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SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND WORD STRESS IN HAJJI AND HUDAIDI YEMENI DIALECTS OF ARABIC IN THE
LIGHT OF OPTIMALITY THEORY
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy IN
LINGUISTICS
By
MUHAMMED JUBRAN NAJI NAJI AL-MAMRI
Under the supervision of
SHABANA HAMEED PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002
(U.P.) INDIA
2018
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND WORD STRESS IN HAJJI AND HUDAIDI YEMENI DIALECTS OF ARABIC IN THE
LIGHT OF OPTIMALITY THEORY
ABSTRACT OF
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Doctor of Philosophy IN
LINGUISTICS
By
MUHAMMED JUBRAN NAJI NAJI AL-MAMRI
Under the supervision of
SHABANA HAMEED PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002
(U.P.) INDIA
2018
i
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH - 202 002 (INDIA)
ANNEXURE-I
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I, Muhammed Jubran Naji Naji Al-Mamri, Department of Linguistics, certify that
the work embodied in this thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under
the supervision of Prof. Shabana Hameed at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award
of any other degree.
I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research
workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I
further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other’s work, paragraph, text, data,
result, etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, thesis, etc., or
available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.
Date............................. (Signature of the Candidate)
MUHAMMED JUBRAN NAJI NAJI AL-MAMRI
Enroll No.: GI5679
......................................................................................................................................
CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISOR
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best
of my/our knowledge.
(Signature of the Supervisor)
Prof. Shabana Hameed
Department of Linguistics
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh - 202 002 (India)
(Signature of the Chairman with Seal)
Department of Linguistics
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh - 202 002 (India)
ii
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH - 202 002 (INDIA)
ANNEXURE – II
COURSE WORK/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE-SUBMISSION
SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Muhammed Jubran Naji Naji Al-Mamri, Department of
Linguistics has satisfactorily completed the Course Work/Comprehensive Examination
and Pre-Submission Seminar requirement which is part of his Ph.D. programme.
Date: ....................... (CHAIRMAN)
Department of Linguistics
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh - 202 002 (India)
iii
ANNEXURE – III
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE
Title of the Thesis: SYLLABLE STRUCTURE AND WORD STRESS IN
HAJJI AND HUDAIDI YEMENI DIALECTS OF ARABIC
IN THE LIGHT OF OPTIMALITY THEORY
Candidate’s Name: MUHAMMED JUBRAN NAJI NAJI AL-MAMRI
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER
The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, copyright
that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D. degree.
(Signature of the Candidate)
Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material
extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s
personal use provide that the source and the University’s copyright notice are
indicated.
iv
Acknowledgement
First and for most, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Almighty Allah for
endowing me with power, courage and determination for enabling me to successfully
conduct this study.
My most sincere thanks go to my supervisor Prof. Shabana Hameed for her practical
advice, patience, answers to each and every question that I could ask, and for her
continued encouragement, her comprehensive and profound knowledge in the field of
phonology, along with her devotion and perfect guidance that positively influenced the
shape of this thesis.
I would also like to express my gratitude to Chairman Prof. S. Imtiaz Hasnain
who took his precious time to read and comment on the earlier version of the proposal for
this thesis. My words are unable to tell him how much he has influenced me with his
humbleness, humanity and immense knowledge.
I also would like to thank my teachers Prof. A.R.Fatihi, Mr. Masood Ali Beg, Dr. Nazrin.
B. Laskar, Dr. Samina A.A. Surti, Dr. Sadia. H. Husain, Dr. Abdul Aziz Khan of the
Department of Linguistics, AMU. My deep appreciation goes to all my classmates in
Department of Linguistics, AMU. I would also like to extend my warm thanks to my
friend Amjed Daboan for his support and encouragement. I would also like to express my
gratitude to all academic and administrative staff in the Linguistics Department, AMU
and to the Library staff. Last but not the least, I would like to express my deepest sense of
gratitude to my loving mother for all the love and affection, for all the prayers, and for all
tears she shed during my sojourn in India. I would also like to thank all members of my
family, my father, grandmother, brothers, and my sister for the faith they have in me, my
brothers among whom Walled deserves special mention.
Muhammed Jubran Naji Naji Al-Mamri
v
ABSTRACT
The present thesis operates on two dialects Hajji, which is spoken in Hajjah,
and Zabidi, which is spoken in Zabid. Zabidi itself is a kind of Hudaidi dialect. This
thesis investigates a comprehensive analysis of the syllable structure and word stress
found in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic (HYA and ZYA) through the
framework of Optimality Theory (OT). Hajji and Zabidi are dialects of Arabic spoken
in the north-western of Yemen. This is the first work that achieves a comprehensive
analysis of the syllable structure and word stress through Optimality Theory for Hajji
and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic.
Primary date was gathered from native speakers of Hajji and Zabidi dialects of
Arabic through interviews and questionnaires. The researcher is also a native speaker of
Hajji dialect. Both, quantitative and qualitative methods were used in data analysis in
this work. Qualitative analysis was conducted through Optimality Theory on syllable
shape and word stress of Hajji and Zabidi dialects to select the optimal candidate after a
competition among the candidates and conflicts between MARKEDNESS and
FAITHFULNESS constraints. Quantitative analysis was carried out through the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16, which included descriptive
statistics to know the frequencies, the percentages and valid percentages of types
syllable and canonical structures inside each type in HYA and ZYA.
There are specific features (properties) to the syllable structure and word stress
of Hajji dialect which differ from Zabidi dialect and which also differ from some
Yemeni dialects spoken around HYA and ZYA like Tazi, Ibbi and Sana’ai. HYA and
ZYA also differ from Modern Standard Arabic. It is seen that consonant clusters
occur only word finally in Hajji dialect and the maximum number of complex coda is
two like MSA and as opposed to some Yemeni dialects which permit complex coda
while consonant clusters are permitted in all positions in Zabidi dialect (initial, medial
and final). The maximum number of complex coda and complex medial are two and
the maximum number of complex onset is three in ZYA, formed by combining
voiceless palatal fricative /∫/ plus voiceless dental-alveolar stop /t/ with any of the
following consonant sounds (/l/, /r/, /m/, /ʔ/, /b/, /s/, /ħ/, /sˤ/, /χ/) as in the structure
/CCCV:C/ of the word /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”.
vi
Syllable in Zabidi dialect can be classified into light as in /CV/, heavy as in
(/CVC/, /CCV/), super-heavy as in (/CV:C/, /CVCC/ , /CCV:/, /CCVC/, /CCV:C/,
/CCVCC/) and Ultra–heavy syllables as in (/CCCVC/, /CCCV:C/, /CCCVCC/)
whereas in Hajji dialect light as in /CV/, heavy as in (/CVC /, /CV:/), super-heavy as
in (/CV:C/, /CVCC/, /CV:CC/) while Ultra–heavy syllables are not found in HYA.
The percentages and frequency analysis of types of syllables in Hajji dialect
reveal that, disyllabic words have the highest percentage 43.4% and show 305 words
(frequency) while pentasyllabic words have the least percentage 3.4% and show 24
words (frequency). Closed canonical structures in monosyllabic words (/CVCC/,
/CV:C/, /CVC/ and /CV:CC/) have the higher percentages as compared to the open
canonical structures /(CV:/ and /CV/) in Hajji dialect. While the percentages and
frequency analysis of types of syllables in Zabidi dialect reveal that, disyllabic words
have the most predominant percentage 51.4% and show 414 words (frequency) while
tetrasyllabic words have the least percentage 5.7% and show 46 words (frequency).
Super-heavy syllables have the higher percentages as compared to light, heavy or
ultra-heavy syllables in ZYA.
ONSET is the highest ranked in Hajji, while *COMPLEXCOD
and
*COMPLEXONS
are higher ranked than NO-CODA. Moreover MAX-IO and DEP-
IO (faithfulness constraints) are also higher ranked than NO-CODA in HYA. In
Zabidi dialect, ONSET is the highest ranked while MAX-IO and DEP-IO are higher
ranked rather than *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEXCOD
in ZYA.
NO-CODA is considered to be lower ranked in Hajji and Zabidi. It is
frequently violated because HYA and ZYA allow coda and coda clusters (closed
syllables) as in (/CV:C/, /CV:C/, /CVC/, /CCVC/, /CV:CC/, /CCCV:C/, /CVCC/,
/CCCVCC/ and /CCCVC/). While *COMPLEX
ONS is violated in Zabidi more than
Hajji because most of candidates in ZYA begin with two or three consonants
(complex onset) as in /ħsan/ “better”, /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”. While, in HYA all the
candidates begin with one consonant (simple onset) as in /ħar/ “hot”, /ba:b/ “door”.
The final hierarchy rank of syllable structure constraints in Hajji and Zabidi
dialects are organized as follows: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
vii
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA. While
The final hierarchy rank of word stress constraints in Hajji and Zabidi dialects are
organized as follows: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
It may be mentioned that after analysis of HYA and ZYA under Optimality
framework, it is observed that they not only differ from one another, but also show
difference from MSA in terms of many phonological considerations like phonemic
inventory (consonants, vowels and diphthongs), types of syllables, classification of
syllables, consonant clusters, structures of syllable and constraints in Optimality
Theory. The present analysis of Hajji and Zabidi dialects of Arabic will help in
providing a base for further research in the area of Optimality Theory to future
researchers.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Annexure – I ...................................................................................................... i
Annexure – II..................................................................................................... ii
Annexure – III ................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................... iv
Abstract ............................................................................................................. v-vii
Table of Contents .............................................................................................. viii-xiii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... xiv-xvi
List of Figures ................................................................................................... xvii-xviii
List of Abbreviations and Symbols .................................................................... xix-xx
List of Constraints ............................................................................................. xxi
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................ 1-20
1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 The Places where the Dialects are Spoken .............................................. 1
1.1.1 Hajjah .......................................................................................... 2
1.1.1.1 Geographical Location and Population of Hajjah City . 2
1.1.1.2 Background of Hajjah City ........................................... 3
1.1.2 Zabid ............................................................................................ 4
1.1.2.1 Geographical Location and Population of Zabid City .. 4
1.1.2.2 Background of Zabid City ............................................... 5
1.2 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................ 5
1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................. 6
1.4 Significance of the study .......................................................................... 6
1.5 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................... 7
1.6 Limitations of the study ........................................................................... 8
1.7 Background on Syllable Structure and Word Stress in Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) ........................................................................... 9
1.7.1 The Phonemic Inventory in MSA ................................................ 10
1.7.2 Vowel Sounds in MSA ................................................................ 10
1.7.3 Types of Syllables in MSA .......................................................... 10
1.7.4 Patterns of Syllables in MSA ....................................................... 10
ix
1.7.5 Consonant Clusters in MSA......................................................... 10
1.7.6 Word Stress in MSA .................................................................... 11
1.8 The Developments of Phonology............................................................. 11
1.8.1 Generative Phonology .................................................................. 12
1.8.2 Lexical Phonology ....................................................................... 17
1.8.3 Optimality Theory ........................................................................ 18
1.9 Outlines of the Thesis .............................................................................. 18
Chapter 2: Review of Literature .................................................................. 21-62
2.0 Introduction .............................................................................................. 21
Part-I: Optimality Theory (OT) ...................................................................... 21
2.1.1 Brief an Overview of Optimality Theory.............................................. 21
2.1.2 The most Important Notations of OT.................................................... 24
2.1.3 The Components of Optimality Theory (OT) ....................................... 25
2.1.4 The Conflicts between Constraints (Markedness and Faithfulness)
in OT ..................................................................................................... 26
2.1.5 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT .......................................... 27
2.1.5.1 Markedness Constraints ......................................................... 27
2.1.5.1.1 Onset .................................................................... 27
2.1.5.1.2 No-Coda ............................................................... 28
2.1.5.1.3 * COMPLEXONS
.................................................. 29
2.1.5.1.4 * COMPLEXCOD
.................................................. 30
2.1.5.2 Faithfulness Constraints ......................................................... 30
2.1.5.2.1 MAX-IO ............................................................... 30
2.1.5.2.2 DEP-IO ................................................................ 30
Part-II: Syllable Structure ............................................................................... 31
2.2.1 The Phonemic Inventory ....................................................................... 31
2.2.2 Syllables ................................................................................................ 33
2.2.3 Syllable Structure .................................................................................. 34
2.2.3.1 Onset ...................................................................................... 36
2.2.3.2 Nucleus .................................................................................. 38
2.2.3.3 Coda ....................................................................................... 39
x
2.2.4 Types of Syllable Structure ................................................................... 40
2.2.5 Syllable Weight ..................................................................................... 46
2.2.6 Consonant Clusters ............................................................................... 48
2.2.6.1 Initial Clusters ........................................................................ 48
2.2.6.2 Medial Clusters ...................................................................... 52
2.2.6.3 Final Clusters ......................................................................... 52
2.2.7 Theoretical Background ........................................................................ 57
Part-III: Word Stress ....................................................................................... 58
2.3.1 Overview of Stress ................................................................................ 58
2.3.2 Word Stress Patterns ............................................................................. 58
2.3.3 Stress Constraints in OT ....................................................................... 62
2.3.4 Chapter Summary ................................................................................. 62
Chapter 3: Research Methodology ............................................................... 63-73
3.0 Introduction .............................................................................................. 63
3.1 The Statements of the Research Questions .............................................. 63
3.2 Population ................................................................................................ 63
3.3 Sample of the Study ................................................................................. 64
3.4 Instruments ............................................................................................... 65
3.4.1 The Questionnaire ....................................................................... 66
3.4.1.1 The questionnaire design .............................................. 66
3.4.2 The Interview ............................................................................... 69
3.4.2.1 The interview questions ................................................ 70
3.5 Pilot study ................................................................................................ 70
3.6 The validity and reliability of the data ..................................................... 71
3.7 Data collection ......................................................................................... 72
3.8 Procedures for Data Analysis ................................................................... 72
3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 73
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis ....................................................................... 74-249
4.0 Introduction .............................................................................................. 74
Part I: Hajji Dialect.......................................................................................... 74
4.1.1 The Phonemic Inventory of HYA ......................................................... 74
xi
4.1.1.1 Consonant Sounds of HYA .................................................... 74
4.1.1.1.1 Description of Consonants in HYA ..................... 77
4.1.1.1.2 Distribution of Consonants in HYA .................... 79
4.1.1.1.3 Consonantal Contrasts in HYA ............................ 82
4.1.1.2 Vowel Sounds in HYA .......................................................... 84
4.1.1.2.1 Description of Vowels in HYA............................ 85
4.1.1.2.2 Distribution of Vowels in HYA ........................... 86
4.1.1.3 Diphthongs in HYA ............................................................... 87
4.1.2 Types of Syllables in Hajji Dialect ....................................................... 87
4.1.2.1 Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .................................... 88
4.1.2.2 Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .......................................... 91
4.1.2.3 Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ......................................... 94
4.1.2.4 Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ..................................... 97
4.1.2.5 Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ..................................... 99
4.1.3 Structure of Syllable in HYA ................................................................ 102
4.1.3.1 Onset in HYA ......................................................................... 102
4.1.3.2 Nucleus in HYA ..................................................................... 103
4.1.3.3 Coda in HYA ......................................................................... 103
4.1.4 Classification of Syllables in HYA ....................................................... 105
4.1.5 Consonant Clusters in HYA.................................................................. 106
4.1.5.1 Final Consonant Clusters in HYA ......................................... 106
4.1.6 An OT Analysis of Syllable Structure in Hajji Dialect......................... 123
4.1.6.1 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT Related
to the Syllable Structure in Hajji Dialect ............................... 123
4.1.6.1.1 Markedness Constraints ...................................... 123
4.1.6.1.1.1 ONSET Constraint ......................... 123
4.1.6.1.1.2 NO-CODA ..................................... 124
4.1.6.1.1.3 *COMPLEXONS
............................. 127
4.1.6.1.1.4 *COMPLEXCOD
............................. 128
4.1.6.1.2 Faithfulness Constraints ...................................... 128
4.1.6.1.2.1 MAX-IO ......................................... 128
xii
4.1.6.1.2.2 DEP-IO .......................................... 130
4.1.6.2 Syllables Weight in Hajji Dialect ......................................... 134
4.1.7 Word Stress Patterns in Hajji Dialect ................................................... 144
4.1.8 An OT Analysis of Word Stress in Hajji Dialect .................................. 149
Part II: Zabidi Dialect...................................................................................... 159
4.2.1 The Phonemic Inventory of ZYA ......................................................... 159
4.2.1.1 Consonant Sounds of ZYA .................................................... 159
4.2.1.1.1 Description of Consonants in ZYA...................... 162
4.2.1.1.2 Distribution of Consonants in ZYA ..................... 163
4.2.1.1.3 Consonantal Contrasts in ZYA ............................ 165
4.2.1.2 Vowel Sounds in ZYA ............................................................ 167
4.2.1.2.1 Description of Vowels in ZYA ............................. 168
4.2.1.2.2 Distribution of Vowels in ZYA ...................................................... 169
4.2.1.3 Diphthongs in ZYA................................................................. 170
4.2.2 Syllable Types in Zabidi Yemeni Dialect ............................................. 171
4.2.2.1 Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect .................................. 171
4.2.2.2 Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ....................................... 175
4.2.2.3 Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ...................................... 180
4.2.2.4 Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ................................... 184
4.2.3 Structure of Syllable in Zabidi Dialect ................................................. 188
4.2.3.1 Onset in ZYA ......................................................................... 188
4.2.3.2 Nucleus in ZYA ..................................................................... 189
4.2.3.3 Coda in ZYA .......................................................................... 190
4.2.4 Classification of Syllables in ZYA ....................................................... 192
4.2.5 Consonant Clusters in ZYA .................................................................. 194
4.2.5.1 Initial Consonant Clusters in ZYA ........................................ 195
4.2.5.2 Medial consonant clusters in ZYA ........................................ 200
4.2.5.3 Final Consonant Clusters in ZYA .......................................... 203
4.2.6 An OT Analysis of Syllable Structure in Zabidi Dialect ................... 215
4.2.6.1 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT Related
to the Syllable Structure in Zabidi Dialect ............................. 215
xiii
4.2.6.1.1 Markedness Constraints in ZYA .......................... 215
4.2.6.1.1.1 ONSET ........................................... 215
4.2.6.1.1.2 NO-CODA ..................................... 216
4.2.6.1.1.3 COMPLEXONS
............................... 218
4.2.6.1.1.4 *COMPLEXCOD
............................. 218
4.2.6.1.2 Faithfulness Constraints in ZYA ........................ 219
4.2.6.1.2.1 MAX-IO ......................................... 219
4.2.6.1.2.2 DEP-IO .......................................... 220
4.2.6.2 Syllables Weight in Zabidi Dialect ........................................ 223
4.2.7 Word Stress Patterns in Zabidi Dialect ................................................. 235
4.2.8 An OT Analysis of Word Stress in Zabidi Dialect ............................... 239
4.2.9 Summary and Conclusions ................................................................... 248
Chapter 5: Results and Findings ................................................................... 250-264
5.1 Summary and Conclusions ...................................................................... 250
5.2 Results and Main Findings ...................................................................... 251
5.3 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................... 262
Bibliography .................................................................................................... 265-271
Appendices ....................................................................................................... 272-313
Appendix – A Questionnaire 1 (For Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Appendix – B Questionnaire 2 (For Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Appendix – C Interview schedule (For Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Appendix – D Interview schedule (For Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Appendix – E Data of Hajji dialect
Appendix – F Data of Zabidi dialect
Publications
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Consonant Sounds in MSA ............................................................ 9
Table 2.1: The Phonemic Consonants of (TLA) ............................................. 32
Table 2.2: Types of Syllable in TYA and MSA .............................................. 43
Table 2.3: Types of syllables in Kuwaiti Arabic (KA) .................................... 45
Table 3.1: The Number of Participants from HYA and ZYA ......................... 64
Table 3.2: Frequency and the Percentage of the Participants in HYA and ZYA
According to their Gender .............................................................. 65
Table 3.3: The Number of Participants for the Questionnaires
of Two Dialects .............................................................................. 67
Table 4.1: Consonant Sounds in HYA ............................................................ 75
Table 4.2: Exemplification of HYA Consonants ............................................. 76
Table 4.3: Distribution of Consonants in HYA ............................................... 79
Table 4.4: Distinctive Features (Consonant Sounds) for Hajji Dialect ........... 83
Table 4.5: Distinctive Features (Vowel Sounds) for Hajji Dialect .................. 86
Table 4.6: Diphthongs in HYA and MSA ....................................................... 87
Table 4.7: Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ............................................. 88
Table 4.8: The Distribution of the Syllable Types of Words
in Hajji Dialect ............................................................................... 90
Table 4.9: Percentages of Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .................... 90
Table 4.10: Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ................................................. 92
Table 4.11: Percentages of Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ........................ 93
Table 4.12: Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ................................................ 95
Table 4.13: Percentages of Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ....................... 96
Table 4.14: Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ............................................ 98
Table 4.15: Percentages of Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .................... 98
Table 4.16: Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ............................................ 99
Table 4.17: Percentages of Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ................... 100
Table 4.18: Percentages of Syllable Types in Hajji Dialect............................. 101
xv
Table 4.19: Final Stop - Consonant Clusters in HYA ...................................... 109
Table 4.20: Final Fricative - Consonant Clusters in HYA ............................... 110
Table 4.21: Final Two Consonant Clusters in HYA ........................................ 114
Table 4.22: Consonant Sounds in ZYA ........................................................... 159
Table 4.23: Exemplification of ZYA Consonants............................................ 161
Table 4.24: Distribution of Consonants of Zabidi Dialect ............................... 163
Table 4.25: Consonantal Contrasts in ZYA ..................................................... 165
Table 4.26: Distinctive Features (Consonant Sounds) for Zabidi Dialect ....... 166
Table 4.27: Distinctive Features (Vowel Sounds) for Zabidi Dialect .............. 170
Table 4.28: Diphthongs in ZYA and MSA ...................................................... 170
Table 4.29: Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ......................................... 172
Table 4.30: Percentages of Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ................ 174
Table 4.31: Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect .............................................. 176
Table 4.32: Percentages of Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ...................... 179
Table 4.33: Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ............................................. 181
Table 4.34: Percentages of Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ..................... 183
Table 4.35: Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect .......................................... 185
Table 4.36: Percentages of Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ................. 186
Table 6.37: Percentages of Syllable Types in Zabidi Dialect .......................... 187
Table 4.38: Simple and Complex Coda in ZYA .............................................. 191
Table 4.39: Two Initial- Stop Consonant Clusters in ZYA ............................. 195
Table 4.40: Two Initial -Fricative Consonant Clusters in ZYA....................... 196
Table 4.41: Two Initial- Nasal Consonant Clusters in ZYA ............................ 197
Table 4.42: Two initial- Tap consonant clusters in ZYA................................. 198
Table 4.43: Two Initial- Glide Consonant Clusters in ZYA ............................ 198
Table 4.44: Initial Two- Consonant Clusters in ZYA ...................................... 199
Table 4.45: Final Nasal - Consonant Clusters in ZYA .................................... 205
Table 4.46: Consonant Sequences in Zabidi Dialect ....................................... 208
Table 5.1: Phonemic Inventory of HYA, ZYA and MSA ............................... 251
Table 5.2: Number of Consonant Clusters in HYA, ZYA and MSA .............. 252
Table 5.3: Classification of Syllables Structure in HYA and ZYA ................. 254
xvi
Table 5.4: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage Types
of Syllable Structure in HYA and ZYA ......................................... 258
Table 5.5: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage Canonical
Structures Inside each Type of HYA ............................................. 260
Table 5.6: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage Canonical
Structures Inside each Type of ZYA .............................................. 261
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Map of Yemen (HYA and ZYA) ................................................... 2
Figure 1.2: Map of Hajjah City ......................................................................... 3
Figure 1.3: Map of Zabid City .......................................................................... 4
Figure 1.4: The Developments of Phonology ................................................... 11
Figure 1.5: Structure of GP ............................................................................... 12
Figure 1.6: Model of LP .................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.1: Elimination of less- Harmonic Candidates in OT .......................... 23
Figure 2.2: The Components of OT .................................................................. 25
Figure 2.3: Prosodic Hierarchy of Syllable ....................................................... 33
Figure 2.4: Syllable Structure ........................................................................... 35
Figure 2.5: Number and Position of the Consonant Cluster:
Three- Initial Consonant Cluster (CCCV-) .................................... 51
Figure 2.6: Lists Combinations Final Four- Consonant Clusters in English .... 52
Figure 2.7: Number and Position of the Consonant Cluster:
Three-Final Consonant Cluster (-VCCC) ....................................... 53
Figure 3.1: Frequency of Participants in HYA and ZYA ................................. 65
Figure 4.1: Short Vowels in HYA .................................................................... 84
Figure 4.2: Frequencies of Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .................... 91
Figure 4.3: Frequencies of Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect .......................... 94
Figure 4.4: Frequencies of Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ......................... 97
Figure 4.5: Frequencies of Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ..................... 99
Figure 4.6: Frequencies of Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect ..................... 100
Figure 4.7: Frequencies of Syllable Types in Hajji Dialect .............................. 101
Figure 4.8: Diagrams of Final Consonant Clusters in HYA ............................. 115
Figure 4.9: Short Vowels in ZYA ..................................................................... 167
Figure 4.10: Frequencies of Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ................ 175
Figure 4.11: Frequencies of Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ...................... 180
Figure 4.12: Frequencies of Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ..................... 184
Figure 4.13: Frequencies of Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect ................. 186
xviii
Figure 4.14: Frequencies of Syllable Types in Zabidi Dialect .......................... 187
Figure 4.15: Diagrams of Occurrence of Onset and Coda Consonant
Clusters in Zabidi Dialect ............................................................. 209
Figure 5.1: Diagrammatic Representation of the Results ................................. 263
xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
MSA : Modern Standard Arabic
HYA : Hajji Yemeni Arabic
ZYA : Zabidi Yemeni Arabic
TYA : Taizi Yemeni Arabic
TLA : Tripolitanian Libyan Arabic
NA : Najdi Arabic
OT : Optimality Theory
IPA : International Phonetic Alphabet
GEN : Generator
EVAL : Evaluator
GP : Generative Phonology
LP : Lexical Phonology
C : Consonant Sound
V : Vowel Sound
C1 / C2, ….Cn : Constraint 1 / Constraint 2 ,… Constraint n
UG : Universal Grammar
IO : Input-Output
SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences
PL : Plural
SG : Singular
M : Masculine
F : Feminine
DU : Dual
NOM : Nominative Case
ACC : Accusative Case
POSS : Possessive
N : Nucleus
R : Rhyme
xx
O : Onset
C : Coda
CC : Consonant Cluster
μ : Mora
>> : Dominate
: Optimal candidate
WSP : Weight-to-Stress –Principle
MAX-IO : Maximal input- output
DEP-IO : Dependent input- output
* : The violation of a constraint
! : The violation of the constraint is fatal
** : Multiple violations
xxi
LIST OF OT CONSTRAINTS
Set of Optimality Theory constraints by Prince and Smolensky 1993 and Kager 1999.
