established and

prestigious Universities reject the students. They are left with

no alternatives but to join less prestigious institutions situated in

environments that are not congenial for s tudies . The thwarted

efforts to join a University one desires may lead to poor academic

performance, also social adjustments to such Universities become

difficult.

Getting a course of study one desires is ever increasingly

disappointing in India. Significant majority of foreign students

reported that they study courses they never opted for. The courses

were imposed on them and they were threatened that admissions

would be nullified failure to accept the given courses. Most of

the courses offered to the overseas students are quite general while

seats for professional courses are limited to them. However, there

are usually a few seats reserved for foreign students in certain

professional courses ( e .g . Master of Business Administration, Master

of Tourism Administration, Engineering, inter a l ia . ) at various

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Universities. Even then the authorities make It practically

impossible for the students to get such courses.

The hosts have totally failed to recognise foreign students

food/eating hab i t s . The quality of food provided in University

messes, canteens and easily affordable restaurants are not of

international s tandards. The students are totally ignored in this

area. There is no variety of food. Indian dishes which are

dyspathetic to the students are ever provided, but the students

never enjoy such dishes because of excessive flavours, ghee, pepper

coupled with contaminated condition of food.

Begging in India is a profession. The native beggars are

not only dishonest but also choosers. They bargain and sometimes

reject amount given to them by foreign students in demand of huge

amount. These unexpected behaviours of the beggars i r r i t a te the

students who only give out meagre amount on humanitarian grounds.

Beggars often become hyster ical , they shout at and even curse the

students when they are not given any token. Across-section of the

students in A.M.U. and D.U. asserted that indigenous beggars keep

change when huge amount is given to them of which change may

be required.

The major cause of difficulties for foreign students in India

is communication barrier:. . Besides bureaucratic setting, English

spoken by the natives in public places is not so easy to

understand. There are cases whereby public servants mix up

English and local languages just to disparage the students who need

assistance. English pronounciations of most of the native people

are not dist inct . Besides, non-verbal communications such as usage

-113-

of gestures, facial expressions by the hosts often mislead the

students. Moreover, it is often reported by the host nationals that

when foreign students make genuine complaints or draw attention

to thei r difficulties and press for remedial measures, they are

attributed arrongance and feeling of superiority complex.

Consequently, the students hesitate to approach the natives even

if they have pressing problems. These behaviour patterns of the

hosts have minimized interaction between the hosts and guest

students. Therefore, it becomes difficult for the members of each

group to develop favourable attitudes towards each other. In the

light of above discussions it is suggested that factor VIII be given

the t i t le "Problems of Interaction and Freedom of Choice".

A note is to be taken of the fact that large number of

"markers" (Items No. 7,11,23,48,49,83,89,90 and 131) were not found

useful in defining the factors extracted in the present study

because; (i) They have low loading and ( i i ) markers of the same

factor are scattered in different factors in the present study.

Having extracted eight factors underlying the problems

of foreign students it was decided to have a scale for each of the

identified dimensions. The items selected to represent the eight

extracted factors in accordance with the cr i ter ia laid down in

chapter III , are indicated in appendix II .

It may be noticed that connotations of some items overlap,

but th is is inevitable as it is not easy to compartimalize social

difficulties experienced by foreign students in India.

C H A P T E R . V

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Canclusion

Perhaps the contemporary transnational movements of

students and scholars bear the imprint of ancient times. People

of different cultures came in contact due to different reasons. The

interaction among people who belong to different cultures and ethnic

groups of the same nation or of different nations has been for

certain concrete pvirposrs such OB Irndo nncl conuuerco, to tcoch,

learn, conquer, convert, for amusement e tc . Whatever i ts purpose

may be, the interaction provided the opportunity to members of

one culture to know about other cultures.

However, the great movement of students and scholars

across cultural boundaries started after the end of second World

War. Even then, it is very evident that the phenomenon is not new

and so are the socio-psychological problems associated with i t .

In 1980s, to study abroad was no longer regarded as only an

individual 's scholarly pursuit, it is also an instrument of national

reconstruction in the case of developing countries; diplomacy,

accumulation of goodwill and clout in the case of technologically

and economically advanced nations.