ONSET : Syllables must have onsets
NO-CODA : Syllables are open
*COMPLEXONS
:
Onsets are simple
*COMPLEXCOD
:
Codas are simple
MAX-IO : Every segment of the input has a correspondent
in the output
DEP-IO : Every segment of the output has a correspondent
in the input
*LLL : Assign one violation mark for three light
syllables
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) : Syllables are maximally mono-moraic”.
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) : Syllables are maximally bi-moraic”.
*3µ : No trimoraic syllables”.
*FINAL –G : Word- final geminates are prohibited”.
*FINAL- C- µ : Word- final coda consonants are weightless”.
NONFINALITY : No foot is final in PrWd
UNEVEN-LAMB : (LH) ˃ (LL), (H)
GRWD = PRWD : A grammatical word must be a prosodic word
PARSE-SYL : Feet are parsed by feet
WSP : Heavy syllables are stressed
FT-BIN : Feet are binary under moraic or syllabic analysis
RIGHTMOST : The head foot is rightmost in PR WD
LEFTMOST : The head foot is leftmost in PR WD
Chapter 1: Introduction
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This thesis shows a comprehensive analysis of the syllable structure and word
stress as implemented within Optimality Theory (OT) for Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni
dialects of Arabic (HYA and ZYA), spoken in the north-western Yemen. In Hajji and
Zabidi dialects, there are specific features (properties) of the syllable shape and word
stress which differ from Modern Standard Arabic, and which also differ from some
Yemeni dialects, spoken in surrounding areas, to HYA and ZYA like Tazi, Ibbi and
Sana‟ai and which also differs from MSA. It also sheds light on the most and the least
frequencies and percentages which includes types of syllables and canonical
structures inside each type in HYA and ZYA. This chapter gives an overview of the
places where the dialects are spoken. It also presents the geographical location and
population on Hajji and Zabidi dialects. Then, it highlights the objectives, research
questions and significance of the study. Furthermore, it presents limitations of the
study and statement of the problem. It presents a brief background on phonemic
inventory, types of syllables, patterns of syllables, consonant clusters and word stress
in Modern Standard Arabic. Finally, it gives a brief overview of the developments of
phonology.
1.1 The Places where the Dialects are Spoken
The study was carried out in Hajjah city and AL-Hudaidah, especially in
Zabid city, the place where Hajji and Zabidi, Yemeni dialects of Arabic (HYA and
ZYA), are spoken. Hajjah and Zabid are parts of Yemen. Yemeni Arabic language
belongs to the Semitic family of languages. Yemen is one of the most important and
largest Arab countries in western Asia of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is bordered
by Saudi Arabia in the north, by the Red Sea in the west, by Oman in north-east and
by Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden in the south. Yemen is shaded in yellow in the
following map:
Chapter 1: Introduction
2
Figure 1.1: Map of Yemen (HYA and ZYA)
1.1.1 Hajjah
1.1.1.1 Geographical Location and Population of Hajjah City
Hajjah is located in the north-western part of the Republic of Yemen. Hajjah is
the capital of Hajjah governorate and is located over 127km from the capital of
Yemen, Sana‟a. Hajjah is the area that is connected to the north by Saa‟da and Saudi
Arabia, to the south by the governorates Hudaidah and AL-Mahweet, to the east by
Amran governorate, to the west by the Red Sea and part of Hudaidah. Hajji Yemeni
Arabic is a dialect spoken in the city of Hajjah. The population of Hajjah governorate
is 2,350,000, around 7.5% of the total population of Yemen. According to the number
of population, Hajjah occupies the fifth place among the governorates of the Republic
of Yemen. The area is about 8226 km2.
Hajjah has 31 districts as follows: Abs, Haradh, Bakil AL Mir, Aflah Al
Yaman, Hayran, Bani Al Awam, Aflah Ash Shawm, Hajjah district, Al Jamimah,
Hajjah City, Bani Qa'is, AL Maghrabah, Khayran Al Muharraq, Al Mahabishah,
Ku'aydinah, Al-miftah, Kuhlan Affar, Ash Shaghadirah, Mabyan, Qafl Shamer, Ash
Shahil, Kuhlan Ash Sharaf, Qarah, Aslem, Kushar, Midi, Sharas, Mustaba, Wadhrah,
Najrah and Washhah. Hajjah region is shaded orange in the following map:
Chapter 1: Introduction
3
Figure 1.2: Map of Hajjah City
1.1.1.2 Background of Hajjah City
Agriculture and grazing are the major activities of the population in Hajjah
governorate. Fruits, vegetables and grains are the most important agricultural crops.
Moreover, fishing and bee keeping are also the main activities of the population in
Hajjah. The movement of transport and trade are the most important commercial
activities through the part of Haradh which is adjacent to the Saudi border. In Hajjah,
there are a lot of minerals such as gold, nickel, copper … etc. Furthermore, the tourist
attractions in Hajjah are one of the most important historical attractions in Yemen
such as Cairo Castle, Jabil Noman and Saadan palace. There are also a lot of
picturesque landscape such as, Wadi Shars and Waterfalls of Valley in Ain Ali. In
Hajjah, there are a lot of archaeological mosques which are characterized by their
wonderful art such as, Hora mosque and some archaeological mosques in Dhafer.
High mountains and houses decorated give an amazing beauty to the city. The climate
in Hajjah is mild in summer and mild cold in winter with rain falling in summer.
Chapter 1: Introduction
4
1.1.2 Zabid
1.1.2.1 Geographical Location and Population of Zabid City
Zabid is a Yemeni town with a long history, located in the province of
Hudaidah, in average position of Tihama between two agricultural valleys. The first
valley Wadi Rumma, is in the north of the city, and the second valley while Wadi
Zabid, is in the south of the city. Zabid was named according to its location in the
middle of the valley, in the heart of this beautiful valley, opposite to the sea and the
mountain. Zabid rises about 100 m above the Sea level. Zabid is connected to the
south by Aden, to the north by Saudi Arabia. Zabid is about 233 km south from the
capital of Yemen Sana‟a and 95 km to the south-east from the city of Hudaidah. The
population of Zabid is 130,000. Zabid region is in the map below:
Figure 1.3: Map of Zabid City
Chapter 1: Introduction
5
1.1.2.2 Background of Zabid City
Zabid was the capital of Yemen from 13th
to 15th
centuries and one of the
oldest traditional towns in Yemen. Zabid is claimed to be the first Islamic city in
Yemen because of the magnificent mosque here, which was built in 628 AD by Abu
Musa Ashaari, which is characterized by its beauty and decorations, and also due to
its Islamic university which played an important role in spreading Islam. Zabid is a
city of many mosques and religious schools but is also city of science and scientists
established here are schools of jurisprudence, astronomy, agriculture, medicine,
arithmetic, algebra, space and other sciences which are taught in this city.
Agriculture is also very popular in Zabid due to its fertile lands, and the most
popular agricultural crops in Zabid are fruits and vegetables such as grapes, bananas,
pomegranates, figs, lemons, tomatoes, watermelons, flowers, jasmine, roses and
narcissus. Zabid has two natural ports; the first port of Glefka and the second is the port of
Al-Fazza which were an essential source for commercial development. Zabid has five
doors, to the north of the city; Bab Siham, to the south, Bab Al-Qurtub, to the east, Bab
Al-Shabarq, to the west, Bab A-Nakhil, to the south-east, Bab Al-Naser. Zabid is
surrounded by a wall of ivory built in the third century AH during the reign of prince
Salama. The architecture of Zabid is characterized by elegant geometric design patterns
that create psychological and aesthetic comfort to anyone visiting the city. The climate of
Zabid is very hot and humid in summers, whereas in winter, it tends to be moderate.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
1- To investigate the syllabification patterns of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects
of Arabic, hereinafter referred to as HYA and ZYA, dialects spoken in the city
of Hajjah and the city of Zabid to the northwestern part of Yemen.
2- To provide a comprehensive analysis of the syllable structure and word stress
in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic within the framework of
Optimality Theory.
3- To explore the patterns of word stress attested in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni
dialects of Arabic.
4- To know the most and the least frequent, and percentage types, of syllable
structures in Hajji and Zabidi dialects.
5- To know the most and the least frequent, and percentage of canonical
structures inside each type of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects.
Chapter 1: Introduction
6
1.3 Research Questions
1- How are Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic different from Modern
Standard Arabic?
2- What is the comprehensive analysis of the syllable shape and word stress in
Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic within the framework of
Optimality Theory?
3- What are the patterns of word stress attested in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni
dialects?
4- What are the most and the least frequent and percentage types of syllable
structures in Hajji and Zabidi dialects?
5- What are the most and the least frequent, and percentage of canonical
structures inside each type of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects?
1.4 Significance of the Study
The present study is significant and novel in the area of Optimality Theory as
it not only presents a description of the syllabic structure of the two dialects under
study, but it also goes a step further when it takes into consideration the frequencies
and percentages of each optimal candidate. Therefore, novelty lies in the fact that the
optimal candidates have been treated in a new quantitative light.
This study has an immense future significance pertaining to educators and
scholars of the phonology of Arabic. According to our information, this is the first
work that has been done on phonology of Yemeni Arabic, which focuses mainly on
syllable structure and word stress of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic
within the framework of OT as introduced by Kager (1999), Prince & Smolensky
(1993). This study provides a comprehensive in depth analysis of the syllable shape
and word stress from the data which is provided by native speakers of Hajji and
Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic, which is spoken in Yemen through Optimality
Theory. The results of this study would assist the researchers, through OT analysis, to
know the constraints which are used in syllable structure and the constraints which are
used in word stress. Moreover, this study is also significant to assess which of the
constraints are more important and dominant than other constraints to select as the
optimal form (the actual output) of HYA and ZYA.
Chapter 1: Introduction
7
The results of this study can play an effective role in the organization of the
phonological processes of Arabic, especially of Yemeni Arabic variety used in HYA
and ZYA. This study gains its significance by the process of transcription which has
been done through International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which clears all the
difficulties and misconceptions. The data in this study was collected through
interviews and questionnaires from the native speakers of Hajji and Zabidi of Yemeni
Arabic.
Katamba (1989) discusses that the syllable plays a decisive role in
conditioning the application of phonological rules internal to a language. This study
provides an in-depth descriptive analyses on syllable types, i.e. a word /qalb/ “heart”
is monosyllabic word of the canonical structure /CVCC/. Therefore, it would help the
researchers to know the number of canonical structures inside every syllable type and
which canonical structures are more used in Yemeni Arabic in HYA and ZYA. This
study is also significant because it would help educators and scholars to deal with
structure of syllable (onset, nucleus and coda) i.e. onset is obligatory whereas coda is
optional in Arabic. Therefore, this study is very significant as it helps researchers to
know the maximum and the minimum number of consonant clusters in any position of
the syllable (initial, medial and final) of Yemeni Arabic variety used in HYA and
ZYA. In consonant clusters in ZYA, if a syllable begins with /∫/ consonant, the second
sound must be /t/ and the third sound must be one of the following sounds /l, r, ħ, sˤ, ʔ,
χ, b, s/.
1.5 Statement of the Problem
The main problem we faced in this study was to know the optimal candidate,
how to get the optimal output from a group of candidates in syllable structures and
word stress of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic through OT as introduced
by Kager (1999), Prince & Smolensky (1993). For example, the word /qalb/ “heart”
has four candidates /qa.lib/, /qalb/, /qab/ and /qal/, the problem lies in the selction of
the optimal output.
Another problem lies in syllable divisions. Researcher had to face many
difficulties in syllable divisions, when there are words that consist of multisyllabic
words, and how we decide on the division between syllables (Roach, 2002:77). The
canonical structure /CVCCVC/ is syllabified as /CVC.CVC/, /CV.CCVC/ and
/CVCC.VC/ and to know as to which syllable division is the correct one. The first
Chapter 1: Introduction
8
canonical structure is /CVC.CVC/, where the syllable boundary is between two heavy
syllables (between two consonants). While, the second canonical structure is
/CV.CCVC/, where the syllable boundary is between light syllable /CV/ and heavy
syllable /CCVC/. Whereas, the third canonical structure is /CVCC.VC/, where the
syllable boundary is between two heavy syllables, heavy syllables which end with
consonant clusters /CVCC/ and light syllables which begin with a vowel /VC/.
For example, the word /maktab/ “office” is polysyllabic (multisyllabic) with
the shape /CVCCVC/. The problem happens when we decide to syllabify between
syllables, it is syllabified as /mak.tab/, /ma.ktab/ or /makt.ab/. According to the first
word /mak.tab/, the syllable boundary lies between two consonants /k/ and /t/. While
in the second word /ma.ktab/, the syllable boundary lies between light syllable /ma/
and heavy syllable /ktab/. Whereas in the third word /makt.ab/, the syllable boundary
lies between two syllables, heavy syllable which ends with consonant clusters /makt/
and light syllable which begins with a vowel /ab/.
1.6 Limitations of the Study
1- The study was conducted in two Yemeni governorates, these are:
(i) Hajjah governorate, especially in Hajjah city of Yemeni Arabic (HYA).
(ii) AL-Hudaidah governorate, especially in Zabid of Yemeni Arabic (ZAY).
2- The study is limited to syllable structure and word stress of Hajji and Zabidi
Yemeni dialects of Arabic through OT as introduced by Prince & Smolensky (1993),
Kager (1999).
3- The data in the present study were collected from Yemeni students who are also
native speakers of Hajji and Zabidi dialects of the academic year (2016 – 2017).
Moreover, students were from two universities in Yemen i.e. College of Education,
Zabid, which belongs to AL-Hudaidah University and University of Hajjah. It
consisted of students of the first, second, third and fourth levels. Also, students
belonged to a university in India – Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), where Yemeni
students are studying. The researcher himself is from AMU. Therefore, the sample of
this study consisted of three hundred and sixty participants of two dialects.
Chapter 1: Introduction
9
1.7. Background on Syllable Structure and Word Stress in Modern Standard
Arabic (MSA)
Table 1.1: Consonant Sounds in MSA
B
ilab
ial
Lab
io-d
enta
l
Inte
r-d
enta
l
Den
tal-
alv
eola
r
Pala
tal
Vel
ar
Uvu
lar
Ph
ary
n-g
eal
Glo
ttal
Plosive b
t d
tˤ dˤ
k q ʔ
Affricates ʤ
Fricative
f
Ө ð
ðˤ
s z
sˤ ∫ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Tap r
Glide w j
By Watson (2002: 13)
Chapter 1: Introduction
10
1.7.1 The Phonemic Inventory in MSA
The consonant sounds of MSA, as presented in Table 1.1 above, consists of 28
consonants, as in the following (/b, t, d, k, dˤ, q, tˤ, ʔ, m, n, ʤ, f, Ѳ, ðˤ , ð, ʕ, s, z, sˤ , ∫,
χ, ʁ ,ħ ,h, r, l, j, w/.
1.7.2 Vowel Sounds in MSA
In MSA, there are 6 vowels as given in the following examples:
/i/ as in /bint/ “girl” /i:/ as in /ti:n/ “figs”
/a/ as in /ʕaql/ “mind” /a:/ as in /qa:l/ “he said”
/u/ as in /qutˤn/ “cotton” /u:/ as in /nu:r/ “light”
1.7.3 Types of Syllables in MSA
There are six types of syllables in MSA as given below:
Monosyllabic words as in /ħilm/ “dream”
Disyllabic words as in /ʔa.kil/ “food”
Trisyllabic words as in /qa.ra.ʔa/ “he read”
Tetrasyllabic words as in /ʕi.rif.ta.hum/ “I knew them”
Pentasyllabic words as in /Ɂis.taʕ.ma.lat.hum/ “she used them”
Hexasyllabic words as in /tˤa:.li.ba.tu.hu.ma:/ “student (NOM.SG.F)3DU.poss”
1.7.4 Patterns of Syllables in MSA
MSA has five patterns of syllables as in the following chart:
/CV/ as in /ba/ “with”
/CV:/ as in /fi:/ “in”
/CVC/ as in /jad/ “hand”
/CVCC/ as in /ħibr/ “ink”
/CV:C/ as in /ta:ʤ/ “crown”
1.7.5 Consonant Clusters in MSA
In MSA, there are no consonant clusters in the word initial (onset position)
and medial positions. Only consonant clusters permitted in the syllable-finally (coda
position) and the maximum number of complex coda in MSA are two only. For more
clarification about consonant clusters in MSA, consider the examples below:
Chapter 1: Introduction
11
/ʤism/ “body” /ħilm/ “dream” /qalb/ “heart”
/ʕaql/ “mind” /ʔism/ “name” /waqt/ “time”
1.7.6 Word Stress in MSA
For more clarification about occurs of word stress in MSA, consider the
following examples: /d'i:n/ “religion” /b'aħr/ “sea” /θ'a.man/ “price”
/m'atˤ.baχ/ “kitchen” /b'aħ.ra.hum/ “their sea” /χa.r'ab.ta.ha/ “you spoil it”
1.8 The Developments of Phonology
The developments of Phonology were started in the early 1968 in Generative
phonology by Chomsky and Halle in their book “Sound Pattern of English”, later
evolved into Natural Generative Phonology. Natural Phonology is a theory based on
the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979
it evolved into Autosegmental Phonology by John Goldsmith. Autosegmental
Phonology later evolved into Lexical Phonology and then into Optimality Theory.
These developments of phonology are represented schematically below.
Figure 1.4: The Developments of Phonology
Chapter 1: Introduction
12
1.8.1 Generative Phonology
Generative Phonology (GP) was first introduced by Chomsky and Halle
(1968) in their book “Sound Pattern of English”. Later, the theory was discussed by
many other scholars such as; Hyman (1975), Halle and Clements (2011), Goldsmith
(1995), Clark (2007), Oyebade (2008), Ogunsiji and Sunday (2011).
GP is a theory of the sound structure of language. The theoretical framework of GP
owes a great deal to the sound pattern of English (henceforth, SPE) in which
Chomsky and Halle set forth the theory and the application to English language
(Schane: 1973).
In structure of GP, there are three levels, the first level is the input phonemic
representation defined by underlying form for derivation. The second level is the
output phonetic representation defined by surface form derived from phonemic
representation, while, the third level is related with phonological rules (intermediated
level) between the two levels, that is, phonetic representation and phonemic
representation. In brief, the output phonetic representation (surface form) is derived
from the input phonemic representation (underlying form) by applying phonological
rules (intermediated level) to it (Goldsmith: 1995). Consider the following diagram
for more clarification about the structure of GP.
Figure 1.5: Structure of GP
The features in GP are used to describe natural classes of sounds (to distinguish one
sound from the other sound). They are valid for any language or dialect and are
known as distinctive features, Chomsky and Halle (1968).
Phonemic Representation (Underlying Form)
Phonological Rules (Intermediated Level)
Phonetic Representation (Surface Form)
Chapter 1: Introduction
13
According to Ogunsiji and Sunday (2011), to describe any sound, GP tries to
reduce the number of features, so features are divided into groups, these are:
Distinctive Features in MSA:
Major Class Feature in MSA
Sonorant
[-son] [+son]
Consonantal
[-cons] [+cons]
stops
(/b/, /t/, /d/,
/tˤ/, /k/, /q/,
/dˤ/, /ʔ/)
affricate (/ʤ/)
liquid (/r/)
Fricatives (/f/, /Ө/, /ð/,
/ðˤ/, /s/, /z/,
/sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/,
/ʁ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/,
/h/)
nasals
(/n/, /m/)
lateral
(/l/)
vowels
(/i/, /u/, /a/)
glides
(/w/, /j/)
vowels
(/i/, /u/, /a/)
stops
(/b/, /t/, /d/, /tˤ/, /k/,
/dˤ/, /q/, /ʔ/)
Affricate (/ʤ/)
fricatives
(/f/, /Ө/, /ð/, /ðˤ/, /s/,
/z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/, /ʁ/, /ħ/,
/ʕ/, /h/)
nasals (/n/,/m/)
lateral (/l/)
liquid (/r/)
Chapter 1: Introduction
14
Syllabic
[+ syllabic] [-syllabic]
Consonant Place Features in MSA
Labial
bilabial (/b/, /m/, /w/)
labial-dentals (/f/)
Coronal
[+cor] [-cor]
inter-dentals
(/Ө/, /ð/, /ðˤ/)
dental-alveolar (/t/, /d/, /tˤ/, /s/, /z/,
/tˤ/, /dˤ/)
liquid (/r/)
palatals (/ʤ/, /j/)
lateral (/l/)
nasal (/n/)
palatals (/ʤ/, /j/)
labial (/f/)
uvulars (/q/,/χ/,/ʁ/)
vewels (/i/,/u/,/a/)
glottals (/ʔ/, /h/)
no sound
stops
(/b/, /t/, /d/, /tˤ/,
/dˤ/, /k/, /q/, /ʔ/)
Affricate (/ʤ/)
fricatives
(/f/, /Ө/, /ð/, /ðˤ/,
/s/, /z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/,
/ʁ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/, /h/)
nasals (/n/,/m/)
glides (/w/, /j/)
lateral (/l/)
vowels (/i/,/u/,/a/)
liquids (/r/)
Chapter 1: Introduction
15
Anterior
(+ anterior) (- anterior)
Manner Features in MSA
Continuant
(+ cont) (- cont)
Nasal (/m/, /n/)
Lateral (/l/)
Laryngeal Features
Voice
(+ voice) (- voice)
labial (/f/)
dentalalveolars (/t/,
/d/, /tˤ/, /s/, /z/, /tˤ/)
lateral (/l/)
palatals (/ʤ/, /j/)
liquid (/r/)
nasal (/n/)
Uvulars (/q/,/χ/, /ʁ/)
Glottals (/ʔ/, /h/)
fricative
(/f/, /Ө/, /ð/, /ðˤ/, /s/,
/z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/, /ʁ/,
/ħ/, /ʕ/,/h/)
nasals (/n/,/m/)
Affricate (/ʤ/)
stops
(/b/, /t/, /d/, /tˤ/,
/k/, /dˤ/, /q/, /ʔ/)
lateral (/l/)
liquids (/r/)
glides (/w/, /j/)
/b/, /d/, /z/, /m/, /n/,
/w/, /l/, /r/, /j/, /ɡ/,
/dˤ/, /ʤ/, /ð/, /ʁ/,
/ʕ/, /ðˤ/
/t/, /k/, /f/, /h/, / tˤ/,
/Ө/, /s/, /ʔ/, /∫/, /χ/,
/sˤ/, /q/, / ħ/
Chapter 1: Introduction
16
Vowel Place Feature in MSA
High
(+ high)
● Low
(+ low)
● Back
(+ back)
Rounding
(rounded /u/)
(unrounded /i/, /a/)
For example: in MSA, the features of the word /ħar/ “hot” as in below:
/ħ/ /a/ /r/
velars (/k/,/q//∫/)
high front (/i/)
high back (/u/)
pharyngeal (/ħ/,/ʕ/)
low back (/a/)
uvulars (/χ/,/ʁ/)
uvulars (/q/,/χ/,/ʁ/)
pharyngeals (/ħ/,/ʕ/)
high back (/u/)
+ consonantal
- voice
+ continual
- sonorant
- syllabic
+ vowel
- high
- back
+ low
- round
+ consonantal
+ voice
- sonorant
- syllabic
+ coronal
+ antterior
Chapter 1: Introduction
17
The most important phonological rules process in GP as in below:
Assimilation
Labialization
Deletion
Insertion
Neutralization
Palatalization
Epenthesis
Valorization
1.8.2 Lexical Phonology
Lexical Phonology was discussed and developed by Pestsky (1979), Kiparsky
(1982), Mohanan (1982), Halle and Mohanan (1985), Kaisse and Shaw (1985), Booij
and Rubach (1987), and others. Phonological rules can be divided into the following
modules:
Lexical module
Postlexical module
According to Kiparsky„s model about the basic claims of Lexical Phonology,
the morphological rules and word level phonological rules are interspersed. A rule of
word phonology may apply as soon as the required environment for its application has
been created by some morphological rule. It means that morphology and phonology
go hand in hand. According to his theory, the rules are cyclic rules (which are allowed
to apply in derived environments). Whereas, the rules are postcyclic rules (which are
not allowed to apply to the derived environment).
Figure 1.6: Model of LP
Underived lexical items, roots
Morphological
rules
Cyclic
phonological
rules
Postcyclic
phonological rules
Syntax
Postlexical phonology
Syntax
Phonolog
y
Lexicon
Chapter 1: Introduction
18
1.8.3 Optimality Theory
Optimality Theory was first developed and introduced by Prince and
Smolensky (1993). Later, the theory was discussed and expanded in several works by
many other scholars such as; Archangeli (1997), Prince and Smolensky (1997), Kager
(1999), McCarthy (2002), Kager (2004), McCarthy and Prince (2004), Prince and
Smolensky (2004) and others. Optimality Theory is different than other theories as it
can be violated by any constraint such as Onset, No-coda … etc, while the earlier
theories are inviolate. In Optimality Theory, there are two types of constraints
(markedness and faithfulness), both of them are in conflict with each other about the
optimal candidate. High ranked is more important (dominate) than low ranked in OT.
In Optimality Theory, there are four components these are:
Lexicon
Generator
Constraint
Evaluation
In Optimality Theory, the optimal forms only one candidate, which is the most
harmonic one than other candidates (the one which incurs the least violation of the set
of constraints); it wins the competition and is selected as the optimal form. While the
other candidates are ruled out from competition by different constraints and they are
called losers for being less harmonic (incurs the most violation of the constraints).
1.9 Outline of the Thesis
The present thesis is organized into chapters and sections as follows:
Chapter 1 provides the places where the dialects are spoken, geographical
location, population and background of Hajjah and Zabid city of Yemeni Arabic.
Objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, statement of the
problem, limitations of the study are discussed. It also includes background on
syllable structure and word stress in Modern Standard Arabic. The developments of
phonology (Generative Phonology, Lexical Phonology and Optimality Theory) are
presented. Finally, thesis outline is also presented.
Chapter 2 is divided into three parts. The first part provides a brief overview
of Optimality Theory (OT). It also describes the most important notations of
Optimality Theory (OT). The components of Optimality Theory (OT): lexicon,
Chapter 1: Introduction
19
generator, constraint and evaluation are explained. It is also dedicated to discussion on
the conflicts between constraints (Markedness and Faithfulness) in OT. Furthermore,
this part presents basic syllable structure constraints in OT: ONSET, NO-CODA,
*COMPLEXONS
, *COMPLEXCOD
, MAX-IO, DEP-IO. Whereas, the second part
identifies the phonemic inventory (consonants and vowels) of some dialects of
Arabic. It also provides syllables, types of syllable structures and syllable weight. It
also sheds light on consonant clusters (initial, medial and final cluster). Theoretical
background is also presented. While the last part gives an overview of stress. It
presents word stress patterns and stress constraints in Optimality Theory (OT).
Chapter 3 deals with the methodology that was used in this study. It provides
the statements of the research questions. It also highlights the population and sample
of the study. Furthermore, it describes two instruments for collecting data i.e.
questionnaire and interview. This chapter also presents a brief survey of pilot study,
the validity and reliability of the data. Finally, an overview of data collection and
procedures for data analysis of this study are discussed.
Chapter 4 provides a detailed discussion of syllable structure and word stress
of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic through Optimality Theory (OT). This
chapter is divided into two parts. The first part discusses the phonemic inventory
(consonants, vowels and diphthongs) of Hajji Yemeni dialect of Arabic (HYA). Types
of syllables (monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic, tetrasyllabic and pentasyllabic
words) of HYA are presented. It also presents the structures of syllable, classification
of syllables and consonant clusters of Hajji dialect. An OT analysis of syllable
structure in Hajji is also presented. Moreover, it gives a basic syllable structure
constraints in OT related to the syllable structure in Hajji dialect (Markedness and
Faithfulness constraints). Syllable weight in HYA is also discussed. Furthermore, it
highlights upon word stress patterns and also presents an OT analysis of word stress
in Hajji dialect.
Moreover in the second part, we present the phonemic inventory of Zabidi
Yemeni dialect of Arabic (ZYA). It also presents types of syllables, classification of
syllables, structures of syllable and consonant clusters of Zabidi dialect. Moreover, it
is dedicated to present an OT analysis of syllable structure constraints and syllable
weight in Zabidi dialect. Finally, it presents word stress patterns and how to analyse
word stress in Zabidi dialect through OT.
Chapter 1: Introduction
20
Chapter 5 presents summary and conclusions of the study, results and main
findings are also presented. Finally, it also provides some suggestions for future work.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
21
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
No research works have been done on the syllable structure and word stress on
the framework of Optimality Theory of Hajji Yemeni dialect of Arabic (HYA) and
Zabidi Yemeni dialect of Arabic (ZYA) till now. Only a very few studies have been
conducted on the application of Optimality Theory on syllable structure and word
stress in other Arabic dialects, for example, Taizi dialect (TYA) by Sameer (2011)
and Shar’abi dialect by AL-Sar’abi (2010). This chapter reviews some of the
previously conducted studies in syllable structure and word stress on framework of
Optimality Theory and other earlier theories. The chapter is divided into three parts:
part one deals with Optimality Theory, part two deals with syllable structure and, part
three deals with word stress.
The first part provides a brief overview of Optimality Theory. It also describes
the most important notations of Optimality Theory. It explains the components of
Optimality Theory: lexicon, generator, constraint and evaluation. It also presents the
conflicts between constraints (Markedness and Faithfulness) in OT. Furthermore, in
this part, we present the basic syllable structure constraints in OT: ONSET, NO-
CODA, *COMPLEXONS
, * COMPLEXCOD
, MAX-IO and DEP-IO. In the second
part, it presents the phonemic inventory (consonants and vowels). It also provides an
insight on syllable, types of syllable structure and syllable weight. Moreover, it also
sheds light on consonant clusters (initial, medial and final cluster). It further presents
the theoretical background. While the last part gives an overview of stress. It presents
word stress patterns and stress constraints in Optimality Theory.
Part-I: Optimality Theory (OT)
2.1.1 Brief Overview of Optimality Theory
Optimality Theory (OT) was introduced discussed and developed, first by
scholars Prince and Smolensky (1993). Later, the theory was discussed and expanded
in several works by many other scholars and researchers such as Archangeli (1997),
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
22
Prince and Smolensky (1997), Kager (1999), Boersma (2000) Dekkers Boersma, and
Van Weijer (2000), McCarthy (2002), Kager (2004), McCarthy and Prince (2004),
Prince and Smolensky (2004). The most important difference between Optimality
Theory and the earlier theories is that the earlier theories are inviolate whereas
Optimality Theory is violated by any one of constrains (ONSET, NO-CODA,
*COMPLEXONS
, … etc). One of the important advantages of the Optimality Theory
is that the interaction of constraints leaves to the device only namely constraint
ranking. Constraints in Optimality Theory are divided into two types, markedness
constraints and faithfulness constraints. Both of these constraints (Markedness and
Faithfulness) compete with each other to win the optimal. According to the conflict
between constraints for winning the optimal, each language acquires a different
ranking of constraints. In some languages, the constraints are low-ranked, while in
other languages the constraints are high-ranked. Both of these constraints (low-ranked
and high ranked) are found in all languages, but high-ranked constraints are more
important and thus dominate over the low-ranked constraints. The constraints differ
from language to language.
In Optimality Theory, each linguistic output form is optimal when the
candidate incurs the least violation of constraints, Kager (1999: 8). When there is
competition among the candidates to win the optimal output, they are filtered by the
evaluator (EVAL) and the optimal is achieved by only one candidate which is the
most harmonic one than other candidates (the one which incurs the least violation of
the set of constraints) wins the competition and is selected as the optimal form. While
the other candidates are ruled out from competition by different constraints and they
are called losers for being less harmonic (incurs the most violation of the constraint).
In a given input, there are two processes, the first process is generator (GEN)
which is a set of candidates. While the second process is evaluate (EVAL) which is a
set of hierarchically ranked constraints (C1 ˃˃ C2 ˃˃ C3 ˃˃………….. Cn). All
candidates are ruled out from the competition except the optimal candidate and the
actual output which incurs the least violations of constraints, and the most harmonic
with respect to the set of the ranked constraints. This process is represented in figure
2.1 below:
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
23
Figure 2.1: Elimination of less- Harmonic Candidates in OT
Kager (1999: 8)
In Optimality Theory constraints, there are two properties (universality and
violability). The first property is that constraint is universal; this means that each
constraint is part of the universal grammar (UG). Constraints are found in all natural
languages. Every constraint is not equally active in all languages, it implies that
constraint is violated in one language may never be violated in another language as all
languages have their own systems. The second property is violability of constraint.
Kager (1999: 12) defined violability as “constraints are violable, but violation must be
minimal”. Moreover, Kager defined optimality as “the optimal form when the
candidate incurs the least violations of constraints than other candidates”. Constraints
are violated when the candidates do not satisfy the constraints, and also when the
candidates are not harmonic with constraints. For avoiding the violability of the
constraints, especially the high-ranked constraints, it is requied to find the fit form.
In the tableau of Optimality Theory, there is a top row that consists of input
and constraints. Constraints are ranked from left side to right side (from highest
ranked constraints to lowest ranked constraints). In the leftmost column there are a set
of candidates created by generator (GEN) and they are filtered by evaluation (EVAL)
to select the optimal output. For more clarification, a reference may be made to
tableau 2.1 below:
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
24
Tableau 2.1: Simple Domination of Constraints
Constraint 3 Constraint 2 Constraint 1 Input
*! Candidate a
* ☞ Candidate b
* *! Candidate c
In the tableau 2.1 above, candidate (a) violates the higher-ranked constraint
the most important constraint, so it is excluded from consideration as the optimal as it
violates the highest-ranked constraint; it is not important to satisfy or violate the
second and third constraints (lower-ranked constraint). Candidate (b) satisfies
constraint (1) and constraint (2) the higher-ranked constraints, and candidate (b) is
more harmonic than other candidates, so candidate (b) emerges as the optimal form
even though it violates constraint (3) the lower constraint. Candidate (c) satisfies
constraint (1) the higher-ranked constraint but it violates the second and third
constraints, so candidate (c) is ruled out for violating other important constraints
(constraint 2 and constraint 3).
2.1.2 The Most Important Notations of OT
(*) A shorthand for the violation of a constraint (asterisk).
(!) A stand for the violation of the constraint is fatal (an exclamation point).
(☞) Indicates that the candidate chosen is the winner or the optimal one and
the other candidates ruled out from competition (pointing finger).
(˃˃) Indicates that a constraint ranks higher than the next constraint
(dominance).
(**) Multiple violations.
Shaded cells show that whether a candidate violates constraint or satisfies
constraint which is no longer relevant to the evaluation.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
25
2.1.3. The Components of Optimality Theory
In Optimality Theory there are four components as given below:
Lexicon or input
The lexicon consists of the vocabulary of language. Every lexical
representation of phonology, semantics, morphology, syntax (underlying forms)
consist of the vocabulary.
Generator
Generator can be abbreviated as (GEN), sometimes also called freedom of
analysis. Generator creates a large number of candidates. These candidates can be
grammatical or ungrammatical. Furthermore, generator can create, delete, add and
rearrange items. Moreover, generator is responsible for showing the correspondence
between output and input.
Constraint
Constraint can be abbreviated as (CON); constraint is divided into two types:
the first one is markedness constraint, while the second constraint is faithfulness
constraint. The significant role of a constraint is to assign the violation marks to a set
of candidates.
Evaluation
Evaluation can be abbreviated as (EVAL). Evaluation is a mechanism which
chooses the optimal form (the most harmonic candidate) from a set of candidates
selected by evaluation. When there are competitions between candidates for the
optimal form, they are filtered by evaluation to select the optimal output. Evaluation
is the central and one of the important components of Optimality Theory as the
evaluation has the responsibility to select the optimal form. Evaluation of candidate
depends on a set of ranking constraints (C1 ˃˃ C2 ˃˃ C3 ˃˃…………..Cn). The
following figure 2.2 summarizes the components of OT.
Input GEN candidates EVAL optimal output
McCarthy (2002: 10)
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
26
2.1.4 The Conflicts between Constraints (Markedness and Faithfulness) in OT.
Both the constraints (markedness and faithfulness) are in conflict with each
other. In Optimality Theory, every language has markedness constraints and
faithfulness constraints, onsets are required in markedness constraints such as (/CV/,
/CCV/, /CCCV/, /CCV:/, /CV:/, /CCCV:/ and /CV:C/). While, codas and
complexCOD
constraints are prohibited in markedness constraints such as (/VC/,
/V:C/, /VCC/, /CVC/, /CV:CC/, /CCVC/, /CCCVC/, /CCV:C/, /CCCV:C/, /CV:C/
and /CVCC/). Also, every language has several types of faithfulness constraints such
as, Max IO and Dep IO, and both of these two types are not required for deletion and
insertion of sounds respectively. In Optimality Theory faithfulness constraints do not
allow the differences between output and input. For example, when the input /CV:C/
become /CVC/ in output form, in this case, there is violation because faithfulness
constraints have prohibited the vowel deletion. And, when the input /CVCC.CVC/
become /CV.CVC.CVC/ in output form, in this case, there is also violation because
faithfulness constraints have prohibited the vowel epenthesis.
According to Kager (2004: 9-10), there are significant requirements in both
constraints as in the following:
Requirements in markedness constraints:
Coda is prohibited as in (/CV/, /CCV/, /CCV:/ and /CV:/)
Onset is obligatory as in (/CVC/, CV:C/, CV/, /CCV:/, /CCVCC/ and CV:/)
Complex is prohibited as in (/CCVC/, CCV/, /CCV:/ and /CV:CC/)
Onsets must be simple as in (/CV:C/, /CV/ and /CVC/)
Requirements in faithfulness constraints:
No deletion
No epenthesis
Any sound in input should also be in output
The optimal or the winner output is the most harmonic one than other
candidates and the one which incurs the least violations of constraints. Kager
(1999:13) defined domination as the higher-ranked constraints are more significant
and dominant than the lower constraints. Examples for more clarification about the
conflicts between constraints are given in tableau 2.2.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
27
Tableau 2.2: Simple Domination of Constraints
input Constraint (1) Constraint (2)
☞ Candidate (a) *
Candidate (b) *
In tableau 2.2, there are conflicts between constraint (1) and constraint (2) in
their evaluation of candidates. Constraint (1) prefers candidate (a), while constraint
(2) prefers candidate (b). The optimal or the conflict is resolved by ranking constraint
(1) above constraint (2), that is, the higher ranked constraint (1) takes precedence over
and dominatrs the lower ranked constraints (2), constraint (1) ˃˃ constraint (2).
2.1.5 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT
Basic syllable structure constraints are divided into two types: markedness constraints
and faithfulness constraints.
2.1.5.1 Markedness Constraints
Markedness constraints are also known as structural constraints or well-
formedness. There are four types in markedness constraints: 1) Onset 2) No-Coda
3) *COMPLEXONS
4) * COMPLEXCOD
.
2.1.5.1.1 Onset
Onsets is a markedness constraint which means that if the syllable types begin
with a short or long vowel, there are no sounds before a vowel such as (V, VC, VCC,
V:, V:C). In this situation, there is violation in a constraint, if the syllable types begin
with a consonant at the initial position of a syllable such as (CV, CCV, CVC, CV:,
CCV:, CV:C, CCVCC, CV:CC, CCVC, CCV:C, CVCC). In this situation, there is no
violation in a constraint. All syllables must begin with a consonant (onset), in this
case, it has satisfied the constraint (syllables must have onsets), but when the syllables
have an initial vowel (nucleus), then there is violation in this case.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
28
Under Optimality Theory, Aljmah (2008: 10) provides a complete analysis
about syllable structure in AL-Ahsa dialect. According to Aljmah, all the syllables in
AL-Ahsa start with a consonant, and there are no syllables that begin with a vowel, so
this constraint is not violated in AL-Ahsa dialect. For example, the word /sahil/
“easy” and /ras/ “head”. Furthermore, Aljmah said that what is allowed and what is
permitted, initial consonant clusters are prohibited, while final consonant clusters are
allowed in AL-Ahsa dialect.
ALAmro (2015: 1) mentioned that how Optimality Theory organizes the
syllabification of Najdi Arabic (NA) specially, and MSA generally. Moreover, the
order of sounds in the syllables is governed by constraints. Further, ALAmro
mentioned that Optimality Theory is useful to expound the syllable structure of (NA).
When the candidate is with an onset, it implies that the candidate satisfies the
constraint and the candidate wins the optimal form. But, when the candidate is
without an onset, it implies that the candidate has not satisfied the constraint, so the
candidate is ruled out from the competition.
2.1.5.1.2 No-Coda
No-Coda is a markedness constraint which means that if the syllable types end
with a short or long vowel (open syllable), there are no sounds at the end position (coda)
of a syllable such as (CV, CV:, V, CCV:, V:, CCV). In this situation, there is no violation
in a constraint. But if the syllable types end with a consonant at the final position of a
syllable such as, (CV:C, CCVCC, CVCC, CCVC, CV:CC, CCCV:C, CCCVC,
CCCVCC, CVC, VC, V:C), then in this situation, there is violation in a constraint.
Aljmah (2008: 10) said that there are syllables that end with a consonant, so
this constraint (No-Coda) is violated in AL-Ahsa dialect, for example, the word /kal/
“ate” and /bas/ “only”, /ba:b/ “door”, /baħr/ “sea”, /dam/ “blood”.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
29
The violations in the constraints (Onsets and No-Codas) evaluate the syllable types
as given in the following examples:
Syllable types Onset No-Coda
V * √
CV √ √
CVC √ *
CV: √ √
VC * *
CV:C √ *
CVCC √ **
V: * √
CCV:C √ *
CCV: √ √
CVCC √ **
CCCV: √ √
CCCVC √ *
V:C * *
CV:CC √ **
CCV:C √ *
2.1.5.1.3 * COMPLEXONS
Kager (1999: 93) defined COMPLEXONS
as, “Onsets are simple”. It implies
that there can be no more than one consonant at the initial position of the candidate,
and if there are two or more consonants at the onset position then there is violation in
this constraint.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
30
2.1.5.1.4 * COMPLEXCOD
This constraint requires no more than one consonant at the final position
(coda) of the syllable (coda is simple). And if there are two or more consonants at the
coda position, then there is violation in this constraint.