Irrespective of the contact situation being positive or

negative, the initial contact of a person arriving in a new culture

setting is described as "culture shock". The term culture shock

was initially introduced by Oberg (1960) to denote the dis t ress

experienced by the sojourners in a new culture as a result of losing

all the familiar cues of social interaction. These cues may include:

how to shake hands, what to say when certain people are not, how

-115-

to make purchases and when to accept or refuse invitations. These

cues rosy be communicated by words, gestures, facial expressions

and customs that are acquired by all people in the course of infant

socialization. If the sojourners do not understand behaviour patterns

of members of the receiving society, then they may face frustrations

of various intensit ies.

Bochner (1981) proposed a view which states that the

major task that faces sojourner i s not to adjust to a new culture,

but to learn i ts salient features. He reported that if the sojourner

was to work effectively in an alien culture and lead a relatively

stress free and fulfilling life the person must acquire the social

skil ls of the host society. The consequences of adopting a culture

learning model of the cross-cultural sojourn are as follows : (i)

Failures and problems experienced by the sojourners need not to

be regarded as symptoms of some underlying pathology but rather

due to lack of the necessary cultural ski l ls and knowledge. The

remedial measures may be provided by application of standard

training methods v i z . , modelling, video-feedback and homework.

(11) Adjusting a person to a culture has connotations of cultural

chauvinism. This implies that the new comers should abandon the

culture of origin in favour of embracing the values and customs

of the host society. However, learning a second culture has not

such ethnocentric overtones. There are numerous cases in life when

it becomes necessary to learn a practice even if one does not

approve of it and then later abandon the custom when circumstances

have changed. For instance, An English gentleman in Japan will

-116-

learn to shove his way onto the Tokyo subway, but resumes his

norinal queing practices after returning home. The act at tracts notice

only when the appropriate ski l l is not available or is used in

an inappropriate circumstances.

The purpose of the present study was to device an

instrument to assess social difficulties faced by foreign students

in India. Such an instrument is needed for conducting a

comprehensive study of the factors involved in the outcomes of

interaction between the alien students and the host nationals.

Although measures of difficulties experienced by foreign students

in V/estem countries are available, the measures of difficulties

experienced by international students in India is to be devised

because the difficulties are specific to the level of socio-economic

development, cultural, social and the living conditions specific to

the host country.

The study was conducted in two phases . In phase I a

pilot study was conducted on a group of 32 foreign students studying

at A.M.U. in Aligarh in order to generate the pool of i tems.

The respondents were asked to write down their experiences since

their ar r ival in India. Those who are/were proficient in English

wrote down their difficulties on their own. Those who have/had

problems with the language were assisted by the investigator to

write down their experiences. The Ss are In the age range from

18-40 years . Both male and female foreign students were

interviewed.

-117-

The Ss mentioned a wide range of problems v i z . ,

intellectual and academic, food habits and services offered at places

of meals, financial or economic, negative or discriminatory

behaviour of transportation agents and difficulties in travelling,

harsh cllmatical conditions, d i r ty environment and persons al ike,

feeling hesitant to express oneself, dishonesty by both members

of the host country as well as some fellow foreign students,

relationships with members of opposite sex, indigenous men becoming

aggressive especially when male foreign students talk to indigenous

members of opposite sex, the way of putting on, none availabil i ty

of proper accommodation, lack of freedom of expression, political

turmoils at home, nostalgic feelings, religious faith and one's

position among those who belong to different religious groups and

too much time taken to render services in public offices.

The main study was conducted on the guest students

studying at the four Northern India Universities v iz . , A.M.U.,

D.U., J .M.I , and P.U. to find out their : expectations about India,

perceptions of the members of the host society and experiences

in India. 280 respondents were drawn from the four Universities

mentioned above, they were asked to give their responses on a

5-point scale to each of the 150 items. The final sample of study

was constituted of 200 Ss whose questionnaire was successfully

completed. The analysis of the content of the questionnaire that

was returned by the Ss led to the identification of categories of

difficulties : educational system, food habi t s , economic,

transportation system, weather, health, accommodation, unfair

dealings, social or cultural, communication, polit ical, personal,

religious and time (Odera, 1990).

-118-

Items were formulated to represent each category of

problems. A matrix of intercorrelatlons among 150 social items was

obtained using Pearson's product moment correlation. Factor analysis

of the matrix yellded 14 factors out of which 8 were retained and

rotated by Kessler 's Varimax method. Factor scores of 200 Ss on

each of the eight factors were obtained and using Ql and Q3 of

the factor scores high and low groups were found. The significance

of difference between means of high and low groups for every item

was determined by "t" tes t . The selection of the items in each

of the eight subscales was done on the basis of five cri teria e.g.