2.1.5.2 Faithfulness Constraints
Faithfulness constraints require the output of the candidate identical to its
input. In all languages, there is input and output. If the output correlates to the input
then there is no violation in DEP-IO and MAX-IO constraints. But when output is
not similar to the input, then there is violation in DEP-IO and MAX-IO constraints.
It implies that the processes of insertion or deletion are rejected by DEP-IO and
MAX-IO. It may be noted here, there are two types in faithfulness constraints: MAX-
IO and DEP-IO.
2.1.5.2.1 MAX-IO
Kager (1999:102) says “every segment of the input has a correspondent in the
output”. MAX-IO (maximal input- output) is one type of faithfulness constraint
which means that any sound of the input should be in the output (No deletion). It
implies that there is no deletion of any sound from the input.
2.1.5.2.2 DEP-IO
Kager (1999: 101) defined DEP -IO as “every segment of the output has a
correspondent in the input”. DEP-IO is one type of faithfulness constraint which
means that any sound of the output should be in the input (No epenthesis). This means
that there is no addition of any sound to the candidate.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
31
Part-II: Syllable Structure
2.2.1 The Phonemic Inventory
Sameer Abdulrazzaq (2011: 18-22) in his project entitled “Syllable Structure
of Taizi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic: An Optimality Theory Perspective” mentioned
that Taizi dialect has ten vowel sounds in two types; long and short. Five short vowels
i.e. /i/, /a/, /e/, /u/, and /o/, and five long vowels i.e. (/i:/, /a:/, /e:/, /u:/, and /o:/).
According to him, Taizi dialect has twenty-eight consonants including thirteen
fricatives i.e. (/f/, /Ѳ/, /ð/, /ðˤ/, /s/, /z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/, /ʁ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/ and /h/), eight plosives
i.e. (/b/, /t/, /d/, /t ˤ/, /k/, /ɡ/, /q/ and /ʔ/), three nasals i.e. (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), one trill i.e.
(/r/), one lateral i.e. (/l/), two approximants (/w/ and /j/), and no affricates at all.
Further, he mentioned that Taizi dialect has no diphthongs at all.
Aljumah (2008: 157-159) in his paper entitled “The Syllable Shape of Al-
Ahsa Dialect: An OT Perspective” has mentioned that Al-Ahsa dialect has thirty-one
consonant sounds whereas Classic Arabic has only twenty-eight consonant sounds.
Further, he pointed that the phoneme /tʃ/ exists in Al-Ahsa dialect when the phoneme
/k/ is replaced by /tʃ/ for example: the word “dog” pronounced /tʃalb/ whereas in
classic Arabic pronounced /kalb/. According to him, Al-Ahsa dialect has six vowels,
three short vowels i.e. (/i/, /a/, and /u/), and three long vowels i.e. (/i:/, /a:/, /u:/). The
diphthongs mentioned by Aljumah are (/eɪ/ and /ia/) in Al-Ahsa dialect.
Tripolitanian Libyan Arabic (TLA) has 27 consonants, nine stops, eleven
fricatives, two nasals, two laterals, one tap and two approximants, Shitaw (2014: 12)
as shown in following table 2.1.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
32
Table 2.1: The Phonemic Inventory Consonants of (TLA).
Bil
ab
ial
Lab
io-d
enta
l
Den
tal-
Alv
eola
r
Post
-Alv
eola
r
Vel
ar
Uvu
lar
Ph
ary
ngea
l
Glo
ttal
Stops b t d
tˤ d k ɡ q ʔ
Fricatives f s z
sˤ ∫ ʒ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h
Nasals m n
Laterals l lˤ
Tap r
Approximants w j
As stated by Shitaw (2014) vowels in TLA, there are three short vowels and five long
vowels as illustrated below:
/i:/ as in /tˤi:r/ “flt”
/i/ as in /sija:ra/ “a car”
/u:/ as in /su:q/ “market”
/u/ as in /ʔumm/ “a mother”
/a:/ as in /dˤa:r/ “harmful”
/a/ as in /ʔamta/ “when”
/o:/ as in /tˤo:r/ “phase”
/e:/ as in /le:∫/ “why”
Further he mentioned that, there are eight diphthongs in TLA. (/ij/, /u:j/, /a:y/, /aj/,
/ew/, /a:w/, /aw/ and /ʊw/), Shitaw (2014: 24).
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
33
2.2.2 Syllables
A syllable can be defined phonetically and phonologically. Syllables play a
significant role in several phonological processes such as vowel duration and lexical
stress. In all languages there are syllables, and all agree that the words /bas/ “enough”,
/ɡa.lam/ “pen”, /kul.lij.jah/ “college”, /mak.ta.ba.tih/ “his library”, /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/
“television” in Arabic have one to five syllables, respectively. We can count the
syllables in any word in any language in the world, for example: the word /ɡalam/
“pen” in Arabic has two syllables (CV.CVC) /ɡa.lam/, and the word “college”
/kullijjah/ in Arabic has three syllables (CVC.CVC.CVC) /kul-lij-jah/. Laver (1994:
39) defined the syllable as “a complex unit made up of nucleus and marginal
elements”. Nucleus elements are vowels, whereas marginal elements are consonants.
While Rogers (2000: 314) defined the syllable as “a unit of phonological
organization, typically larger than a segment and smaller than a word”. In addition, as
Hockett (1955) defined syllable as “the smallest unit in the structure of an utterance”.
Moreover, “the syllable is at the heart of the phonological representation. It is the unit
in terms of which phonological systems are organized” Katamba (1989: 153). Most of
the syllables in any language cannot consist of consonants only, but most of the
syllables are followed or preceded by short or long vowel such as: (CV, CV:, VC,
V:C, CVC, CCV, CV:C, CVCC).
The syllable is a prosodic unit in the prosodic hierarchy; the smallest prosodic
unit in prosodic hierarchy are the syllable terminals, while prosodic word (PrWd) is at
the top of prosodic hierarchy. A syllable in prosodic hierarchy is represented by
Blevins (1995), as illustrated below in figure 2.3.
Phonological phrase
Prosodic word
Foot
Syllable
Syllable terminals
(2.3)
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2.2.3. Syllable Structure
Words in different languages contain many syllables, may be one, two, three
or more according to the dialect or language. The head and the most important part of
the syllable of any dialect or language is the vowel (nucleus). And, there is no word or
syllable of any dialect or language in the world without a vowel (nucleus), a vowel is
obligatory part of the syllable in all dialects or languages. Sometimes syllables or
words contain only a short vowel (nucleus) without being preceded or followed by a
consonant; for instance, in English language, in the word /eye/ “I” /ai/ a vowel stands
alone in a word. However, a vowel (nucleus) cannot stand alone in a word or a
syllable without a consonant in some dialects or languages because a consonant
(onset) is obligatory and cannot be more than one consonant; for instance, in Arabic
language, the word /wa/ “and” or /fi/ “in” contains a consonant plus vowel. Also, in
Mehri language, the word /ðe/ “the” contains a vowel preceded by a consonant and
the word /ham/ “name” contains a vowel preceded and followed by a consonant.
Whereas the syllable onset in English language consists of up to three consonants as
in (CVC, CCVC and CCCVC). While, on the other hand, coda consists of one or two
consonant sounds in Arabic, such as (CVC) /min/ “from” and (CVCC) /nafs/ “soul”,
(CVCC) /ra:s/ “head”, (CV:C) /ka:f/ “how”, whereas, the syllable coda in English
language consists of four consonants as in (CVC, CVCC, CCVCCC and CVCCCC).
Syllable structure in Arabic language is more different from the syllable structure in
English language.
Syllables can be divided into two parts. These two parts are onset and rhyme;
whereas rhyme is divided into two parts, nucleus (vowel) and coda as illustrated in
figure 2.4. The onset and coda are occupied by consonants, whereas the nucleus is
obligatory and occupied by vowels, Egbokhare (1994: 65). And not all syllables have
these parts, some syllables contain an onset and a nucleus without coda, for example:
in Arabic, the word (CV) /wa/ “and”.
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Figure 2.4: Syllable Structure
For more clarification, in a syllable such as /lak/ “for you” in Arabic, /l/ is the onset,
/a/ is the nucleus, and /k/ is the coda as in 2.4a.
(2.4a)
(σ) is shorthand for a syllable.
(O) is a symbol for an onset
(R) is a symbol for a rhyme
(N) is a symbol for a nucleus
(C) as a symbol for a coda
A syllable can be open; when the syllable ends in a vowel (no coda), when the
syllable lacks a consonant at the end of a syllable as in (CV, CV:, CCV) or closed
syllable, when the syllable ends in a consonant (with coda) as in (CVC, CV:C,
CCVC). A syllable can be heavy or light, Hyman (1975: 188). The onset and the coda
can contain one or more than one consonants (consonant clusters), simple or complex
consonant clusters as in Arabic: (CVCC) /waqt/ “time”,/bint/ “girl”. Here, the
combination /qt/ at coda position is a consonant cluster.
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2.2.3.1 Onset
The onset of syllable means the consonant or cluster of consonants at the
beginning of a word or a syllable, which is followed by a vowel (nucleus). It is
obligatory in some languages like Arabic and Mehri language, and optional in some
languages as in English, Urdu, and Telugu. But, most of syllables in all languages
begin with an onset.
AL-Mamri and Shabana (2017) in their paper entitled “Consonant Cluster and
Syllable Structure in Mehri Language” point out three important parts in a syllable
with reference to Mehri language. According to them, two types of onset exist in
Mehri language, simple onset i.e. /kub.kob/ “stars ” , /Өaw.ma/ “thirist” as in 2.4b, c
and complex onset i.e. /bkoh/ “cried ” , /lbo:n/ “whit” as in 2.4d, e.
Simple onset
Complex onset
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Hamdi, Ghazali, and Defradas (2005: 2) concluded that in three Arabic
dialects (Moroccan, Tunisian and Lebanese), an onset falls into three categories
shown below:
Empty onset: (V and VC)
Simple onset: (CV:C, CV:, CV, CVCC and CV)
Complex onset: (CCVC, CCV: , CCV, CCV:C, CCVCC, CCCVC, CCCV,
CCCV: and CCCVCC).
Moreover, in Jordanian Arabic, there are two parts of onsets: simple onsets and
complex onsets, Btoosh (2006: 3-4). A few examples are cited below:
Simple onsets:
/bint/ “girl”
/fann/ “art”
/ta:j/ “crown”
/sa.la:m/ “peace”
Complex onsets:
/kta:b/ “book”
/sla:ħ/ “weapon”
/kӨi:r/ “many/much”
/bla:d.na/ “our countries”
In the light of the examples cited above, onset is obligatory and has two complex
onsets which are maximum in Jordanian Arabic.
According to Abumdas (1985: 89), onset is not obligatory in Libyan Arabic (LA).
Onset is divided into three parts: empty onset (no consonant) as in (V) /a.be/ “he agreed”,
(V:) /u:.ɡuf/ “stop”, (V:C) /i:h/ “yes”, (VC) /as.wad/ “black”, and simple onset as in (CV)
/ki.tab/ “he wrote”, (CVCC) /kalb/ “dog”, (CV:) /ka:.tib/ “writer”, (CVC) /man/ “who”,
also complex onset as in (CCV) /ʁtˤa/ “cover”, (CCVC) /smin/ “he became fat”,
(CCV:C) /kta:b/ “book”. Moreover, Elramli (2012: 23) argued that onset is obligatory in
Libyan Arabic (LA). For instance : (CV) /fi.ham/ “he understood”, (CV:C) /la:m/ “he
blamed”, (CV:) /fa:.him/ “understanding, ”, (CVCC) /ɡird/ “monkey” (CVC) /kun.dra/ “a
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pair of shoes”, (CCV:) /tra:.fiɡ/ “you accompany”, (CCVC) /sbiħ/ “beads”, (CCV)
/χab.bra/ “inform him”, (CCV:C) /bla:d/ “country”, (CCVCC) /smint/ “cement”.
Moreover, Abumdas (1985) and Elramli (2012) agreed that, complex onsets are permitted
in LA. Such as: (CCV/ ʁtˤa/ “cover”, (CCV) /χab.bra/ “inform him”, (CCVC) /smin/ “he
became fat”, (CCV:C) /kta:b/ “book”.
Furthermore, complex onsets in Najdi Arabic (NA) are not prohibited, ALqahtani
(2014: 115) some examples will be clarified in what follows:
(CCV) /tχa.dim/ “you (ms.sg.) serve”
(CCV) /ssa:.ʕah/ “an hour”
(CCV:C /ɡbu:r/ “graves”
(CCVC) /tkal.lim/ “you (m) are talking to”
(CCVCC) /smint/ “cement”
2.2.3.2 Nucleus
According to the phonological syllable structure, the nucleus of a syllable is
considered as the center or nucleus of a syllable. While the sounds before the nucleus
are called onset, and the sounds after the nucleus are called coda. Obligatory in every
syllable of any language. Preceded by an optional onset such as /ma.lik/ “king”,
/ka.ram/ “generosity” in Arabic language as in figure 2.4f, and followed by an
optional coda as in /jad/ “hand”, /fa:r/ “mouse” in Arabic language as in figure 2.4g.
Just like Modern Standard Arabic and Yemeni dialect of Arabic, no vowel occurs
word- initially in Taizi Yemeni dialects of Arabic, Sameer (2011: 25). Nucleus
cannot stand alone as a syllable in Arabic but, in some languages a syllable contains
only nucleus as in English language, as in /ai/ “eye”.
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2.2.3.3 Coda
The coda of a syllable means the consonant or cluster of consonants at the end
of a word or a syllable which follows a vowel (nucleus), optional in some languages,
and prohibited in other languages. According to AL-Mamri and Shabana (2017), two
types of coda exist in Mehri language, simple coda such as /kub.kob/ “stars” as in
figure 2.4h, and complex coda such as /ɡawf/ “chest” as in figure 2.4i.
In Jordanian Arabic, there are two parts of coda: simple coda and complex coda,
Btoosh (2006: 4) few examples are cited below:
Simple coda
/ba:b.ha/ “her door”
/mus.lim/ “muslim”
/fit.neh/ “seduction”
/ba:.bak/ "your door”
Complex coda
/bint.hum/ “their daughter”
/ward/ “roses”
/rabb/ “god”
/kalb/ “dog”
According to the examples above, coda is not obligatory and complex codas
are found in Jordanian Arabic. Almost twenty seven years later Elramli’s (2012)
study supported Abumdas’s (1985) findings, about complex codas are permitted in
Libyan Arabic (LA). Such as: (CVCC) /kalb/ “dog”, (CCVCC) /smint/ “cement”.
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2.2.4 Types of Syllable Structure
Aljmumah (2008: 159-160) reported five types of syllable structures in Al-
Ahsa dialect, in the following examples illustrate the point as:
1 CV /la/ “no”
/sa.ħil/ “easy”
2 CV: /li:/ “to me”
3 CVC /min/ “of/from”
/raħ/ “he went”
4 CVCC /tʃalb/ “dog”
/fukk/ “open”
5 CV:C /mi:n/ “who is it ?”
/fi:ʃ/ “plug”
According to Aljumah, the first type of syllable structure in Al-Ahsa dialect
(CV) is the lightest, which consists of an onset and short vowel i.e. /la/, “no” and
/sa.ħil/, “easy” as in figure 2.4j, k. What Aljmumah observes is that, onsetless
syllables are not allowed in Al-Ahsa dialect and are not allowed in most of Arabic
dialects. He added the (CV) syllable type occurs very frequently in Al-Ahsa dialect, it
occurs word initially, medially and finally.
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Aljumah (2008: 160) studied the second type of syllable in Al-Ahsa dialect
(CV:) which consists of an onset and followed by long vowel i.e. /li:/ “to me” as in
figure 2.4l.
Aljumah (2008: 160) stated that the third type of syllable in Al-Ahsa dialect
(CVC) which consists of an onset and followed by vowel and end by coda i.e. /min/
“of/from”, /raħ/ “he went” as in figure 2.4m, n.
Aljumah (2008: 160) studied the fourth type of syllable in Al-Ahsa dialect
(CVCC) which consists of an onset and followed by a vowel and end by complex
coda i.e. /tʃalb/ “dog”, /fukk/ “open” as in figure 2.4o, p . According to him, complex
codas are not prohibited in Al-Ahsa dialect whereas; complex onsets are prohibited in
Al-Ahsa dialect of Arabic.
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Aljumah (2008: 160) mentioned the fifth type of syllable in Al-Ahsa dialect
(CV:C) which consists of an onset and followed by long vowel and end with coda i.e.
/mi:n/ “who is it ?”, /fi:ʃ/ “plug” as in figure 2.4q, r.
According to Modern Standard Arabic, there are five types of syllable
structures (CV, CV:, CVC, CV:C and CVCC). Sameer (2011: 22) discussed that,
Taizi Yemeni dialect of Arabic has six types of syllables, though only five syllable
patterns can be found in MSA as shown in table 2.2 below.
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Table 2.2: Types of syllables in TYA and MSA
Types of syllables in Taizi dialect
(TYA)
Types of syllables in Modern Standard
Arabic (MSA)
Syllable
shape Example Glossary
Syllable
shape Example Glossary
CV sa.ma sky CV sa.ma:ʔ sky
CV: sa:.li happy CV: sˤa:.heb friend
CVCC seʕr price CVCC qalb heart
CV:C sa:r he walked CV:C qa:m he stood up
CVC ser secret CVC qul say (MASS
SG IMP)
CVCCC ma:.qelt∫ you (MASC
SG) didn’t say
(Types of syllable in TYA and MSA .taken from Sameer (2011: 22))
Alqahtani (2014: 115-116) in his thesis entitled “Syllable Structure and
Related Processes in Optimality Theory: An Examination of Najdi Arabic” has
mentioned three syllable types in Najdi Arabic, Alqahtani divided these types into
three groups. The first group, light syllables are as follows:
- CV as in /ʔa.kal/ “he ate”
- CCV as in /tχa.dim/ “you (ms.sg.) serve”
While the second group, heavy syllables are as follows:
- CVC as in /ɡi.tal/ “he killed”
- CV: as in /sa:.ʕah/ “an hour”
- CCVC as in /tkal.lim/ “you (m) are talking to”
- CCV: as in /zba:.lah/ “trash”
And the third group, superheavy syllables are as follows:
- CV: C as in /ra:ħ/ “he was gone”
- CVCC as in /bard/ “cold”
- CCV:C as in /ɡbu:r/ “graves”
- CCVCC as in /smint/ “cement”
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Alqahtani also mentioned that, onset is obligatory in Najdi Arabic whereas
coda is optional, and all syllable types have either single or complex onset such as
CVC, CV:C, CVCC, CCVC, CCV:C, and CCVCC while syllables such as CV, CCV,
CV:, and CCV: do not have codas. AIAmro (2015: 4) argued that in Najdi Arabic,
there are three types of syllables; first type (CV) in light syllable, second type (CV: )
and (CVC) in heavy syllables, third type (CV:C), (CV:CC) and (CVCC) in super-
heavy syllables, the following examples illustrate the types of syllables in Najdi
Arabic:
Light syllable: (CV) as in /ka.ta.ba/ “wrote”
Heavy syllables: (CV:) as in /ka:.tib/ “writer”
(CVC) as in /jik.tub/ “he writes”
Superheavy syllables: (CV:C) as in /nu:m/ “sleeping”
(CV:CC) as in /∫a:bb/ “young”
(CVCC) as in /barq/ “lighter”
In our opinion, the advantage in Alqahtani’s work when he covered all types
of syllables in Najdi Arabic, while the disadvantage was in AIAmro’s work when he
did not cover all types of syllables in NA.
Moreover, in English syllable structure, a very wide variety of syllable types is
allowed in English language. A vowel can stand alone as a syllable without preceded
or followed by a consonant. In English language, there are 15 syllable types; as in the
following (V, VC, VCC, VCCC, CVC, CCV, CCVC, CCVCC, CVCC, CCCVC,
CVCCC, CCCV, CCCVCC, CVCCCC, and CCCVCCC). While in Arabic, there are
5 syllable types as in: CV:C /na:s/ “people”, CVCC /ward/ “roses”, CVC /kam/ “how
much”, CV: /fi:/ “in”, CV /wa/ “and”. In Arabic, no syllable begins with a vowel or
consonant cluster, a vowel in Arabic cannot stand alone without one consonant or
several consonants. A vowel in Arabic is preceded by one consonant and followed by
one or two consonants.
Kuwaiti Arabic has 8 syllable types, two consonant clusters in onset position, and also
two consonant clusters in coda position Al-Qenaie (2011: 90) as in the table 2.3.
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Table 2.3: Types of Syllables in Kuwaiti Arabic (KA)
Syllable types Kuwaiti example Gloss
CV /ḥa.ṭab/ “wood”
CV: /ba:.(čir)/ “tomorrow”
CV:C /ha:j/ “to go wild”
CVC /kaf/ “slap”
CCV /ṣxa.ra/ “a piece of rock”
CCV: /Šfi:/ what’s wrong with him?
CVCC /bard/ “cold”
CCV:C /ḥba:l/ “ropes”
Moreover, 10 syllable patterns occur in Libyan Arabic dialect CV /fi.ham/ “he
understood”, CVC /kun.dra/ “a pair of shoes”, CV: /fa:.him/ “understanding m.s.”,
CV:C /la:m/ “he blamed”, CVCC /ɡird/ “monkey”, CCV /χab.bra/ “inform him”,
CCV: /tra:.fiɡ/ “you accompany”, CCV:C /bla:d/ “country”, CCVC /sbiħ/ “beads”,
CCVCC /smint/ “cement”. From these examples which show above in Libyan Arabic,
no more than two consonants occur in onset and coda position. No syllable starts with
a vowel, Elramli (2012: 23). Moreover, (AL-Mohanna: 3- 4) in his paper, there are
three syllable types in Hejazi dialect of Arabic summarized in the following list:
1- Light as in CV /∫a.ʤa.ri/ “my trees”
2- Heavy as in CV: /ka:.sa:t/ “glasses”
as in CVC /mak.tu:b/ “a letter”
3- Superheavy as in CVCC /bint/ “a girl”
as in CV:C /ti:n/ “figs”
According to the list above, onset position is obligatory, and does not allow
more than one consonant in Hejazi dialect of Arabic, while coda is optionally used,
and not more than two consonants are used.
According to Hamdi, Ghazali and Defradas (2005) in their study about
syllable structure in three Arabic dialects (Moroccan, Tunisian and Lebanese),
concluded that several of syllables is different from one dialect to another dialect, and
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46
the percentage of types of syllables are different, higher in some dialects and lower in
other dialects. Also, they concluded that there are 16 types of syllables (V, VC, CV:C,
CV: , CV, CVCC, CV, CCVC, CCV:, CCV, CCV:C, CCVCC, CCCVC, CCCV,
CCCV: and CCCVCC) in these three dialects of Arabic (Tunisian has 11, Lebaneses
has 13 and Moroccan has 16). Moreover, they concluded that syllable structure can
be used as a cue to distinguish between the Eastern and Western varieties of Arabic.
And the syllable type (CV) is the most frequent syllable in all three dialects
(Moroccan, Tunisian and Lebanese), and the syllable type (CV) more frequent in
Lebanese Arabic than in other dialects.
2.2.5 Syllable Weight
McMahon (2002: 113 - 114) said that, there are two subdivisions of syllable
types, and both types depend on the structure of the rhyme. The first one, syllables
may be open or close: an open syllable, the rhyme contains a nucleus without coda as
in figure 2.4s, for more clarification the word /wa/ “and” in Arabic as in figure 2.4t.
While in a closed syllable, the rhyme contains a nucleus and coda as shown in figure
2.4u, for more clarification the word /dam/ “blood” in Arabic as in figure 2.4v.
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The second one, the distinction between light syllables and heavy syllables. A
light syllable consists of a short vowel only in the rhyme; coda does not exist, as in
the first syllable of “report”. Whereas, a heavy syllable when a syllable has a complex
rhyme, McMahon (2002: 114)).
Moreover, Katamba (1989: 176) gave two criteria, to distinguish between light
syllables and heavy syllables which are as follows:
1) In a light syllable the rhyme consists of a short vowel or a short vowel
preceded by a consonant as shown in 2.4w.
2) In a heavy syllable the rhyme consists of diphthong or a long vowel. Also, a
heavy syllable contains a short vowel followed by one or several consonants,
Katamba (1989: 176) as in 2.4x.
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Al-Mamri and Shabana (2017) pointed out that Mehri language has two kinds
of syllable: open syllables as in:
CV as in /wa/ “and”
CV as in /ho:/ “I”
CV.CV: as in /ħeroː/ “head”
And closed syllables in Mehri language as in:
CVC as in /ħarb/ “war”
CVCC as in /warχ/ “month”
CV:C as in /heːt/ “you
2.2.6 Consonant Clusters
Singh and Singh (1979: 16) pointed out that a consonant cluster is a “string of
two or more consonants, it is simply a way of combining the consonant phonemes in a
language”. Most Arabic language consonant clusters are of two consonants which
occur in two positions: initially and finally, while in other languages, as English,
consonant clusters are of two, three or four consonant clusters in final position and
three consonant clusters, maximum to be found in initial position in English language.
Hill (1958) and Catford (1999: 207) defined a consonant cluster as a sequence of two
or more consonants that occur initial or finally without intervention of a consonant of
another.
2.2.6.1 Initial Clusters
Several researchers, such as Edzard (2000), Archibald (2003), McCarthy
(2005), ALjumah (2008), Sammer (2011), agree that initial consonant clusters are not
allowed in Arabic and in many varieties of Arabic. Carter (2004), pointed that Classic
Arabic (CA) does not accept a syllable to begin with a vowel. Haddad (2005), also
maintains that complex onset is prohibited in both MSA and Cairene Arabic. But,
there are some researchers such as, Batoosh (2006), AL-Qenaie (2011), ALqahtani
(2014), ALAmro (2015), who agree that initial consonant clusters are allowed in
Arabic and in many varieties of Arabic like; Kuwaiti, Palestinian, Jordanian, and
Najdi dialects. For more clarification, some examples are shown below:
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
49
/kta:b/ “book”
/bla:d.na/ “our countries”
/tkal.lim/ “you (m) are talking to”
/ɡbu:r/ “graves”
/ḥba:l/ “ropes”
Moreover, Al-Mamri and Shabana (2017) argue that complex onsets are allowed in
Mehri language and only two consonants i.e.
/mdi:t/ “sea winds”
/nχiru:r/ “he snorted”
/dthora/ “blood”
/mla:jket/ “angels”
/ltu:ʁ/ “killed”
Several other researchers too, namely; Haddad (2005), Gadoua (2000), and
Sameer (2011) agree that no word in Arabic starts with a vowel instead, all the words
start with a consonant (onset). According to Sameer (2011), no vowel occurs word-
initially in Taizi dialect of Arabic, like in Modern Standard Arabic. Further, Sameer
mentioned that Taizi dialect requires all words to have an onset.
Sameer (2011: 25), mentioned that, Taizi Yemeni dialect of Arabic (TYA) has
no initial consonant clusters in the word position. Just like Modren Standard Arabic,
and as opposed to many Yemeni dialects, accept consonant clusters.
AL-Mamri and Shabana (2017) reported that, two- initial consonant clusters in
Mehri language are as follows:
1- Mc (/m/ + consonant) as in:
/mla:jket/ “angels”
/mdi:t/ “sea winds”
2- Nc (/n/ + consonant) as in:
/nfu: χ/ “swell”
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3- Ct (consonant + /t/) as in :
/ltu:ʁ/ “killed”
/ktu:b/ “book”
There are two types of initial consonant clusters in English, the first one is the
one consisting of two consonants (CCV-), and the second one is that which consists of
three consonants (CCCV-).
Gimson (1989: 244) mentioned lists combination of two English consonant
clusters (CCV-) as the following: /pl/, /pr/, /pj/, /tr/, /tj/, /tw/, /kl/, /kr/, /kj/, /kw/, /bl/,
/br/, /bj/, /dr/, /dj/, /dw/, /gl/, /gr/, /gj/, /gw/, /mj/, /nj/, /lj/, /fl/, /fr/, /fj/, /vj/, /Ѳr/,
/Ѳj/, /Ѳw/, /r/, /hj/, /sl/, /sj/, /sw/, /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /sm/, /sn/, /sf/.
While initial three- consonant clusters exist in English language in which the
first consonant is /s/. Gimson (1989), mentioned lists of initial three- consonant
clusters as the following:
1. s p l
2. s p r
3. s p j
4. s t r
5. s t j
6. s k l
7. s k r
8. s k j
9. s k w
According to an analysis of the phonological words, Roach (2000:73), pointed
out three-initial clusters in English, when three consonant combining with each other,
(per- initial + initial +post- initial), i.e., (/s/ + /k/ + /w/).
The word: “squeak”.
Transcription: /skwi:k/.
Canonical structure: (CCCV:C).
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Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: three- initial consonant cluster
(CCCV-), as in figure 2.5.
According to the diagram above 2.5 the word “squeak” /skwi:k/ is monosyllabic and it
has three- consonant clusters.
Two Initial consonant clusters in Najdi Arabic are permitted. For instance:
/tχa.dim/ “you (ms.sg.) serve”, /smint/ “cement”, /tkal.lim/ “you (m) are talking to”,
/ɡbu:r/ “graves” , Alqahtani (2014: 115 - 116). Almost one year later AIAmro’s
(2015: 5) study supported Alqahtani’s (2014) findings, about initial consonant clusters
in Najdi Arabic that are allowed (double onsets). For instance, /ɡla.mu.hum/ “their
pens”, /χdilat/ “she betrayed”, /fla.mu.hum/ “their movies”, AIAmro (2015: 5).
ALqahtani (2014: 121) reported that initial consonant clusters in Najdi Arabic
formed by combining voiceless velar stop /k/ with voiced dental alveolar lateral /l/,
voiceless alveolar stop /t/ or voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ as in below:
/kla:b/ “dogs”
/kfu:f/ “palms”
/kta:b/ “a book”
Also, by combining voiced velar stop /ɡ/ with voiced dental alveolar tap /r/ as in
below:
/ɡru:d/ “monkey”
/ɡru:∫/ “coins”
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52
2.2.6.2 Medial Cluster
Just like Modern Standard Arabic and Yemeni dialect of Arabic, no vowel
occurs word- initially in Taizi Yemeni dialect of Arabic, Sameer (2011: 25). No
medial consonant clusters occur in MSA and in many varieties of Arabic like Yemeni,
Palestinian and Jordanian.
2.2.6.3 Final Cluster
There are three types of final consonant clusters in English, the first one is that
which consists of two consonants (-VCC), the second one consists of three consonants
(-VCCC), the third one is that which consists of four consonants (-VCCCC).
Gimson (1989), gave lists of final three- consonant clusters in English language as the
following:
(/pts/, /pθs/, /tθs/, /kts/, /mps/, /mfs/, /nts/, /nθs/, /nnks/, /lps/, /lts/, /lks/, /lfs/, /lθs/,
/fts/, /fθs/, /sps/, /sts/, /sks/, /pst/, /tst/, /kst/, /dst/, /mpt/, /nst/, /nkt/, /lst/, /lpt/, /lkt/,
/spt/, /skt/, /ndz/, /lbz/, /ldz/, /lmz/, /lnz/, /lvz/, /nzd/, /lmd/, /lvd/, /ksθ/, /ntθ/, /nkθ/,
/lfθ/).
Roach (2000) mentioned lists combinations final four- consonant clusters as in
the following figure 2.6.
+ /s/
mpt
lkt
1pt
1fѲ
kst
ksѲ
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53
According to AL-Mamri and Shabana (2017) there are only two clusters at the end of
word in Mehri language.
1. -wk as in /sowḳ/ “market”
2. -wb as in /kawb/ “the wolf”
3. -wɬ as in /ħawɬ/ “pound”
4. -wf as in /ɡawf/ “chest”
5. -jb as in /ħajb/ “crowbar”
6. -jn as in /ferhajn/ “horse”
7. -jt as in /jisajt/ “nine”
8. -jl as in /χajl/ “maternal uncle”
Roach (2000: 75) pointed out four types of final cluster in English, the first
one when two consonant combine with each other, ( per-final +final +post-final).
The word: “helped”.
Transcription: /helpt/.
Canonical structure: /CVCCC/.
Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: three-final consonant cluster (-VCCC),
as in the following figure 2.7a.
According to the transcription above the word /helpt/ “helped” is
monosyllabic and it has three consonant clusters in coda position, i.e, (/l/ + /p/ + /t/),
lateral plus voiced plosive plus voiceless plosive.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
54
The second type, consisting of two post-final, (final + post-final1+ post-final2),
The word: “next”.
Transcription: /nekst/.
Canonical structure: (CVCCC).
Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: three-final consonant cluster (-VCCC),
as in figure 2.7b.
The word has three consonant clusters in coda position, i.e.,( /k/ + /s/ + /t/),
plosive plus fricative plus plosive, and it’s also monosyllabic.
The third type, consisting of pre-final + final + post-final 1+ post-final 2, i.e., (/m/ +
/p/ + /t/ + s/), nasal plus two plosive plus fricative.
The word: “prompts”.
Transcription: /prompts/.
Canonical structure: (CCVCCCC).
Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: four- final consonant cluster (-
VCCCC), as in figure 2.7c.
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55
The word has four consonant clusters in coda position, i.e., (/m/ + /p/ + /t/ +
/s/), nasal plus plosive plus plosive plus fricative, and it’s also monosyllabic.
The fourth type, consisting of pre-final + final + post-final 1+ post-final 2+ post-final
3 i.e.,(/k/ + /s/ + /t/ + /s/), nasal plus two plosives plus fricative.
The word: “texts”.
Transcription: /teksts/.
Canonical structure: (CVCCCC).
Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: four- final consonant cluster (-
VCCCC), as in figure 2.7d.
The word has four consonant clusters in coda position, i.e.,( /k/ + /s/ + /t/ +
/s/), plosive plus fricative plus plosive plus fricative, and it’s also monosyllabic.
Further Roach (2000:73), mentioned that both clusters (initial and final) as follows:
The word: “twelfths”.
Transcription: /twelfθs/.
Canonical Structure: (CCVCCCC).
Number of syllable(s): one.
Number and position of the consonant cluster: four- final consonant cluster (-
VCCCC), as in the following figure 2.7e.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
56
According to the diagram above the word /twelfθs/ “twelfths” is monosyllabic
and it has two consonant clusters in onset position, i.e, (/t/ + /w/), plosive plus glide,
and it has four consonant clusters in coda position, i.e, (/l/ + /f/ + /θ/ + /s/), lateral plus
fricative plus fricative plus fricative.
Several researchers, like Sameer (2011), Batoosh (2006), AL-Qenaie (2011),
ALqahtani (2014), ALAmro (2015) and many other researchers agree that final
consonant clusters are allowed in Arabic and in many varieties of Arabic as in
Jordanian, Kuwaiti, Najdi, Palestinian and Yemeni dialects.
Taizi Yemeni dialect of Arabic has final consonant clusters in the word
position. For instance: (CVCC) /seʕr/ “price”, (CVCCC) /ma:.qelt∫/ “you (MASC
SG) didn’t say”. Just like Modern Standard Arabic and as opposed to many Yemeni
dialects which do not accept final consonant clusters, Sameer (2011: 25).
ALqahtani (2014: 129) reported that final consonant clusters in Najdi Arabic
formed by combining voiced dental alveolar nasal /n/ with voiceless dental alveolar
stop /t/ or voiced dental alveolar stop /d/ as in below:
/bint/ “a girl”
/ʕind/ “it is with”
Furthermore, by combining voiced dental alveolar tap /r/ with voiced dental alveolar
stop /d/ or voiced velar stop /ɡ/ as in below:
/barɡ/ “thunder”
/bard/ “cold”
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57
Btoosh (2006: 195), opined that final consonant clusters in Jordanian Arabic formed
by combining voiced dental alveolar tap /r/ with voiced dental alveolar stop /d/ as in
below:
/ʔard.na/ “our land”
/ward/ “roses”
2.2.7 Theoretical Background
According to studies conducted by Watson (2007), Kiparsky (2003), about
three groups of classifications for Arabic dialects, namely (CV-, C-, and VC dialects).
Watson extends the three groups of dialects into four groups, also about the dialects
which were not considered by Kiparsky (2003), Watson considered these dialects.
The classifications for Arabic dialects are listed below:
First group: CV dialects. Yemen (al-Hudaida, Ibbi, Sanani, Yariimi, Yaafii),
Saudi Arabia (Meccan), Egypt (Middle Egyptian dialects, Cairene).
Second group: VC dialects. Turkey (Kinderib and Cukurova dialects), Egypt
(il-A wamra), the Levant (Ras-Beirut and Haifa), Yemen (in-NaDhiir) Libya
(Tripoli).
Third group: both CV and VC- dialects which prominently display. Sudan
(Central Urban Sudanese and Shukriyya), Watson (2002:7).
Watson discussed that some features cited by Kiparsky, especially the groups
that shared with other dialects instance: the characteristics of C- shared by some VC
and CV dialects, VC features shared by some CV dialects and CV features shared by
some VC dialects. She said that some dialects failed totally to conform to the featured
phenomena of Kiparsky’s dialect types. Watson suggests new types of dialects Cv by
lower case “v” distinguished from CV. Lastly, Watson proposes some other
constraints to account for the difference between the four groups (CV, VC, C-, Cv),
theses constraints are NoSharedMora and Syll-Bin.
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58
Part-III: Word Stress
2.3.1 Overview of Stress
Stress is one type of a suprasegmental feature and the most important part of a
word or a syllable as a result of more muscular energy than another part of a syllable.
Ladefoged and Johnson (2010: 250) defined stress as “stressed sounds are those on
which the speaker expends more muscular energy”. While Jones (1967: 245) said that
“the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable is uttered”. The best way of
knowing stress syllable of any language especially in Arabic language is to listen to a
native speaker directly. Another way of stress assignment in Arabic language is
explained by quantity sensitivity, when stress prefers to fall on the syllable which has
intrinsic prominence. It means that stress prefers to fall on closed syllable rather than
open syllable, and when stress prefers to fall on long vowel rather than short vowel,
for instance; in Arabic language the word /ki.'ta:b/ “book” and /ma.na:.'di:l/
“kerchiefs”. Stress is assigned according to the origin of words and rhyming (super-
heavy, heavy and light syllable).
According to Roach (2000: 94), all stressed syllables have one characteristic
that is, prominence. Stressed syllables are more prominent than unstressed syllables.
And there are four characteristics which make a stressed syllable more prominent than
unstressed syllables:
1) Stressed syllables are louder than unstressed syllables
2) The length of syllable
3) Higher Pitch
4) Quality
2.3.2 Word Stress Patterns
In Arabic language, every word has stress, according to the position of the
syllable (super-heavy, heavy and light). For instance, in Arabic word /'ʔis.mak/ “your
name” stress is assigned in the first syllable due to the first syllable is stronger and
prominent than the second syllable. Word stress in Arabic language does not produce
a difference in the meaning. Stress syllable is marked by a small vertical line (') in any
position of the word, as in the following examples:
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
59
/'la.mah/ “why”
/'kam/ “how much”
/mis.'ma:r/ “nail”
/sa.'la:m/ “peace”
/ma.'ka:.tab/ “desks”
/na.'sa:.fir/ “we travel”
Word stress is divided into three major parts as in below:
1) Ultimate, when the stress falls on the final super-heavy syllable of the word
(CVCC) or (CV:C) for example:
/χa.'ru:f/ “lamb”
/sa.'ri:r/ “bed”
/sa:.'ni:n/ “tooth”
2) Penultimate, when the final super-heavy syllable is absence, stress falls on the
heavy syllable (penultimate) as in:
/χa.'tˤi:.ʔah/ “sin”
/mus.'taɡ.bal/ “future”
/mu.'sa:.lim/ “peaceful”
3) Antepenultimate, when the final super-heavy and heavy syllables (ultimate
and penultimate) are absent, stress falls on either the penultimate or the
antepenultimate as in:
/'ħa.ra.mi/ “thief”
/'∫a.ri.ka/ “company”
/'wa.ra.ɡah/ “leaf”
Watson (2002: 13-15) mentioned that as per word stress rules in Classical Arabic and
Cairene Arabic (CA), stress is assigned in classical Arabic by the following rules:
1) Stress is assigned to the last syllable if it is super-heavy as in (CV:C) or
CVCC), for example:
/ma.'la:k/ “angel”
/ki.'ta:b/ “book”
/qa:.'nu:n/ “law”
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60
2) In the absence of the last super-heavy syllable (CV:C) or (CVCC), stress is
assigned to a heavy syllable in Classical Arabic as in:
/ma.'di:.nah/ “city”
/mus.'ta∫.fa:/ “hospital”
/sa.'fi:.nah/ “ship”
3) In the absence of the final super-heavy and heavy syllable, stress is assigned
to the leftmost syllable as in:
/'ka.ta.ba/ “wrote (3s.g.m)”
/'mu∫.ki.la/ “problem”
/'ba.ɡa.rah/ “cow”
While, stress is assigned in Cairene Arabic by the rules are listed below:
Stress-final super-heavy syllable (ultimate) as in:
/ma.na:.'di:l/ “kerchiefs”
/ka 'tabt/ “I wrote”
/ʔaʕ.'ma:l/ “works”
Otherwise, stress on a heavy syllable (penultimate) as in (CVC) or (CV:) for
example:
/du.'ʤa:.ʤa/ “chicken”
/tuf.'fa:.ħa/ “an apple”
/ma.'ka:.tib/ “desks”
Stress on the first syllable as in:
/'∫a.ri.ka/ “company”
/'za.ra.fa/ “giraffe”
/'ħa.la.wa/ “candy”
AL-qahtani (2014: 133) pointed out three word stress patterns in Najdi Arabic
as illustrated in the following:
The final syllable (ultimate syllable) is stressed as in (CVCC) or (CV:C) for
example:
/mak.'tu:b/ “written”
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61
/sa.'la:m/ “peace”
/ʔin.ʕa.'raft/ “I became known”
Stress the penultimate syllable if it is heavy as in (CVC) or (CV:) for example:
/ɡa.'bal.na/ “meet us (m.s.)”
/mak.'tul:.fah/ “tired (fm.sg.)”
/saj.'ja:.ra/ “car”
The antepenultimate syllable receives stress in Najdi Arabic if the final syllable is
not ultimate (superheavy syllable) and if the penultimate is neither (CV:) or
(CVCC) for example:
/'mak.ta.bah/ “library”
/'ħa.∫a.ra/ “insect”
/'ma.li.ka/ “queen”
AL-Abdely (2011: 389) said that stress assignment in Iraqi Arabic can be
formulated by its position in the word and the weight of the syllable, he mentions the
following rules:
Stress on the final syllable (ultimate syllable) if it is super-heavy as in below:
/mik 'na:s/ “broom”
/bis 'ta:n/ “orchard”
/ka.'ri:m/ “generous”
Stress on a heavy syllable (CVC) or (CV:) as in:
/tuf.'fa:.ħa/ “an apple”
/mis.'sa:.ħa/ “eraser”
/na.'ti:.ʤah/ “result”
Stress on the first syllable if the last syllable and penultimate are light as in:
/'mak.ta.bu/ “his office”
/'ka.ta.ba/ “he wrote it”
/'daf.ta.ru/ “his copybook”
/'mad.ra.sa/ “school”
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
62
2.3.3 Stress Constraints in OT
NONFINALITY
“No foot is final in PrWd” Kager (1999: 151).
UNEVEN-LAMB
(LH) ˃ (LL), (H) Kager (1999: 151).
GRWD = PRWD
“A grammatical word must be a prosodic word” Kager (1999: 152).
PARSE-SYL
“Feet are parsed by feet” Kager (1999: 153).
WSP
“Heavy syllables are stressed” Kager (1999: 155).
FT-BIN
“Feet are binary under moraic or syllabic analysis” Kager (1999: 156).
RIGHTMOST
“The head foot is rightmost in PR WD” Kager (1999: 167).
LEFTMOST
“The head foot is leftmost in PR WD” Kager (1999: 167).
2.3.4 Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed some past studies in syllable structure and word stress on
framework of Optimality Theory and earlier theories. It has presented a brief
overview of Optimality Theory, the most important notations of Optimality Theory
and the components of Optimality Theory. It has also described the conflicts between
constraints (Markedness and Faithfulness) and the basic syllable structure constraints
in Optimality Theory. Furthermore, this chapter has presented the phonemic inventory
(consonants and vowels), types of syllable structure and syllable weight. It has also
presented consonant clusters (initial, medial and final cluster) and their theoretical
background. Finally, it has presented an overview of stress, word stress patterns and
stress constraints in Optimality Theory.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
63
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The present chapter deals with the methodology that was used in this study. It
provides the statements of the research questions. It also highlights on the population
and sample of the study. Then, it describes two instruments for collecting data i.e.
questionnaire and interview. This chapter carries a pilot study to check the validity
and reliability of the research instruments and the data thus collected. Finally, it gives
an overview of data collection and procedures for data analysis used in this study.
3.1 The Statements of the Research Questions
Before embarking on a description of the data collection procedures, a brief
survey of the research questions will be provided in what follows to make a link
between the research questions and the instruments used to collect the data required to
answer these questions. In addition, it will show the validity of the data.
As stated earlier, the study aims to answer the following main questions: 1) How are Hajji
and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic different from Modern Standard Arabic (MSA)?, 2)
What is the comprehensive analysis of the syllable shape and word stress of Hajji and
Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic within the framework of Optimality Theory?, 3) What
are the patterns of word stress attested in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects?, and 4) What
are the most and the least frequent and percentage types of syllable structures in Hajji and
Zabidi dialects?, 5) What are the most and the least frequent and percentage of canonical
structures inside each type of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects?
3.2 Population
The population of the study consists of two universities in Yemen, namely,
College of Education, Zabid which belongs to AL-Hudaidah University and
University of Hajjah. It consisted of students of the first, second, third and fourth
levels. Furthermore, part of the data was collected from the Yemeni students of Hajji
and Zabidi dialects who are studying in Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) in the
academic year (2016/2017).