(i) factor loading of the items, ( i i ) discriminative index of the

items as indicated by significant "t" value, ( i i i ) removal of

overlapping by including an item in the scale for the factor on

which it has relatively higher loading, (iv) other things being

equal an item shall be included in a factor scale where the pool

of items is smaller and (v) Ten best items are to be included in

a factor scale.

The outcome of the present study has revealed that foreign

students in India face eight major problems. These are as follows:

Relations with the Host Stewards, Stress due to Habits and

Lifestyles of the Hosts, Treatment Meted Out, Pleasant-Unpleasant

of interaction. Suspiciousness of Hosts-Guests Relations, Reaction

to Unfamiliar People and Situations, Accommodation and Crowding

and Finally, Problem of Interaction and Choice. Eight factor scales

were constructed to assess the dimensions of difficulties experienced

by foreign students in India. The sets of items selected according

to the cri teria mentioned above are given in appendix II .

Amir, Y. contact 105-15.

and and

Ben-Arl, atti tude

-119-

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Triandis, H.C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive complexity and interpersonal attitudes, Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Learning (Edited by Brislin, R.W., Bochner, S. and Lonner, W.J . ) , Wiley, New York.

Triandis, H . C , Bontempo, R.V.M.J. , Asai, M. et a l . (1988). Individualism and collectivism : Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relat ionships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 323-33.

Uehara, A. (1986). The nature of American students re-entry adjustment and perceptions of sojourn experience. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(4), 415-38.

Warren, N. (1977). Studies 1. Academic Press , London.

in Cross-cultural Psychology, Vol.

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Williams, R.M., J r . (1947). The reduction of intergroup tensions (Bull 57) New York : Social Science Research Council.

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of the scapegoat theory of and Social Psychology, 43,

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(1948). Journal

Limitations of Abnormal

- 1 2 5 -

APPENDIX 1

Original Pool of Items

Dear f r iend,

1 am a student of Psychology from Aligarh Muslim University, and currently doing research on "A Study of Social Diff icult ies of Foreign Students in India". I therefore, would wish to take this opportunity to request you to share with me your personal experiences. I h i s can be done by reporting the level of d i f f icul ty which you have experienced in respect to each of the social situations l isted below.

Kindly read the following instructions carefully so that you may be able to give your responses in specified manner.

You are to read each item in the social situations questionnaire provided to you, and then indicate how much d i f f i cu l ty , i f any, you have experienced in those situations since arr iva l In India.

Your responses should be related to your experiences in India not your home country.

Having d i f f icu l ty is hereby defined as feeling anxious, frightened, embarassed, uncomfortable/uneasy and experience of thwarted efforts.

You are requested to give you responses on a five point scale : very low level or almost absent, slight d i f f i cu l ty , moderate d i f f i cu l ty , high d i f f icu l ty and very high d i f f i cu l ty .

Indicate your responses by inserting cross-mark (XJ in the boxes provided.

Give your responses frankly and spontaneously as I assure you that your feelings and experiences shall not be used for any other purposes other than research. Anonymity w i l l be wi thheld.

Last but by no means the least, your co-operation w i l l be highly appreciated.

Thanks in anticipation. Sincerely yours,

Peter Odera, M.Phi l . (Psychology), Deptt. ol Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarti.

PRELIMINARIES

Age , Sex , Class

Present Nationality

Date of ar r iva l in India

Present University

-126-

1. Being invi ted to social functions by Indian f r iends .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

\Z2 cz: dZ] era 2. Taking par t in recreat ional a c t i v i t i e s .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

cz: czn c 3 . Indigenous peop le ' s knowledge of the surroundings (Public

Oftices, Shops e t c . ) -

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high

almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

I—I cz: cz: cz: cz: 4. Obtaining ass is tance from police when complaint i s lodged.

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

zz zz zz 5. Treatment given by some t eache r s .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

ZZ zz z:: 6. Getting a room in hostel.

czD zz zz zz c 7. Going on publ ic t ransport ( t r a ins , buses , aeroplanes e t c . ) .

ZZ zz 8. Talking about rel igious bel iefs to someone who belongs to a

different fa i th .

zz zz 9. Studying of local languages or any o ther international languages

other than English as compulsory sub jec t s .

ZZ zz 10. Lacking opportunity to go to discotheques or dances .

czn zz zz c: 11. Waiting in a Q (queue) .

[z: zz zz nzD zz 12. Prevalence of t radi t ion of b r ibe in most of the publ ic offices,

ZZ zz zz zz zz 13. Language b a r r i e r between one and some foreign s tudents from other

countr ies .

14. ZZ z z

Frequent e lectr ic i ty blackouts.

I I I I

L_J

1 1 czn zz

-127 -

15. Foreign s tudents are expected by the host nationals to adjust to local t r a i t s .

Very low or Slightly Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

D rZ] Cin CIH CZD 16. Understanding English spoken by some Indians in publ ic offices.

czi CD cn ciJ 17 . Getting admission to a University one d e s i r e s .

cm czi (zii czi [zii] 18. Going to market to buy food stuffs.

u u i_j izzi c i : 19. Nagging beggars who go to an extend of bargaining.

czD czi uiD en 20. Getting/given subjects that one d e s i r e s .

cm cz: CZ3 cz: czD 2 1 . Sharing a room with one 's compatriot .

CZD CZl CU C l l C l l 22. Getting very intimate with a member of opposite s ex .

CD CD CD CD CD 23. Shopping In a large super market .

IZZl CD CD CD DD 24. "Coine tomorrow" stance in public offices.

IZZl CD CD CD L 25. Quality of food In the University messes , canteens and affordable

r e s t au ran t s .

CD CD CD 26. Studying In University l i b r a ry where there are shortages ot

faci l i t ies ( text books, bu l le t ins , c h a i r s , r ev iews , t ab les , journals , a b s t r a c t s , a i r conditioned systems e t c . ) .

CD CD CD CD CD 27. Drainage and sanitation sys tems .

CD CD CD CD CD 28. Limit of cert if ied amount for annual expendi ture by the University

au thor i ty .

cm cm cm cm 29. Getting food at the r ight t ime.

cm cz: cm czn cm 30. Missing those foreign s tudents who became good friends durinp

one 's stay In India since they left for the i r respec t ive countr ies .

cm cm cm zz cm students becoming serious only two months

cm cz: cm cm 31 . Some teachers and students becoming serious only two months or

so to exams.

-128 -

32. Sound pollution (shouts , c r a k e r s , unnecessary hooting and raving of automobiles) .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

33 . Attending cultural programmes/functions which are alien to you.

34. Being asked foolish questions/meaningless about ourselves and our home l ands .

cm IZJ CI3 ZID 35. Attendance system in c l a s s .

IZ3 dJ Um UZ3 36. Dealing with police force.

37. Distance between places ( c i t i e s , Univers i t ies , s t a tes e t c . ) in India .

cm (zu cz: czj 36. Indian men becoming aggresBlve and hos t i le finding male foreign

student talking to an Indian member of opposi te s e x .

cz: czu czu z z 39. Telling Indians what one feels about them.

zz zz zz cz: izz 40. Communal tensions or r io t s in India .

z z cz: ziD czD i: 41 . Preparing one ' s meals .

cz czi zz zz zz 42. Touching of ha i r and s imi lar other attemps to probe our dis t inct

physica l features by nat ive people .

] cz: ZZ cz: ZZ 43. Getting a p r iva te accommodation off campus.

ZZ nZD CZD CZJ CZD 44. Being in a class of at least fifty s tudents .

CZ: CZ3 CZ: C Z J CZ3 45. General environmental c leanl iness .

ZZ CZ3 cz: CZJ z z 46. Being depr ived of the pleasure to Interact with members ot

opposite sex due to absence of co-educational system at under­graduate level In some inst i tut ion.

CZ: CZJ zz CZJ CZJ 47. le l l ing other nationals what one feels about them.

CZJ z z CZJ CZJ z z 48. Dealing with people staring at you.

CZJ L:Z CZJ CZJ CZJ

-129-

49. Going into a room fu l l of people.

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icul ty

um m cz] uu m ' 50. Ignorance of majority of officers and their subordinates about

procedures of various things/what is to be done in public offices.

[ZZl LZ2 en IZ2 d} 51. Provision of Foundation courses and compulsory subjects.

cm czn ciu cm CZJ 52. Sharing a room with foreign students from other countries.