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
64
3.3 Sample of the Study
The sample was selected from the major population of the study. It consisted
of three hundred and sixty (360) participants of two dialects through questionnaires
and interviews. Three hundred and twenty (320) participants of B.A students
distributed into first, second, third and fourth levels answered the questionnaires, and
forty (40) participants of M.A and PH.D students of AMU were interviewed. All
participants are students of English Language in their Departments, in Hajjah
University and Hudaidah University, and their mother tongue is Arabic. However,
their dialects are different where a group of them speaks Hajji dialect while another
group speaks Zabidi dialect. According to Crystal (2008: 244) “someone who acts as
a source of data for linguistic analysis, usually a native speaker of a language”. The
following table shows the number of participants, their gender, educational level, their
age, and instruments used for data elicitation, who are speakers of Hajji and Zabidi
dialects undertaken for this study.
Table 3.1: The Number of Participants from HYA and ZYA.
Educational
level
No. of
participants in
Hajji dialect and
their gender
No. of
participants in
Zabidi dialect
and their gender
Instruments Age of
participants
Level (1)
Level (2)
B.A
Level (3)
Level (4)
12 males
28 females
18 males
22 females
17 males
23 females
18 males
22 females
17 males
23 females
15 males
25 females
20 males
20 females
12 males
28 females
Questionnaire
18 - 24
M.A 8 males 9 males
Interview
25 - 28
PH.D 12 males 11 males 29 - 35
Total No. of
participants
180 180
18 - 35
360
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
65
Table 3.2: Frequency and the Percentage of the Participants in HYA and ZYA
According to their Gender.
Gender
Frequency Percent Valid
Percent
female 191 53.1% 53.1
male 169 46.9% 46.9
Total 360 100.0 100.0
Figure 3.1: Frequency of Participants in HYA and ZYA.
3.4 Instruments
In this study, there were two instruments used to obtain the data for answering
the research questions. The first instrument was the questionnaire which was designed
by the researcher and distributed among the students of two universities. The second
instrument was the interviews which were conducted of the students who were
studying in AMU. It was clear to the researcher through the aims and the questions of
the study that these two instruments are the best to collect the required data in order to
achieve the aims of the study and for answering the research questions.
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
female male
Hajji dialect 95 85
Zabidi dialect 96 84
fre
equ
ency
participants
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
66
3.4.1 The Questionnaire
One of the most helpful instruments for collecting data was the questionnaire
due to the features which cannot be available or useful in other instruments. One of
the features is that, it is more suitable for surveying a large number of participants for
undertaking comprehensive studies, it is also less expensive besides requiring shorter
period of time. All these advantages have contributed significantly in selecting this
instrument for collecting data for the present study.
3.4.1.1 The Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire was designed to obtain the data to achieve the objectives of
the study. So, a number of successes and complex procedures were adopted for this
questionnaire to develop into its final form. It has taken around two months, (to be
more specific and precise), from March to April 2016 to design it. During this period,
a lot of changes and modifications were incorporated in the contents of the
questionnaire through several discussions with some colleagues, the supervisor, and
finally with the judgment committee which included five experts in the department of
linguistics of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. They provided the researcher with
valuable suggestions, comments and notes for more precise, clear and pinpointed
questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed with open - ended
questions for which the participants were required to write words as well as their
transcriptions from their own dialects for this study.
Two questionnaires were used in this study: one questionnaire for Hajji dialect
and the second questionnaire for Zabidi dialect (See Appendices A & B). These
questionnaires were for the students in universities, especially Hajjah and Hudaidah
universities. So, the study was conducted at two universities, one university in Hajjah
city while the second university in College of Education, Zabid which belongs to AL-
Hudaidah University, both of these universities are co-educational institutions. For
more clarification about the participants of B.A students, please see the following
table:
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
67
Table 3.3: The Number of Participants for the Questionnaires of two Dialects
Educational level
No. of participants
in Hajji dialect and
their gender
No. of participants
in Zabidi dialect
and their gender
Age of participants
Level (1)
Level (2)
B.A
Level (3)
Level (4)
12 males
28 females
18 males
22 females
17 males
23 females
18 males
22 females
17 males
23 females
15 males
25 females
20 males
20 females
12 males
28 females
18 – 24
Total No. of
participants
I60 160
320
The total number of students who were included in the questionnaire
instrument in two dialects of this study were three hundred and twenty (320); one
hundred sixty (160) participants in Hajji dialect and one hundred sixty (160)
participants in Zabidi dialect distributed in four levels of B.A students. Every level
consists of forty (40) participants (male and female) who participated in answering the
questionnaire. The table 3.3 above shows the ratio of participants (males and females)
for the questionnaires of the two dialects.
Both questionnaires were composed of two sections (A and B). It also includes
some background information about the participants such as; name, age, sex, phone
number, E-mail address, occupation, mother’s tongue, father’s place of birth,
mother’s place of birth, level of education, dialect(s) spoken at home, and other
dialect (s) spoken. Section (A) of the questionnaire consists of 13 questions, while
section (B) was made up to fill the gaps (See Appendices A & B).
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
68
The following steps were taken into consideration during the process of writing the
questionnaires in the present study. The questionnaires were designed in an
unstructured way. They included open questions to which the subjects were required
to answer freely providing any items that include the required data in the two
investigated dialects i.e. Hajji and Zabidi dialects. A conscious attempt was made to
keep them easy and clear to understand. In other words, it avoided vague and double
meaning questions as they consisted of clear and short questions.
In what follows, the objectives of the questions will be explained. Firstly, the
main aims of designing the questions were to obtaining a large number of words from
the two dialects in this study and to make an analysis of these words within the
framework of Optimality Theory.
Question No. (1) aims to collect words that begin with a consonant in Hajji
and Zabidi dialects investigated in the study. Question No. (2) to investigate the use
of consonant clusters at the beginning of the words in their dialects. In the case of a
positive answer by writing words, this means that consonant cluster exists in their
dialects, but in the case of no answers provided by the respondents, it means that
consonant clusters do not exist in their dialects. Question No. (3) also to investigate
the consonant clusters at the end position of the words in their dialects.
Question No. (4) investigates the consonant clusters at the middle position of
the words in their dialects. Question No. (5) investigates whether vowels occur at the
beginning of the words or not in the two dialects. Question No. (6) investigates
whether vowels occur at the end of the words or not, in the two dialects. Question
No. (7) aims to know whether long vowels occur at the end of the words or not, in
their dialects. Question No. (8) aims to obtaining words which have a medial short
vowel in their dialects. Question No. (9) aims to obtain words which have a medial
long vowel in their dialects. Question No. (10) aims to collect words that consist of
one syllable (monosyllabic).
Question No. (11) focuses on obtaining words that consist of two syllables
(disyllabic). Question No. (12) tries to find words that consist of three syllables
(trisyllabic). Question No. (13) seeks to obtain words that consist of more than three
syllables (polysyllable).
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
69
Whereas, section (B) of the questionnaire is designed to collect words that consist of
consonants in all positions of the syllables such as syllable- initially, syllable-
medially and syllable- finally of HYA and ZYA.
3.4.2 The Interview
The participants for the interview section of this study were chosen from
Yemeni students studying M.A and PH.D at Aligarh Muslim University for the
academic year 2016/2017. These students are native speakers of Hajji and Zabidi
dialects. The sample of the interviews consist of forty (40) participants; twenty (20)
participants for Hajji dialect and twenty (20) participants for Zabidi dialect.
Each day only one participant was recorded, and the duration of each
interview was around for 40 – 50 minutes. After recording the interviews of all the
participants, the researcher listened to the audio recording several times. According to
Arnold (2011: 140) one of the most important golden rules in collecting recorded data
is “listen to the recording over and over again till you are sick of it”. After that, the
researcher has transcribed all words in the recording word by word. Then the
researcher wrote the canonical structure and also marked the word stress.
The interviews of the participants were recorded by the researcher in
spontaneous conversations, quiet environment and natural settings to make the
participants at ease, lively and frank to answer all the questions genuinely, and to
produce natural words from their dialects. The utterances were recorded at
participants’ house, researchers’ house and outside in the landscape of (AMU)
Aligarh Muslim University to avoid any kind of disturbances during recordings. The
researcher recorded speech sounds of the participants by using a digital audio
recorder.
The following steps were taken into consideration in the process of recording
the interviews for the present study. Firstly, set the time/date and change recorder
mode to LPCM. Secondly, change the folder to interview and change the name of file
to interview. After that, transfer the recorded sounds to laptop. Finally, arrange the
recording on laptop and rename the files as follow: Name of participants - Place –
Date – Investigator.
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70
The researcher had taken into consideration some ethical procedures in the
process of selecting and conducting the interviews for the present study. Firstly, it was
purely a voluntary participation when the researcher got the participants’ consent to
willingly participate in the interviews and he also clarified to them that they have the
right to continue or withdraw from the interview at any time. Secondly, the
confidentiality was assured to the participant when the researcher told them that the
information will be kept secret and will be used only for the purposes of this study.
The data were saved secretly for the academic goals only in researchers’ laptop and
no one listened to the recordings except the researcher himself and the supervisor. In
addition, there are no deceptions between the researcher and participants. To put it
more clearly, the researcher gave them a clear idea about the actual goal of the
interviews and explained to them the significance of interviews for this study.
3.4.2.1 The Interview Questions
In this study two types of interviews were conducted, one for participants in
the Hajji dialect and another one for participants in the Zabidi dialect. Through the
questions of interviews we have been able to collect important data to be analyzed
within the framework of Optimality Theory. During the interview sessions the
researcher would speak some English words and ask the participants to repeat the
same words in their own dialects. The researcher then wrote down the transcription of
these words. (See Appendices C & D).
3.5 Pilot Study
Teijlingen and Hundley (2001) define pilot study as “small experiments to
check logistics and collect information prior to larger studies (also known as
feasibility studies), as well as the specific pre-testing of a particular research
instrument such as a questionnaire or interview schedule”. It is a crucial element to
improve the latter’s quality and efficiency because it can reveal deficiencies in the
design of a proposed experiment or procedure which can be addressed before the time
and resources are expended on large studies.
The pilot study is one of the important methods to conduct or smaller scale
before the procedure of the main study is adopted. So, the pilot study, in this work
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
71
was conducted on Yemeni participants of Hajji and Zabidi dialects who were studying
in Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) India.
Another aim of conducting a pilot study was to check the validity and
suitability of the chosen questions and their significance for data collection. Also, it
was done to compare the preliminary study results with the main study results.
Furthermore, the pilot study was conducted to overcome any deficiencies, or to avoid
unfamiliar questions and rephrasing them if the same were not clear to some
participants. Another purpose of the pilot study was to check the clarity of questions
as well as checking the efficacy of questionnaires and interviews. These steps have
provided the researcher with a great chance to facilitate his work in the main study.
Moreover, the results which were analyzed of preliminary study (pilot study) provided
the researcher with a great knowledge for analyzing the results of the main study.
3.6 The Validity and Reliability of the Data
Reliability and validity are some of the important concepts in educational
research and other fields of inquiry that capture the measurement properties of a
survey, interview, questionnaire or other patterns of measurement. They are also
significant for checking data collection procedures. In the present study, questionnaire
and interview will be the best instruments for collecting the required data to achieve
the objectives of the study and to answer the research questions.
In the course of this research, some techniques were employed to check the
validity and reliability of the instruments used. One of the most important techniques
to ensure the efficacy of the data was that the instruments (questionnaire and
interview) were developed through a lot of modifications, notes, suggestions and
reasoning with the supervisor and colleagues in the department. After that, the
instruments were examined by a judgment committee which consists of five
specialists in linguistics, as mentioned earlier. All their comments, notes and
modifications were taken into consideration for preparing the final draft of the
questionnaire and interview before piloting the study. Another method to assure the
efficacy of the study was through questionnaire whose aims are explained clearly by
formulating questionnaire for collecting data that is required in expected measures
relevant to the research questions of the work.
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72
Similarly, the reliability of this study was proved in three main stages; the first
stage, the questions of the two instruments, questionnaire and interview, were
modified by rephrasing, removing and adding some items as per the requirements.
The second stage, the manner of piloting the instruments was one more technique to
prove the reliability of data of this study. In the last stage, the researcher recorded the
respondent’s answers to the questions raised. All these stages contributed to the
reliability of the data for this study.
3.7 Data Collection
For the purposes of this research, three types of data were collected. The first
type of data was collected through questionnaires which were distributed to
participants in two universities for this study. While the second type in the present
study was collected from the participants through personal interviews. The last type
was collected by the researcher who also happens to be a native speaker of the Hajji
dialect. The researcher is currently pursuing Ph.D in linguistics. The researcher is well
versed in dialects under study and has no problem in articulation or speech,
furthermore he has normal hearing. Even when the researcher was outside his home in
the market or in a mosque, he continued remembered to make a list of those words
mentally and jotted them down in his pocket notebook. Researcher’s familiarity with
the dialects helped respondents wherever they were short of words. The collected
speech samples were purely natural, obtained during spontaneous conversations
between the researcher and the participants. All the data of this study is, thus, a
primary data. The data was gathered in eight (8) months from May to December of
the academic session 2016/2017.
3.8 Procedures for Data Analysis
The data which was collected through the questionnaires and the interviews
was analyzed within the framework of Optimality Theory on the basis of tableau. The
following tableau 3.1 shows how the words were analyzed.
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73
Tableau 3.1: Simple Domination of Constraints
Constraint 4 Constraint 3 Constraint 2 Constraint 1 Input
Candidate a
Candidate b
Candidate c
Candidate d
Both, quantitative and qualitative methods, were used in data analysis in this
work. Paltridge and Phakiti (2015:64-65) “The use of both quantitative and qualitative
data and a meaningful integration of quantitative and qualitative methods within a
study to generate more credible and persuasive conclusions about the research issue”.
All the audio recordings were played and listened by the researcher several times at
high volume for clarity. At the time of listening to the participant’s recordings, the
researcher used to write transcriptions of words, canonical structure and word stress
were also marked.
All the words of the researcher and the participants which were collected
through questionnaires and interviews were written down in notebooks, in
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) notation and then inserted into the computer
database in MS-Word /2010/ documents. After that, the data was analyzed by
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to know the frequencies and the
percentages of the types of syllable structure in the two dialects, and also the
frequencies and the percentages of the canonical structure inside each type, Hajji and
Zabidi, of Yemeni dialects of Arabic.
3.9 Conclusion
This chapter has presented the methodology that was used in this study. It has
highlighted the statements contained in the research questions. It has also described
the population and the sample group of the study. It also has explained two
instruments that were employed for collecting the data i.e. questionnaire and
interview. Pilot study, the validity and reliability of the study, have also been
discussed in this chapter. Finally, the chapter has presented an overview of data
collection and procedures adopted for data analysis for this study.
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74
CHAPTER 4
DATA AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter provides a detailed discussion on syllable structure and word stress
in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic through Optimality Theory (OT). We have
divided this chapter into two parts. The first part presents the phonemic inventory
(consonants, vowels and diphthongs) of Hajji Yemeni dialect of Arabic (HYA). It also
explains the types of syllables (monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic, tetrasyllabic and
pentasyllabic words) of HYA. It further presents the structure of syllables, classification
of syllables and also consonant clusters of Hajji dialect. It also presents an OT analysis of
syllable structure in Hajji dialect. Moreover, it gives a basic syllable structure constraints
in OT related to the syllable structure in Hajji dialect (Markedness and Faithfulness
constraints). It deals with syllable weight in HYA. Furthermore, it highlights word stress
patterns and presents an OT analysis of word stress in Hajji dialect. The second part
presents the phonemic inventory of Zabidi Yemeni dialect of Arabic (ZYA). It also
presents types of syllables, classification of syllables, structure of syllables, and consonant
clusters of Zabidi dialect. Moreover, it presents an OT analysis of syllable structure
constraints and syllable weight in Zabidi dialect. Finally, it presents word stress patterns
and the method of analysing word stress in Zabidi dialect though OT.
Part I: Hajji Dialect
4.1.1 The Phonemic Inventory of HYA
4.1.1.1 Consonant Sounds of HYA
The consonant sounds of Hajji dialect, as presented in Table 4.1 below, consists
of 28 consonants arranged in nine places of articulation on the horizontal side (bilabial,
labio-dental, inter-dental, dental-alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal and glottal),
and seven manners of articulation on the vertical side which includes eight plosives /b, t,
d, k, ɡ, dˤ , tˤ, ʔ/, two nasals /m/ and /n/, thirteen fricatives /f, Ѳ, ðˤ, ð, ʕ, s, z, sˤ, ∫, χ , ʁ , ħ ,
h/, one trill/tap /r/, one lateral /l/, two glides /j/ and /w/ and one affricate /ʤ/.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
75
Table 4.1: Consonant Sounds in HYA
Bil
ab
ial
Lab
io-d
enta
l
Inte
r-d
enta
l
Den
tal-
alv
eola
r
Pala
tal
Vel
ar
Uvu
lar
Ph
ary
n-g
eal
Glo
ttal
Plosive
Voiced b d ɡ
Voiceless t k ʔ
Emphatic dˤ tˤ
Affricate ʤ
Fricative
Voiced ð z ʁ ʕ
Voiceless f Ө s ∫ χ ħ h
Emphatic ðˤ sˤ
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Tap r
Glide w j
Hajji dialect and MAS have the same phonological system. But, the voiceless
uvular stop /q/ in MSA changes to voiced velar stop /ɡ/ in Hajji as in the following
examples:
MSA HYA Gloss
/qari:b/ /ɡari:b/ “near”
/qalb/ /ɡalb/ “heart”
/su:q/ /su:ɡ/ “market”
/qa:l/ /ɡa:l/ “he said”
/sa:q/ /sa:ɡ/ “leg”
/qabr/ /ɡabr/ “a grave”
/ʕaql/ /ʕaɡl/ “mind”
/sa:rq/ /sa:rɡ/ “thief
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76
Table 4.2: Exemplification of HYA Consonants
Sound Word Gloss
b
/bass/ “enough”
d
/dam/ “blood”
ɡ
/ɡalb/ “heart”
t
/ta.ma:m/ “good”
k
/ka:f/ “how”
dˤ
/dˤa:jʕ/ “lost”
ʔ
/ʔa.biz/ “i take”
tˤ
/tˤa.ri:ɡ/ “road”
ð /ba:ðinʤa:n/ “eggplant”
z
/zi:d/ “do more”
ʁ
/ʁa:lj/ “expensive”
f
/fi:l/ “elephant”
Ө
/Өalʤ/ “snow”
s
/sa:ɡ/ “leg”
∫
/∫ams/ “sun”
χ /χubz/ “bread”
ħ /ħabl/ “rope”
h
/ha:.nak/ “there”
ðˤ
/ðˤufr/ “nail”
ʕ
/ʕiʤl/ “calf”
sˤ
/sˤadr/ “breast”
m
/maʕ/ “no”
n
/nafs/ “spirit”
l
/lak/ “for you”
r
/ri:ħ/ “wind
w
/ward/ “roses”
j /jad/
“hand”
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4.1.1.1.1 Description of Consonants in HYA
Stops
bilabial-stop-voiced /b/
dental-alveolar-stop- voiceless /t/
dental-alveolar-stop- voiced /d/
dental-alveolar- emphatic- voiceless /tˤ/
velar-stop-voiceless /k/
velar-stop- voiced /ɡ/
glottal-stop-voiceless
voiced - inter dental-stop
/ʔ/
/dˤ/
Affricates /ʤ/ Palatal- Affricates- voiced
Fricatives
labio-dental-fricative-voiceless /f/
inter-dental- fricative- voiceless /Ѳ/
inter-dental- fricative- voiced /ð/
inter-dental-emphatic- voiced /ðˤ/
dental-alveolar- fricative- voiceless /s/
dental-alveolar- fricative- voiced /z/
dental-alveolar- emphatic- voiceless /sˤ/
palatal- fricative- voiceless /∫/
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78
uvular- fricative- voiceless /χ/
uvular- fricative- voiced /ʁ/
pharyngeal- fricative- voiceless / ħ/
pharyngeal- fricative- voiced /ʕ/
glottal- fricative –voiceless /h/
Nasals
bilabial-nasal-voiced /m/
dental-alveolar- nasal-voiced /n/
Lateral
dental-alveolar- lateral-voiced /l/
Tap
/r/ dental-alveolar-tap-voiced
Glides
/j/ palatal- glide- voiced
/w/ velar-glide-voiced
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79
4.1.1.1.2 Distribution of Consonants in HYA
Stops
Table 4.3: Distribution of Consonants in HYA
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/b/
/baħr/ “sea”
/bass/ “enough”
/rabħ/ “monkey”
/kab∫/ “sheep”
/saʕb/ “difficult”
/ɡalb/ “heart”
/d/
/damʕ/ “tears”
/diɡn/ “beard
/kib.deh/ “liver”
/χadd/ “cheek”
/ba.li:d/ “dull”
/bard/ “bard”
/ɡ/
/ɡult/ “I said”
/ɡa:tl/ “killer”
/ʕaɡl/ “mind”
/raɡsˤ/ “dance”
/sa:rɡ/ “thief”
/ħaɡɡ/ “right”
/t/
/ta:ʤ/ “crown”
/tamr/ “dates”
/ɡa:tl/ “killer”
/maktab/ “office”
/ma:t/ “he died”
/bint/ “girl”
/k/
/kul/ “all”
/ka:n/ “was”
/bikr/ “virgin”
/sa:kr/ “drunkard”
/lak/ “for you”
/sa.mak/ “fish”
/dˤ/
/dˤa:jʕ/ “lost”
/dˤaru:ri/ “necessary”
/ɡa:dˤ j/ “judge”
/ɡadˤi:jah/ “case” /ʔardˤ/ “land”
/ʔ/
/ʔab/ “father”
/ʔardˤ/ “land”
/mutaʃaʔim/
“pessimistic”
/ma.taʔ/ “when”
/ha.waʔ/ “air”
/tˤ/
/tˤajr/ “bird”
/tˤa.bi:χ/ “cuisine”
/satˤħ/ “roof”
/matˤr/ “rain”
/∫uχtˤ/ “stroke”
/mu.∫utˤ/ “comb”
Affricate
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/ʤ/
/ʤi:/ “come”
/ʤa:r/ “neighbor”
/waʤh/ “face”
/ħa:ʤb/ “eyebrow”
/zu:ʤ/ “husband”
/Өalʤ/ “snow”
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Fricatives
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/ð/
/ðu.rah/ “corn” /ʔiðn/ “ear”
/z/
/zu:ʤ/ “husband”
/zi:d/ “do more” /ruzz/ “rice”
/ruzz/ “rice”
/χubz/ “bread”
/ʁ/
/ʁa:lj/ “expensive”
/ʁa.lab/ “he defeat”
/f/
/fi:l/ “elephant”
/fa:s/ “axe”
/nafs/ “spirit”
/ɡufl/ “padlock”
/ka:f/ “how”
/Ө/
/Өu:r/ “ox”
/Өalʤ/ “snow”
/wirӨ/ “inheritance”
/baħӨ/ “research”
/s/
/su:ɡ/ “market”
/saʕb/ “difficult”
/bass/ “enough”
/wa:sʕ/ “wide”
/nafs/ “spirit”
/jubs/ “dryness”
/∫/
/∫ul/ “take”
/∫uχtˤ/ “stroke”
/ri:∫/ “feather”
/kab∫/ “ram”
/χ/
/χa:l/ “uncle”
/χadd/ “cheek” /∫uχtˤ/ “stroke”
/ʔaχ/ “brother”
/ħ/
/ħar/ “hot”
/ħabl/ “rope”
/baħr/ “sea”
/siħr/ “magic”
/ru:ħ/ “soul”
/farħ/ “happy”
/h/
hu/ “he”
/nahr/ “river”
/sahl/ “easy” /waʤh/ “face”
/ðˤ/
/ðˤufr/ “nail”
/ʕi.ðˤa:m/ “bones”
/ʁa.li:ðˤ/ “thick”
/ʕ/
/ʕilm/ “science”
/ ʕiʤl/ “calf” /sˤ aʕb/ “difficult”
/maʕ/ “no”
/damʕ/ “tears”
/sˤ/
/sˤ aʕb/ “difficult”
/sˤaħn/ “dish” /ba:sˤsˤ/ “bus”
/ba:sˤsˤ / “bus”
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81
Nasals
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/m/
/min/ “from”
/maʕ/ “no”
/damʕ/ “tears”
/ʕumr/ “age”
/dam/ “blood”
/kam/ “how much”
/n/
/na:r/ “fire”
/na:s/ “people”
/bint/ “girl”
/sinn/
“tooth”
/ti:n/ “figs”
/di:n/ “religion”
Lateral
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/l/
/lawn/ “color”
/lajj/ “hose”
/Өalʤ/ “snow”
/ɡalb/ “heart”
/χa:l/ “uncle”
/sahl/ “easy”
Tap
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/r/
/ri:∫/ “feather”
/ri:ħ/ “wind”
/ward/ “roses”
/ba:rd/ “cold”
/Өu:r/ “ox”
/baħr/ “sea”
Glides
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/w/
/wa:rӨ/ “inheritor”
/wa.rag/ “paper”
/zawʤ/ “husband”
/jawm/ “day”
/ʤaww/ “they came”
/ʔaw/ “or”
/j/
/jad/ “hand”
/jan.kaʕ/ “fall”
/wajn/ “where”
/kajf/ “how”
/ðˤabj/ “gazelle”
/ħa:mj/ “hot”
As seen from the distribution of consonants in HYA above, all consonant
sounds (stops, affricate, nasals, fricatives, lateral, tap and glides) in Hajji dialect
occur in all positions of syllable (syllable-initially, syllable-medially and syllable-
finally). Only /∫/ and /Ө/ cannot occur syllable-medially. Also, voiced uvular fricative
/ʁ/ occurs only syllable-initially in Hajji dialect. Moreover, voiced fricative /ð/ cannot
occur syllable-initially in Hajji.