1—! I—I r~i 1—1 53. Company of opposite sex and sometimes longing for a spouse.

iZD cm cm cm cmi 54. Expressing opinion freely about everyday happenings in th^

country ( India) .

cm cm cm cm 55. Becoming tense due to the tendency of Indian ladies/men cold

shouldering you.

cm cm cm cm cm 56. House rent.

cm cm czi] cm cm 57. Getting entertainment the way one desires.

cm cm cm cm cm 58. Management of railway transportation system.

cm cm cm cm cm 59. Social security in India.

\Z3 cm cm cm cm 60. Telling friends (compatriots) what one feels about them.

cm cm mD cm cm 61. Waiting for remittance.

mj cm m: cm cm 62. Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations beyond

ar t i f i c ia l interactions with the native people.

cm cm cm c 63. An unhygenic behaviour of service men at canteens, tea and food

stal ls .

cm m : cm cm 64. Over charging of items by shopkeepers and vegetable vendors.

cm cm cm cm en 65. Cheating in exams by the local counterparts.

m : cm uzi cm cm 66. Travelling with indigenous people on/by same conveyance.

cm cm cm cm cm

-130-

67. Lifting of properties from one's room by the host nationals or foreign students.

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty

z~sj czj CZ2 : z : 68. Getting foreign exchange when going back to one's country.

iZ2 czj C::J i-2 69. Communicating to non English speaking people.

r~i c:z] cz: czj uz: 70. Having strong feelings of home sickness.

izz cz: Lz: czn LZ] 71. When threatened of physical assault by indigenous people.

i—! czi r~~\ rz: L:Z 72. De9ling with auto-drivers and rickshaw wallahs when i t comes

to paying fare,

zz -z: zz zz czj 73. Being discriminated against by employees in public oftices

administrative block, proctor's off ice, foreigners registration office e tc . ) .

cz: zz cz: zia L_Z 74. Understanding the prescribed books.

ZZ LZj Lz: zz rz3 75. Being perceived as an inferior being by host nationals,

ZZ z z z z L~2 ZZ 76. Size of my or our room.

ZZ zz cz: czj LZJ 77. Behaviours of Indian ladies/men are stuck up.

LZ2 czD cz: cz: cz: 78. Adjusting oneself to foreign students' community.

cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 79. Guidance at a i rpor ts .

ZZ zz cz: Zz cz: 80. Dealing with people of higher status than you.

cz: cz: cz: ccz cz: 81. Cheating in exams by some foreign students from other countries.

cz: czj cz: cz: cz: 82. Talking about pol i t ical and religious matters to others.

cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 83. Meeting strangers and being introduced to new people.

CZJ zz cz: cz: cz: 84. Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times.

cz: cz: zz cz: cz:

-131-

85. Coping with curr iculuir .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very liiwti almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

CZl LID CO Z-JD C:n 86. Initiating and maintaining re la t ionship with a member of opposi te

s e x .

B7. Unfriendly a t t i tudes of some female foreign s tudents from other countr ies .

88. Unfriendly a t t i tudes of some male foreign s tudents from other countr ies .

c:zi czi CZ3 cz: 89. Making ordinary decisions affecting o t h e r s .

czi cm CZD rzD cz: 90. Going into res taurants or cafes.

cm cm cm cm cm y i . Understanding jokes , humour and sarcams.

cm cm CZ3 c::3 92. Dealing with people of a closed or conservat ive soc ie ty .

cm cm cm cm cm 93 . Seeing a doc to r .

cm cm cm cm 94. Indians ' hab i t of "polluting" the environment.

cm cm cm cm cm 95. Being sold substandard and expired i tems .

cm cm cm cm c 96. Being unaware of reservat ion of sea ts for ladies in a bus.

cm cm cm cm c: 97. Getting a course one d e s i r e s .

im: cm cm cm cm 98. Sharing a room with host counterpar ts .

cm cm cm cm cm 99. Teaching and examination sys tems .

cm cm cm cm cm 100. Being accompanied by Indian friends who do not behave in a

proper manner.

cm cm cm cm czi] 101. Eve-teasing behaviours of Indian boys towards gir ls /women.

cm cm cm cm 102. Getting remittance from sponsor .

cm czD cm cm cm

-132-

103. Examination system in which some students cheat.

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icul ty

CZn CIZ! IZ3 CZl CIJ 104. Failure to be comforted and sympathised with when in problem

by Indians.