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82
4.1.1.1.3 Consonantal Contrasts in HYA
The minimal pairs in Hajji dialect occur when two words differ only in one sound as
illustrated below:
Contrast Word Gloss Word Gloss
/n / vs. /r/ /na:s/ “people” /ra:s/ “head”
/t / vs. /d/ /ti:n/ “figs” /di:n/ “religion”
/n / vs. /f/ /na:s/ “people” /fa:s/ “axe”
/tˤ/ vs. /n/ /tˤa:ɡah/ “window” /na:ɡah/ “she-camel”
/χ/ vs. /k/ /χa:f/ “he became afraid” /ka:f/ “how”
/ɡ/ vs. /k/ /ɡalb/ “heart” /kalb/ “dog”
/∫/ vs. /n/ /∫a:.hi/ “tea” /na:hi/ “ok”
/Ө/ vs. /b/ /kaӨi:r/ “many” /kabi:r/ “big”
/ʁ/ vs. /ɡ/ /ʁa.ri:b/ “stranger” /ɡa.ri:b/ “near”
/ħ/ vs. /k/ /milħ/ “salt” /milk/ “property”
/j/ vs. /k/ /ja.mi:n/ “right hand” /ka.mi:n/ “trap”
/ʕ/ vs. /h/ /∫aʕr/ “hair” /∫ahr/ “a month”
/ħ/ vs. /t/ /ħa.ma:m/ “doves” /ta.ma:m/ “good”
/ʁ/ vs. /ħ/ /ʁa:lj/ “expensive” /ħailj/ “sweet”
/ʤ/ vs. /ʕ/ /ʤamal/ “camel” /ʕamal/ “work”
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Table 4.4: Distinctive Features (Consonant Sounds) for Hajji Dialect.
con
son
an
tal
stri
den
t
corn
al
son
ora
nt
an
teri
or
nasa
l
lab
ial
con
tin
uan
t
dors
al
Tri
ll
late
ral
voic
ed
b + - + - +
d + + - + - +
ɡ + - - + +
t + + - + - -
k + - - + -
ʔ + - - -
dˤ + + - + - +
tˤ + + - + - -
ʤ + + - + +
ð + - + - + + +
z + + + - + + +
ʁ + - + + +
f + - - + + -
ʕ + - + + +
s + + + - + + -
Ө + - + - + + -
∫ + + - + + + -
ħ + - + + -
χ + - + + -
m + + + + + +
n + + + + + + +
l + - + + + - + +
r + - + + + - + +
w + - + + - + +
j + - + + + - +
h + - + + -
ðˤ + - + - + + +
sˤ + + + - + + -
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84
4.1.1.2 Vowel Sounds in HYA
Figure 4.1: Short Vowels in HYA
As shown in figure 4.1 above, Hajji dialect has six vowels (i, u, a, i:, u: and a:)
in two types of vowel sounds, long vowels and short vowels.
Short Vowels in HYA
Hajji dialect has three short vowels, /i/, /u/ and /a/.
/min/ “from”
/bi/ “with”
/zid/ “do more”
/lak/ “for you”
/kam/ “how much”
/dam/ “blood”
/kul/ “all”
/∫ul/ “take”
/dub/ “bear”
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85
Long Vowels in HYA
Hajji dialect has three long vowels /i:/, /u:/ and /a:/.
/ʤi:/ “come”
/ri:ħ/ “wind”
/fi:l/ “elephant”
/∫u:f/ “look”
/zu:ʤ/ “husband”
/su:ɡ/ “market”
/na:s/ “people”
/ka:n/ “was”
/ba:b/ “door”
/na:r/ “fire”
/ra:s/ “head”
/ti:n/ “figs”
/tˤi:n/ “mud”
/ru:ħ/ “soul”
/Өu:r/ “ox”
4.1.1.2.1 Description of Vowles in HYA
(i) Short vowels:
/a/ open- front –short
/u/ close-back-short
/i/ close-front-short
(ii) Long vowels:
/a:/ open-front-long
/u:/ close-back-long
/i:/ close-front-long
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4.1.1.2.2 Distribution of Vowels in HYA
In Hajji dialect, vowels occur in two positions of the syllables (medial and final).
(A) Medial Position:
/min/ “from”
/ti:n/ “figs”
/maʕ/ “no”
/ħar/ “hot”
/ba:b/ “door”
/ka:f/ “how”
/dub/ “bear”
/su:ɡ/ “market”
(B) Final Position:
/ba/ “with”
/wa/ “and”
/fi:/ “in”
/ʤi:/ “come”
/li:/ “to me”
/hu/ “he”
Table 4.5: Distinctive Features (Vowel Sounds) for Hajji Dialect.
Features i a i: u a: u:
High + - + + - +
Back - - - + - +
Low - + - - + -
Round - - - + - +
Tense - - + - + +
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87
4.1.1.3 Diphthongs in HYA
Table 4.6: Diphthongs in HYA and MSA
Diphthongs in HYA Diphthongs in MSA
aj
/ʔaj/ “which” aw
/zawʤ/ “husband”
aw
/ʔaw/ “or” aj
/wajn/ “where”
a:j
/χa:jf/ “scared” -
ij
/mu.ta.sa:.wij/ “equal” -
As seen in the table 4.6 above, Hajji dialect has four diphthongs (/aj/, /aw/, /ij/
and /a:j/) while MSA has only two diphthongs (/aj/ and /aw/). Examples for more
clarification:
/ʔaj/ “which”
/lajj/ “hose”
/ʔal.χajl/ “the horse”
/ʔaw/ “or”
/ʤaww/ “they came”
/jawm/ “day”
/χa:jf/ “scared”
/ʤa:jʕ/ “hungry”
/za:jr/ “visitor”
/mu.ta.sa:.wij/ “equal”
4.1.2 Types of Syllables in Hajji Dialect
There are five types of syllables in Hajji dialect (monosyllabic, disyllabic,
trisyllabic, tetrasyllabic and pentasyllabic words). There are altogether 40 different
canonical structures for various types of syllable structures of Hajji dialect. Syllable
types in HYA can be classified into three groups: the first group has light syllable as
in /CV/, the second group has heavy syllables as in (/CV:/ and /CVC/) whereas the
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third group consists of super-heavy syllables as in (/CV:C/, /CV:CC/ and /CVCC/).
All syllables in Hajji have obligatory simple onset, while the codas are optional in
HYA and are either simple or complex coda.
4.1.2.1 Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
In monosyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 6 different canonical
structures as in (/CV/, /CV:/, /CVC/, /CVCC/, /CV:CC/ and /CV:C/) unlike MSA and
CA, in which there are only 5 types of syllables (/CV/, /CV:/, /CVC/, /CVCC/ and
/CV:C/). Examples are presented below:
Table 4.7: Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV/ /ba/ “with”
2 /CV:/ /fi:/ “in”
3 /CVC/ /kul/ “all”
4 /CV:CC/ /ba:rd/ “cold”
5 /CV:C/ /ba:b/ “door”
6 /CVCC/ /kab∫/ “ram”
The canonical structure /CV/ is the most preferred canonical structure and
exists in all languages and dialects of the world. In Hajji, this structure /CV/ consists
of simple onset plus short vowel as in /hu/ “he”, /ba/ “with” and /wa/ “and”.
Moreover, the canonical structure /CV/ occurs very frequently in all positions of the
word in HYA. It occurs word initially as in /∫a.miz/ “shirt”, /mu.∫utˤ/ “comb”,
/ma.taʔ/ “when”, /la.ban/ “milk” and /ri. sˤa: sˤ/ “buckshot”, word medially as in
/sˤa:.ħi.bi/ “my friend”, /ʤa:.mi.ʕah/ “university”, /ħa.ra.mi/ “thief”, /ba.ɡa.rah/
“cow” and /wa.ra.ɡah/ “leaf”, and word finally as in /ti.ħa:.ki/ “speak”, /ħa.ra.mi/
“thief”, /ni.∫a/ “he grew”, /la.na/ “for us, ours” and /na:.hi/ “ok”.
In Hajji, the canonical structure /CV:/ of Hajji dialect consists of simple onset
and long vowel as in /li:/ “to me”, /la:/ “no”, /ma:/ “water”, /fi:/ “in” and /ʤi:/
“come”. /CV:/ is same type as its previous canonical structure /CV/ with one more
vowel at the end of syllable. Therefore, it can also occur in all positions of the word. It
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occurs word initially as in /∫a:.hi/ “tea”, /na:.hi/ “ok”, /ra:.tib/ “salary”, /ɡa:.law/
“they said”, and /ʁa:.miɡ/ “dark” , word medially as in /ti.ħa:.ki/ “speak”, /dˤa.ru:.ri/
“necessary”, /tˤa.ma:.tˤi:s/ “tomatoes”, /ʕa.sˤi:.dah/ “gruel” and /χa.tˤi:.ʔah/ “sin”, and
word finally as in /ʕak.ba.ri:/ “rat”, /mu.sa:.wa:/ “equally”, /mu.ʕa:.fa:/ “healthy” and
/mak.ta.ba.ti:/ “my library”.
It is also seen that the canonical structure /CVC/ of Hajji consists of simple
onset plus short vowel followed by simple coda as in /jad/ “hand”, /min/ “from”, /ħar/
“hot”, /maʕ/ “no” and /ʔaχ/ “brother”. It can also occur in all positions, that is, word
initially, medially and finally in Hajji dialect. Word initially as in /mas.ma:r/ “’nail”,
/χab ba:z/ “baker”, /tˤam.ma:ʕ/ “greedy”, /maχ.raʤ/ “exits” and /bal.wah/ “trouble”,
word medially as in /kul.lij.jah/ “college”, /ba:.ðin.ʤa:n/ “eggplant”, /ji.kal.lim.hum/
“he speaks to them”, /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/ “television” and /ʔis.taʕ.ma.lat.hum/ “she used
them”, and word finally as in /∫a.miz/ “shirt”, /ħa.ʤar/ “stone”, /sˤa.lab/ “dry/harsh”,
/ʔaħ.mar/ “red” and /raɡ.sˤah/ “dance”.
Furthermore, the canonical structure /CV:CC/ consists of simple onset plus
long vowel followed by complex coda (two consonants) as in /za:jr/ “visitor”, /ba:sˤsˤ/
“bus”, /sa:rɡ/ “thief”, /wa:ɡf/ “standing” and /sa:kr/ “drunkard”. The canonical
structure /CV:C/ consists of simple onset plus long vowel followed by simple coda as
in /ba:b/ “door”, /ti:n/ “figs”, /zu:ʤ/ “husband”, /zi:d/ “do more” and /ka:n/ “was”.
This structure /CV:C/ occurs only word final position as in /ɡa.di:m/ “old”,
/ħa.ma:m/ “doves”, /ki.ta:b/ “book”, /∫a.ma:l/ “north” and /sa.la:m/ “peace”.
It is also observed that the last canonical structure /CVCC/ of HYA consists
of simple onset plus short vowel followed by complex coda (two consonants) as in
/baħr/ “sea”, /nafs/ “spirit”, /ʕiʤl/ “calf”, /bint/ “girl” and /damʕ/ “tears”. This
structure /CVCC/ occurs only word final position as in /ʔal.∫ams/ “the sun”,
/ʔal.baħr/ “the sea”, /ʔal.nahr/ “the river”, /ʔal.waɡt/ “the time” and /ʔal.∫iʕr/ “the
poetry”. For more clarification the following table shows the distribution of the
syllable types in words in Hajji dialect:
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Table 4.8: The Distribution of the Syllable Types of Words in Hajji Dialect
Syllable
types Initial Medial Final
/CV/ /χa.saʕ/ “mud” /sˤa:.ħi.bi/ “my friend” /ra:ʕi/ “wait”
/CVC/ /ɡam.bir/ “sit” /ba:.ðin.ʤa:n/ “eggplant” /ʤa.mal/ “camel”
/CV:/ /na:.hi/ “ok” /dˤa.ru:.ri/ “necessary” /χa:.li:/ “my cousin”
/CV:C/ - - /ʔa.mi:ɡ/ “deep”
/CVCC/ - - /ʔal.nahr/ “the river”
/CV:CC/ - - -
Table 4.9: Percentages of Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Serial
Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV 8 3.9% 3.9
2 CV: 10 4.9% 4.9
3 CVC 20 9.8% 9.8
4 CV:CC 33 16.2% 16.2
5 CV:C 41 20.1% 20.1
6 CVCC 92 45.1% 45.1
Total 204 100.0% 100.0
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Figure 4.2: Frequencies of Monosyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
The results as shown in table 4.9 and figure 4.2 above indicate that the
monosyllabic words in Hajji dialect have six canonical structures, one light syllable
/CV/, two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) and three super- heavy syllables
(/CV:CC/, /CV:C/ and /CVCC/). The percentages and frequency analysis of these 6
canonical structures reveal that super heavy syllable /CVCC/ has the highest
percentage 45.1% and shows 92 words (frequency) in Hajji dialect. This is followed
by the heavy syllable /CV:C/ which has the percentage of 20.1% and shows 41 words
(frequency ). In addition, light syllable /CV/ has the least percentage 3.9% in Hajji
dialect and shows only 8 words (frequency). According to these percentages and
frequencies, we may conclude that, closed canonical structures have higher
percentages as compared to the open canonical structures in this dialect.
4.1.2.2 Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
In disyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 11 different canonical structures
as in (/CV:.CV:/, /CV.CV/, /CV:.CV/, /CV.CV:/, /CVC.CVCC/, /CV:.CV:C/,
/CV:.CVC/, /CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV:C/, /CVC.CVC/ and /CV.CV:C/).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
CV CV: CVC CV:CC CV:C CVCC
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Table 4.10: Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV:.CV:/ /χa:.li:/ “my cousin”
2 /CV.CV/ /la.na/ “for us, ours”
3 /CV:.CV/ /∫a:.hi/ “tea”
4 /CV.CV:/ /ʁa.da:/ “lunch”
5 /CVC.CVCC/ /ʔal.bint/ “the girl”
6 /CV:.CV:C/ /ta:.ri:χ/ “date”
7 /CV:.CVC/ /ʤa:.wiʕ/ “hungry”
8 /CV.CVC/ /mu.∫utˤ/ “comb”
9 /CVC.CV:C/ /χaj.ra:t/ “a lot”
10 /CVC.CVC/ /ɡam.bir/ “sit”
11 /CV.CV:C/ /sˤa.ʁi:r/ “small”
The canonical structure /CV:.CV:/ of HYA consists of two heavy syllables
(/CV:/ and /CV:/) as in /χa:.li:/ “my cousin”, /na:.di:/ “club”. Furthermore, the
canonical structure /CV.CV/ consists of two light syllables (/CV/and /CV/) as in
/wa.ra/ “back”, /ni.∫a/ “he grew”, /la.na/ “for us, ours” and /wa.fi/ “loyal”, and the
canonical structure /CV:.CV/ of Hajji consists of one heavy syllable /CV:/ and one
light syllable /CV/ as in /ru:.ti/ “bread”, /ra:.ʕi/ “wait”, /∫a:.hi/ “tea” and /na:.hi / “ok”.
The /CV.CV:/ canonical structure of HYA consists of one light syllable /CV/
and one heavy syllable /CV:/ as in /ʁi.tˤa:/ “cover”, /sa.ma:/ “sky”, /ʁa.da:/ “lunch”,
/ra.mu:/ “they threw” and /wa.ba:/ “epidemics”. Moreover, the canonical structure
/CVC.CVCC/ consists of one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy syllable
/CVCC/ as in /ʔal.χajl/ “the horse”, /ʔal.∫ams/ “the sun”, /ʔal.baħr/ “the sea”,
/ʔal.nahr/ “the river” and /ʔal.waɡt/ “the time”. The canonical structure /CV:.CV:C/
of Hajji dialect consists of one heavy syllable /CV:/ and one super-heavy syllable
/CV:C/ as in /ta:.ri:χ/ “date”, /sa:.ni:n/ “tooth”, /du:.la:b/ “cupboard”, /mi:.ra:Ө/
“inheritance” and /∫i:.tˤa:n/ “devil”.
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It may be pointed out that in the canonical structure /CV:.CVC/ there are two
heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) as in /ʤa:.wiʕ/ “hungry”, /χa:.dim/ “servant”,
/sˤu:.tak/ “your voice”, /wa:.siʕ/ “wide, broad” and /tˤa:.ɡah/ “window”. And the
canonical structure /CV.CVC/ of HYA consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one heavy
syllable /CVC/ as in /sa.mak/ “fish”, /Өa.man/ “price”, /sˤa.lab/ “dry, harsh”, /χa.saʕ/
“mud” and /ma.lik/ “king”. The /CVC.CV:C/ canonical structure of HYA consists of one
heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as in /ʕusˤ.fu:r/ “sparrow”, /ma∫.ʁu:l/
“busy”, /tˤaj.ji:b/ “good heart”, /man.∫a:r/ “saw” and /maʤ.nu:n/ “crazy”.
In Hajji, the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ consists of two heavy syllables
(/CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /fil.fil/ “pepper”, /ɡal.ʕah/ “castle”, /ʔaħ.mar/ “red”, /mab.χar/
“censer” and /ɡam.bir/ “sit”. Furthermore, the canonical structure /CV.CV:C/ of Hajji
consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as in /ja.ti:m/ “orphan”,
/ʁa.ri:b/ “stranger”, /ɡa.sˤi:r/ “short”, /ʕi.ðˤa:m/ “bones” and /tˤa.bi:b/ “doctor”.
Table 4.11: Percentages of Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Serial
Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV:.CV: 7 2.3% 2.3
2 CV.CV 9 3.0% 3.0
3 CV:.CV 9 3.0% 3.0
4 CV.CV: 11 3.6% 3.6
5 CVC.CVCC 12 3.9% 3.9
6 CV:.CV:C 14 4.6% 4.6
7 CV:.CVC 36 11.8% 11.8
8 CV.CVC 38 12.5% 12.5
9 CVC.CV:C 54 17.7% 17.7
10 CVC.CVC 56 18.4% 18.4
11 CV.CV:C 59 19.3% 19.3
Total 305 100.0% 100.0
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Figure 4.3: Frequencies of Disyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
The results indicate that disyllabic words in Hajji dialect have 11 canonical
structures. The percentages and frequency analysis of these 11 canonical structures
reveal that the most predominant canonical structure in disyllabic words of Hajji is
/CV.CV:C/ with a percentage of 19.3% and shows 59 words (frequency). The next in
line are words of the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ which show a frequency of 56
words with 18.4% percentage. While the canonical structure /CV:.CV:/ has the least
percentage 2.3% and shows 7 words (frequency) in this dialect.
4.1.2.3 Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
In trisyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 14 different canonical structures
as in: (/CV:.CV.CV/, /CV:.CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV:C/, /CV.CV:.CV/, /CV.CV.CV/,
/CVC.CVC/.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV:/, /CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CV:.CVC/, /CV.CV:CV:.C/,
/CVC.CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV:.CVC/, /CV.CV:.CV:/ and /CV:.CVC.CV:C/).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
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Table 4.12: Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Listing of canonical
structures Canonical structure Example Glossary
1 /CV:.CV.CV/ /sˤa:.ħi.bi/ “my friend”
2 /CV:.CV.CVC/ /ʤa:.mi.ʕah/ “university”
3 /CVC.CV.CV:C/ /ʔad.da.wa:b/ “livestock”
4 /CV.CV.CV/ /ħa.ra.mi/ “thief”
5 /CVC.CVC.CVC/ /kul.lij.jah/ “college”
6 /CVC.CV.CV:/ /ʕak.ba.ri:/ “rat”
7 /CV.CV:.CV:C/ /tˤa.ma:.tˤi:s/ “tomatoes”
8 /CV:.CVC.CV:C/ /ba:.ðin.ʤa:n/ “eggplant”
9 /CV.CV:.CV/ /dˤa.ru:.ri/ “necessary”
10 /CV.CV:.CV:/ /mu.ʕa:.fa:/ “healthy”
11 /CV.CV.CVC/ /ba.ɡa.rah/ “cow”
12 /CVC.CV:.CVC/ /midˤ.ra:.bah/ “fighting”
13 /CVC.CV.CVC/ /tan.ʤa.rah/ “pot”
14 /CV.CV:.CVC/ /ɡa.dˤi:.jah/ “case”
The canonical structure /CV:.CV.CV/ of Hajji consists of one heavy syllable
/CV:/ and two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) as in /sˤa:.ħi.bi/ “my friend” and the
canonical structure /CV:.CV.CVC/ of HYA consists of two heavy syllables (/CV:/
and /CVC/) and one light syllable /CV/ as in /ʤa:.mi.ʕah/ “university”. The
/CVC.CV.CV:C/ canonical structure of Hajji dialect consists of one light syllable
/CV/, one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as in /ʔad.da.wa:b/
“livestock”.