105. Increment in price of daily used commodities.

106. Expressing oneself in English.

107. Great difference in habits and cultural approaches.

CZ3 c m cz : c m cm 108. The manner in which police men behave.

cm c m cm cm cm 109. Restrictions imposed by landlords or landladies.

cm :m cm cm n o . Being discouraged to go to place of prayer/worship due to

distance, size of church, mosoue and temple coupled with other reasons.

cm cizi cm c m cm 111. Appearing in front of an audience.

cm c m CZ3 cm cm 112. Dealing with those who are responsible for renewal of residential

permits.

cm cm cm cm 113. Some teachers keeping away from (ignoring) foreign students.

cm cm m: cm cm 114. Dealing with Indian goondas (thugs).

cm cm cm cm cm 115. Cold weather conditions (winter) .

cm cm cm cm cm 116. Being cheated and misinformed by those who work in public

offices.

cm cm cm cm cm 117. Rationing of water.

cm cm cm cm cz: 118. Amount being received from the sponsor.

m: cz: czn cm cm 119. Explaination of certain points in local languages by some teachers

cm czi czD zz cz:

-133-

120. Taking the Initiative in keeping the conversation going. Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty

121. Belief the native people have that foreign students have too much money.

122. Lack of discussion about academic work with classmates.

123. Limited scope of recreational facilities.

124. Friendship proposals from members ol opposite sex most of which seem to be just for the sake of having a lover.

dj mi c::3 cm c~3 125. Absence of wholehearted co-operation from Indian counterparts.

c::: cizi cza CZD 126. Waiting for one's cheoue, M.O. or draft to be cleared by bank.

127. No seriousness in approaches taken by the native people.

dj czn czj cz: en 128. Violation of traffic rules by the host nationals.

cn fizi cz: cu CD 129. Selecting a course of study one desires.

130. Being called by insulting names.

IZZI 113 \ZD tZ3 dl 131. Using public and private toilet facilities.

cz: cu nn d3 izn 132. studies being more or less theoretical than practical.

IZZ d CZ\ CD dl 133. Getting informations regarding admissions etc.

dl dl d2 dl d3 134. Transportation charges (fare).

dl d2 dl dl dl 135. Chances of buying all texts prescribed in the syllabi.

dl dl dl dl dl 136. Unfriendly attitudes of Indian women and girls.

d2 dl dl CZl dl 137. Talking about war going on in one's country.

mz cz: czj cz:

-134-

138. Unfriendly attitudes of some foreign students (g i r l s ) .

Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d l f l l cu l ty di f f icul ty d i f f icul ty d i f f icu l ty

139. Awarding of marks by some teachers.

140. Host nationals are not ready to adjust to or appreciate foreign habits brought by foreign students,

LID cm cz'2 cu rJD 141. Proper guidance regarding what to study/how to study not belnp

Imparted,

CU CI2 ZZ2 142. Medical care for foreign students in India.

(ZU dj IZ3 143. Coping with roommate(s),

cz: czi czi 144. Cheating in exams by students from one's country

czn cz : izzi 145. Indians' habit of spitting In streets.

izzi (zzi c z : 146. Hot weather conditions (summer).

im CZ] CZ3 147. Meeting with one's teachers.

ZZI ZZI CZ3 148. Lending money to fr iends,

cz: c:z c:z cz: cz: 149. Dealing with those who are short tempered, cross and aggresslvu

cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 150. Classes being run/conducted too much l ike high school,

cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: Please mention any other di f f icul t ies that you may have

experienced that are not l isted above, and also indicate intensity as you have done for the di f f icul t ies stated above. Use page 135,

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-136-

APPENDIX II

List of Items Selected for Factor Scales

S.No. in S.No. in Items Loading the final the initial Questio- pool nnaire

70

11

46

21

68

139

114

112

134

135

Scale I 58* 109 Restrictions imposed by landlords .492

or landladies

34 087 Unfriendly attitudes of some female

foreign students from other countries .481

Awarding of marks by some teachers .470

Dealing with Indian goondas (thugs) .461 Dealing with those who are responsi­ble for renewal of residential permits .443

Transportation charges (fare) .441

Chances of buying all texts prescribed in syl labi .426

29 126 Waiting for one's cheque, M.O. or draft to be cleared by bank .424

62 036 Dealing with police force .412

75 129 Selecting a course of study one desires .410

Scale II

48 094 Indians' habit of "polluting" the environment .717

57 128 Violation of traffic rules by host nationals .700

27 145 Indians' habit of spitting in streets .687

78 064 Overcharging of items by shopkee­pers and vegetable vendors .595

55 125 Absence of whole hearted co-opera­tion from Indian counterparts .550

-137-

31 121 Belief the native people have that foreign students have too much money

59

33

56

23

027

051

040

050

.543

26 105 Increament in price of daily used commodities .536

25 032 Sound pollution (crackers , hooting etc.) .534

07 101 Eve-teasing behaviours of Indian boys/men towards girls/women .532

74 107 Great difference in habi ts and cultural approaches .530

Scale III

15 029 Getting food at the right time .542

10 028 Limit of certified amount for annual expenditure by University authority .499

67 067 Lifting of properties from one's room by the host nationals or foreign students .496

Drainage and sanitation systems .434

Provision of foundation courses

and compulsory subjects .420

Communal tensions or r iots in India .413

Ignorance of majority of officers and their subordinates about procedures of various things/what Is to be done in public offices .410

76 024 Come tomorrow stance in public offices .409

14 004 Obtaining assistance from police when complaint is lodged .360

12 131 Using public and private toilet facilities .354

Scaale IV

50 053 Company of opposite sex and some­times longing for a spouse -.597

39 123 Limited scope for recreational facilities -.467

06

36

24

52

041

010

148

062

-138-

63 089 Makaing ordinary decisions affecting others - -380

Preparing one's meals - .370

Lacking opportunity to go to discotheques or dances - .355

Lending money to friends - .330

Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations beyond artificial interaction with the native people - .325

54 102 Getting remittance from sponsor - .325

49 091 Understanding jokes, humour and

sarcasm - .317

41 Oil Waiting in a Q (queue) - .309

Scale V 71 075 Being perceived as an inferior being

by host nationals .556 35 039 Telling Indians what one feels about

them .478

64 038 Indian men becoming aggressive and hostile finding a male foreign student talking to an Indian member of opposite sex .446

37 015 Foreign students are expected by host nationals to adjust to local t ra i t s .441

30 130 Being called by insulting names .437

53 034 Being asked foolish/meaningless questions about ourselves and our home lands .432

03 140 Host nationals are not ready to adjust to or appreciate foreign habits brought by foreign students .418

51 136 Unfriendly attitudes of Indian women/girls .415

17 002 Taking part in recreational activit ies .413

-139-

42 071 When threatened of physical assault by indigeneous people .407

Scale VI

28 083 Meeting strangers and being intro­duced to new people - . 651

79 078 Adjusting oneself to foreign students ' community - .626

Understanding the prescribed books - .614

Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times - .549

Seeing a doctor - .523

Coping with roommate(s) - .514

Treatment given by some teachers - .509

Expressing opinion freely about everyday happenings in the country (India) - .505

43 003 Indigenous people 's knowledge of the surroundings (Public Offices,

60

02

08

66

77

13

074

084

093

143

005

054

20

01

22

69

65

73

38

09

04

014

006

045

098

007

043

044

068

056

Shops e t c . )

Frequent e l e c t r i c i t y b lackouts

Scale VII

Getting a room in hos t e l

General environmental c leanl iness

Sharing a room with hos t counter­p a r t s

Going on pub l ic t r a n s p o r t ( t r a i n s , buse s , ae rop lanes e t c . )

Getting a p r i v a t e accommodation off campus

Being in a c l a s s of at l e a s t fifty s tudents

Getting foreign exchange when going back to one ' s country

House ren t

- . 4 8 6

- . 4 7 2

.597

.533

.436

.407

.375

.366

.349

.333

-140-

44 042 Touching of hair and similar other attempts to probe our distinct physical features by the native people .306

16 001 Being invited to social functions by Indian friends .300

Scale VIU

05 022 Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex .593

18 017 Getting admission to a University one desires .402

45 025 Quality of food in University messes, canteens and affordable restaurants .367

19 019 Nagging beggars who go to an extend of bargaining ' .348

40 016 Understanding English spoken by some Indians in public offices .347

61 097 Getting a course one desires .341

80 100 Being accompanied by Indian Friends who do not behave in a proper manner .339

72 031 Some teachers and students becoming serious only two months or so to exams .337

47 099 Teaching and examination systems .314

32 070 Having strong feelings of home sickness .301

* Serial numbers are assigned by draw of lot .