It is observed that the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/ consists of three light
syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) as in /ħa.ra.mi/ “thief”. Also, the canonical structure
/CVC.CVC.CVC/ of Hajji consists of three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and
/CVC/) as in /kul.lij.jah/ “college”. The canonical structure /CVC.CV.CV:/ consists of
two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CV:/), and one light syllable /CV/ as in /ʕak.ba.ri:/
“rat”.
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It is also seen that the canonical structure /CV.CV:.CV:C/ consists of one light
syllable /CV/, one heavy syllable /CV:/ and one super-heavy syllable /CV:C/ as in
/tˤa.ma:.tˤi:s/ “tomatoes”. Moreover, the canonical structure /CV:.CVC.CV:C/ consists of
one super-heavy /CV:C/ and two heavy syllables /CV:/ and /CVC/) as in /ba:.ðin.ʤa:n/
“eggplant”.
It may be pointed out that the canonical structure /CV.CV:.CV/ of Hajji consists
of two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CV:/ as in /dˤa.ru:.ri/
“necessary”. The /CV.CV:.CV:/ canonical structure of HYA consists of two heavy
syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) and one light syllable /CV/ as in /mu.ʕa:.fa:/ “healthy”.
Furthermore, the canonical structure /CV.CV.CVC/ consists of two light syllables (/CV/
and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /wa.ra.ɡah/ “leaf”. In Hajji, the canonical
structure /CVC.CV:.CVC/ consists of three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CV:/ and /CVC/) as
in /saj.ja:.rah/ “car”, and the canonical structure /CVC.CV.CVC/ consists of two heavy
syllables (/CVC/ and /CVC/) and one light syllable /CV/as in /tan.ʤa.rah/ “pot”. The
/CV.CV:.CVC/ canonical structure of Hajji consists of two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and
/CVC/) and one light syllable /CV/ as in /ʕa.sˤi:.dah/ “gruel”.
Table 4.13: Percentages of Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Serial Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV:.CV.CV 6 4.4% 4.4
2 CV:.CV.CVC 6 4.4% 4.4
3 CVC.CV.CV:C 6 4.4% 4.4
4 CV.CV.CV 6 4.4% 4.4
5 CVC.CVC.CVC 6 4.4% 4.4
6 CVC.CV.CV: 6 4.4% 4.4
7 CV.CV:.CV:C 6 4.4% 4.4
8 CV:.CVC.CV:C 6 4.4% 4.4
9 CV.CV:.CV 7 5.1% 5.1
10 CV.CV:.CV: 7 5.1% 5.1
11 CV.CV.CVC 8 5.9% 5.9
12 CVC.CV:.CVC 14 10.3% 10.3
13 CVC.CV.CVC 22 16.2% 16.2
14 CV.CV:.CVC 30 22.1% 22.1
Total 136 100.0 100.0
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Figure 4.4: Frequencies of Trisyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
From table 4.13 and figure 4.4 above, Hajji dialect has 14 canonical structures
in trisyllabic words. It is clear that the maximum canonical structure (most) in
trisyllabic words of Hajji dialect is /CV.CV:.CVC/ with 22.1% percentage and shows
30 words (frequency) in HYA. In addition, the canonical structures /CV:.CV.CV/,
/CV:.CV.CVC/,/CVC.CV.CV:C/, /CV.CV.CV/, / CVC.CVC.CVC/, / CVC.CV.CV:/,
/CV.CV:.CV:C/, / CV:.CVC.CV:C/ have a minimum percentage (least) of about 4.4%
each and they show only 6 words (frequency) in this dialect.
4.1.2.4 Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
In tetrasyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 5 different canonical structures
as in (/CVC.CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV.CV:/,
/CV.CV.CV:.CVC/ and /CV.CV.CV.CVC/).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
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Table 4.14: Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Listing of
canonical
structures
Canonical structure Example Glossary
1 /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ /mak.ta.ba.tuh/ “his library”
2 /CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/ /ji.kal.lim.hum/ “he speaks to them”
3 /CVC.CV.CV.CV:/ /mak.ta.ba.ti:/ “my library”
4 /CV.CV.CV:.CVC/ /mu.ta.sa:.wij/ “equal”
5 /CV.CV.CV.CVC/ /ra.ɡa.ba.tuh/ “his neck”
The canonical structure /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ of HYA consists of two light
syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CVC/) as in
/mak.ta.ba.tuh/ “his library”. Structure /CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/ consists of one light
syllable /CV/ and three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and /CVC/) as in
/ji.kal.lim.hum/ “he speaks to them”. Moreover, the canonical structure
/CVC.CV.CV.CV:/ of Hajji consists of two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and two
heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CV:/) as in /mak.ta.ba.ti:/ “my library”.
In Hajji, the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV:.CVC / consists of two light
syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) as in
/mu.ta.ʃa:.ʔim/ “my library pessimistic”, /mu.ta.sa:.wij/ “equal” and /mu.ta.dˤa:.jiɡ/
“annoyed”. Also, in the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV.CVC / there are three light
syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /ʃa.ʤa.ra.tuh/
“his tree”, /sa.la.ma.tak/ “your safety” and /ra.ɡa.ba.tuh / “his neck”.
Table 4.15: Percentages of Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Serial Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CVC.CV.CV.CVC 6 17.6% 17.6
2 CV.CVC.CVC.CVC 6 17.6% 17.6
3 CVC.CV.CV.CV: 6 17.6% 17.6
4 CV.CV.CV:.CVC 8 23.5% 23.5
5 CV.CV.CV.CVC 8 23.5% 23.5
Total 34 100.0% 100.0
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Figure 4.5: Frequencies of Tetrasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
The results show in table 4.15 and figure 4.5 that, Hajji dialect has 5 canonical
structures in tetrasyllabic words. It is clear that the most canonical structures
(maximum) are /CV.CV.CV.CVC/ and /CV.CV.CV:.CVC/ with 23.5% percentage
each and they show 8 words (frequency) in Hajji. In addition, the canonical structures
/CVC.CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/ and /CVC.CV.CV.CV:/ have a minimum
percentage (least) about 17.6% each and they show only 6 words (frequency) in HYA.
4.1.2.5 Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
In pentasyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 4 different canonical
structures as in (/CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C/,
/CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV/ and /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC/).
Table 4.16: Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Listing of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC/ /zi.ja:.ra.tu.hum/ “visit
(NOM.SG)3pl.poss”
2 /CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C/ /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/ “television”
3 /CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV/ /ju.χaw.wi.fu.ni/ “he is frightening
me”
4 /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC/ /ʔis.taʕ.ma.lat.hum/ “she used theme”
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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The canonical structure /CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC/ of Hajji consists of three light
syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CV:/) as in
/zi.ja:.ra.tu.hum/ “visit (NOM.SG)3pl.poss”. Furthermore, the canonical structure
/CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C/ consists of three light syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and one
heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as in /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/ “television”. It is
also seen that the canonical structure /CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV/ of HYA consists of four
light syllables (/CV/, /CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in
/ju.χaw.wi.fu.ni/ “he is frightening me” and the canonical structure
/CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC/ consists of one light syllable /CV/ and four heavy syllables
(/CVC/, /CVC/, /CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /ʔis.taʕ.ma.lat.hum/ “she used them”.
Table 4.17: Percentages of Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
Serial
Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC 6 25.0% 25.0
2 CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C 6 25.0% 25.0
3 CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV 6 25.0% 25.0
4 CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC 6 25.0% 25.0
Total 24 100.0% 100.0
Figure 4.6: Frequencies of Pentasyllabic Words in Hajji Dialect
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
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As shown in table 4.17 and figure 4.6 above, pentasyllabic words in Hajji have
four canonical structures. The percentages and frequency analysis of these 4 canonical
structures reveal that all canonical structures of pentasyllabic words have same
percentage 25.0% each and they each show 6 words (frequency) in HYA.
Table 4.18: Percentages of Syllable Types in Hajji Dialect
Serial Nos. of
syllable types
Types of
syllables Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 Pentasyllabic 24 3.4% 3.4
2 Tetrasyllabic 34 4.8% 4.8
3 Monosyllabic 204 29.0% 29.0
4 Disyllabic 305 43.4% 43.4
5 Trisyllabic 136 19.3% 19.3
Total 703 100.0% 100.0
Figure 4.7: Frequencies of Syllable Types in Hajji Dialect
Table 4.18 and figure 4.7 illustrate that, there are 40 different canonical
structures distributed in five types of syllables in Hajji (six monosyllabic canonical
structures, eleven disyllabic canonical structures, fourteen trisyllabic canonical
structures, five tetrasyllabic canonical structures and four pentasyllabic canonical
structures). The percentages and frequency analysis of these 5 types of syllables
29%
43%
19%
5% 4%
Syllable Types in HYA
Monosyllabic
Disyllabic
Trisyllabic
Tetrasyllabic
Pentasyllabic
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reveal that disyllabic words have the highest percentage 43.4% and show 305 words
(frequency) in HYA. This is followed by monosyllabic words which are 29.0% and
show 204 words (frequency). Furthermore, the trisyllabic words have 19.3% and
show 136 words (frequency) and the tetrasyllabic words have 4.8% and show 34
words (frequency). Finally, pentasyllabic words have the least percentage 3.4% and
show only 24 words (frequency) in Hajji dialect.
4.1.3 Structure of Syllable in HYA
4.1.3.1 Onset in HYA
It is obligatory in Hajji dialect that all the consonant sounds can occur in the
beginning of any syllable. Moreover, Hajji has only one type of onset (simple onset),
that is, single consonant in the word initial position. Whereas empty onset and
complex onset cannot occur in Hajji dialect, which is also seen in CA and MSA, and
this feature is opposed to some Yemeni and Arabic dialects which accept more than
one sound. Onset in Hajji is followed by short or long vowel. Onset canonical
structure is as the following (CV, CV:CC, CVC, CVCC, CV: and CV:C).
Sound Word Gloss
/w/ /wa/ “and”
/k/ /kul/ “all”
/∫/ /∫ul/ “take”
/m/ /maʕ/ “no”
/f/ /fi:/ “in”
/ʤ/ /ʤi:/ “come”
/n/ /na:r/ “fire”
/r/ /ra:s / “head”
/ʤ/ /ʤa:r/ “neighbor”
/n/ /nafs/ “spirit”
/z/ /zawʤ/ “husband”
/d/ /damʕ/ “tears”
/ʕ/ /ʕumr/ “age”
/b/ /ba:lj/ “old”
/ʕ/ /ʕa:ɡl/ “wise-man”
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4.1.3.2 Nucleus in HYA
Each syllable in Hajji dialect has nucleus (vowel). No vowel can occur in the
word initial position in Hajji dialect, like MSA and many other Yemeni dialects.
Furthermore, nucleus in Hajji dialect is preceded by one consonant and followed by
one or two sounds, and no word can stand alone without vowel in HYA, which is also
seen in CA and MSA. For examples:
Sound Word Gloss
/a/ /ba/ “with”
/u/ /∫ul/ “take”
/i/ /min/ “from”
/a:/ /ma:/ “water”
/a:/ /na:s/ “people”
/a:/ /ka:n/ “was”
/a:/ /ka:f/ “how”
/a/ /wajn/ “where”
/i/ /siħr/ “magic”
/i/ /ʔism/ “name”
/i:/ /li:/ “to me”
/i:/ /fi:/ “in”
/u:/ /zu:ʤ/ “husband”
/a/ /matˤr/ “rain”
4.1.3.3 Coda in HYA
Coda is optional and the maximum number of permitted consonant sounds is
two at the end position of the syllable in Hajji. Coda is preceded by short or long
vowels (Nucleus) /V/ and /V:/. In addition, HYA has three types of coda (empty coda,
simple coda and complex Coda).
Empty coda in HYA have the following canonical structures (/CV:/ and /CV/)
Simple coda in HYA show the following canonical structures (/CV:C/ and /CVC/).
Complex coda in HYA have the following canonical structures (/CV:CC/,
/CCVCC/ and /CVCC/).
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Simple coda in HYA
One sound at the end of the syllable in Hajji dialect can be shown by the following
examples:
Sound Word Gloss
/-m/ /dam/ “blood”
/-r/ /ħar/ “hot”
/-w/ /ʔaw/ “or”
/-k/ /lak/ “for you”
/-n/ /ti:n/ “figs”
/-l/ /ɡa:l/ “he said”
/-ħ/ /ru:ħ/ “soul”
/-ʤ/ /ta:ʤ/ “crown”
/-r/ /fa:r/ “mouse”
/-n/ /tˤi:.n/ “mud”
Complex coda in HYA
The maximum number of sounds are only two complex coda and no more than
two consonants at the end of a syllable in Hajji, which is also seen in CA and MSA.
This feature is opposed to some Yemeni and Arabic dialects. For examples:
Sound Word Gloss
/-jn/ /wajn/ “where”
/-ʕb/ /saʕb/ “difficult”
/-nt/ /bint/ “girl”
/-rħ/ /farħ/ “happy”
/-bʕ/ /tˤabʕ/ “habit”
/-ms/ /∫ams/ “sun”
/-jf/ /kajf/ “how”
/-jʕ/ /ʤa:jʕ/ “hungry”
/-rɡ/ /sa:rɡ/ “thief”
/-ɡf/ /wa:ɡf/ “standing”
/-bħ/ /rabħ/ “monkey”
/-fr/ /ðˤufr/ “nail”
/-mr/ /ʕumr/ “age”
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/-ʤh/ /waʤh/ “face”
/-ɡt/ /waɡt/ “time”
/-b∫/ /kab∫/ “sheep”
/-jr/ /tˤajr/ “bird”
4.1.4 Classification of Syllables in HYA
In Hajji dialect, syllables can be classified into open or close syllables
according to the consonant (coda) at the end of the syllable. Moreover, syllable in
Hajji can be classified into light, heavy and super-heavy.
a) Open Syllables in HYA
Canonical structure Word Gloss
CV /wa/ “and”
CV: /fi:/ “in”
CV.CVC /ħa.ʤar/ “stone”
CV.CVC /ma.lik/ “king”
CV.CVC /ɡa.mar/ “moon”
CV:.CV /ru:.ti/ “bread”
CV:CVC /ʤa:.hil/ “kid”
CV.CV:C /ʤa.nu:b/ “south”
CV.CV:C /tˤa.bi:b/ “doctor”
CV.CV /wa.fi/ “loyal”
b) Close Syllables in HYA
Canonical structure Word Gloss
CVC /ħar/ “hot”
CVC /maʕ/ “no”
CVC /ʔaχ/ “brother”
CV:C /ra:s/ “head”
CV:C /ri:ħ/ “wind”
CVCC /bard/ “cold”
CVCC /damʕ/ “tears”
CVCC /lajl/ “night”
CV:CC /ʁa:lj/ “expensive”
CV:CC /sa:rɡ/ “thief”
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c) Light Syllables in HYA as in (CV)
/hu/ “he”
/ba/ “with”
/wa/ “and”
d) Heavy Syllables in HYA as in (CVC, CV:)
/kam/ “how much” /li:/ “to me”
/kal/ “all” /fi:/ “in”
/lak/ “for you” /ma:/ “water”
e) Super-Heavy Syllables in HYA as in (CV:C, CVCC and CV:CC)
/di:n/ “religion” /nafs/ “spirit” /na:dj/ “club”
/ra:s/ “head” /bint/ “girl” /wa:ɡf/ “standing”
/ka:f/ “how” /jubs/ “dryness” /sa:kr/ “drunkard”
4.1.5 Consonant Clusters in HYA
In Hajji dialect, there are no consonant clusters in the word initial and medial
positions. This is similar to CA and MSA and is opposed to some Yemeni dialects
which permit complex onset. Consonant clusters are permitted only syllable-finally,
and the maximum number of complex coda is two.
4.1.5.1 Final Consonant Clusters in HYA
Final Nasal - Consonant Clusters in HYA
Final two- nasal consonant clusters in Hajji are formed by combining voiced
dental- alveolar nasal /n/ or voiced bilabial nasal /m/ with consonants as in /-nt/ /-nd/
/-mr/, /-mʕ/, and /-ms/. Moreover, some nasal consonant clusters are formed by
combining consonant with voiced dental alveolar nasal /n/ or voiced bilabial nasal /m/
as in /-jn/, /-ħn/, /-wn/, /-ɡn/, /-sm/, /-ʤm/, /-lm/,/-wm/ and /-dm/. Final two- nasal
consonant clusters (-VCC) in Hajji dialect can be classified into four types:
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1) Nasal plus Consonant (-n+ C) in HYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-nt/ /bint/ “girl”
/-nd/ /ʕind/ “at”
/-nt/ /ʔal.bint/ “the girl”
2) Nasal plus Consonant (-m+ C) in HYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-mr/ /tamr/ “dates”
/-mʕ/ /damʕ/ “tears”
/-mr/ /ʕumr/ “age”
/-ms/ /∫ams/ “sun”
/-mʕ/ /∫amʕ/ “candles
/-ms/ /ʔal.∫ams/ “the sun”
3) Consonant plus Nasal (-C +n) in HYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-jn/ /wajn/ “where”
/-ħn/ /sˤaħn/ “dish”
/-wn/ /lawn/ “color”
/-ɡn/ /diɡn/ “beard”
4) Consonant plus Nasal (-C +m) in HYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-sm/ /ʤism/ “body”
/-ʤm/ /niʤm/ “star”
/-lm/ /ʕilm/ “knowledge”
/-wm/ /jawm/ “day”
/-dm/ /χa:dm/ “servant”
/-lm/ /ʕilm/ “science”
/-sm/ /ʔism/ “name”
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Final Glide - Consonant Clusters in HYA
Final glide- consonant clusters in Hajji are formed by combining voiced
palatal glide /j/ or voiced bilabial glide /w/ with consonant as in /-jn/, /-jl/, /-jt/, /-jr/,
/-jf/,/-jʕ/, /-wʤ/, /-wħ/, /-wn/, /-wm/ and /-wʕ/. Moreover, some glide consonant
clusters in HYA are formed by combining consonant sound with voiced palatal glide
/j/ as in /-bj/, /-lj /, /-dj /, /-lj/, /-mj/ and /-rj/. Final glide - consonant clusters (-VCC)
in Hajji can be classified into three types:
1) Glide plus Consonant (-j + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-jn/ /wajn/ “where”
/-jl/ /lajl/ “night”
/-jt/ /bajt/ “house”
/-jr/ /tˤajr/ “bird”
/-jf/ /kajf/ “how”
/-jf/ /χa:jf/ “scared”
/-jʕ/ /ðˤa:jʕ/ “lost”
/-jr/ /za:jr/ “visitor”
2) Glide Plus Consonant (-w + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-wʤ/ /zawʤ/ “husband”
/-wħ/ /lawħ/ “board”
/-wn/ /lawn/ “color”
/-wm/ /jawm/ “day”
/-wʕ/ /ʤa:wʕ/ “hungry”
3) Consonant plus Glide (-C+ j)
Sound Word Gloss
/-bj/ /ðˤabj/ “gazelle”
/-lj/ /ba:lj/ “old”
/-dj/ /na:dj/ “club”
/-dˤj/ /ɡa:dˤj/ “judge”
/-lj/ /ʁa:lj/ “expensive”
/-mj/ /ħa:mj/ “hot”
/-rj/ /ɡa:rj/ “reader”
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Final Stop - Consonant Clusters in HYA
All stop consonant clusters in Hajji occur in final consonant clusters, except
voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/.
Table 4.19: Final Stop - Consonant Clusters in HYA
Stop
Stop + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Stop
Word Gloss
b
/ɡabr/
/kab∫/
/tˤabʕ/
/ħabl/
/χubz/
“grave”
“ram”
“habit”
“rope”
“bread”
/saʕb/
/kalb/
/ɡalb/
/ra:tb/
/ħa:ʤb/
“difficult”
“dog”
“heart”
“salary”
“eye brow”
d
/sˤadr/
/na:dj/
/χa:dm/
“breast”
“club”
“servant”
/waʕd/
/bard/
/ʕind/
/ward/
/ħa:sd/
“promise”
“cold”
“at”
“roses”
“envier”
ɡ
/waɡt/
/raɡsˤ/
/diɡn/
/Өuɡb/
/ʕaɡl/
“time”
“dance”
“beard”
“hole”
“mind”
/ʕirɡ/
/fawɡ/
/sa:rɡ/
“vein”
“up, above”
“thief”
k /bikr/
/sa:kr/
“virgin”
“drunkard”
t /ɡa:tl/ “killer”
/bint/
/waɡt/
/taħt/
/bajt/
/ɡult/
“girl”
“time”
“under”
“house”
“I said”
dˤ /ɡa:dˤj/ “judge” /ʔardˤ/ “land”
tˤ /satˤħ/
/matˤr/
“roof”
“rain”
/∫uχtˤ/
“stroke”
Final Affricate - Consonant Clusters in HYA
Final affricate-consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced palatal
affricate /ʤ/ with consonants as in /-ʤl/ /-ʤh/, /-ʤb/, and /-ʤm/. Moreover, some
affricate consonant clusters in Hajji are formed by combining consonant with voiced
palatal affricate /ʤ/ as in /-wʤ/, /-lʤ/, and/-rʤ/. Final affricate - consonant clusters (-
VCC) in Hajji can be classified into two types as in the followng:
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1) Affricate plus Consonant (-A + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-ʤl/ /ʕiʤl/ “calf”
/-ʤh/ /waʤh/ “face”
/-ʤb/ /ħa:ʤb/ “eyebrow”
/-ʤm/ /niʤm/ “star”
2) Consonant plus Affricate (-C + A)
Sound Word Gloss
/-wʤ/ /zawʤ/ “husband”
/-lʤ/ /Өalʤ/ “snow”
/-rʤ/ /durʤ/ “drawer”
Final Fricative - Consonant Clusters in HYA
All fricative consonant clusters in Hajji occur in final consonant clusters,
except the voiced inter-dental fricative /ð/, voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ and voiced
inter-dental fricative /ðˤ/ which do not occur in final consonant cluster in this dialect.
To make this point we may consider the following examples in table 4.20 below:
Table 4.20: Final Fricative - Consonant Clusters in HYA
Fricative
Fricative + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Fricative
Word Gloss
f
/nafs/
/ɡufl/
/ðˤufr/
/ka:fr/
“spirit”
“padlock”
“nail”
“unbeliever”
/kajf/
/χa:jf/
/wa:ɡf/
“how”
“scared”
“standing”
Ө /wirӨ/
/baħӨ/
“inheritance”
“research”
z /χubz/ “bread”
s /ʔism/
/ħa:sd/
“name”
“envier”
/nafs/
/dars/
/jubs/
/∫ams/
“soul
“a lesson”
“dryness”
“sun”
sˤ /raɡsˤ/ “dance”
∫ /kab∫/ “ram”
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χ /∫uχtˤ/ “stroke”
ʕ
/saʕb/
/waʕd/
/∫iʕr/
/∫aʕr/
“difficult”
“promise”
“poetry”
“hair”
/damʕ/
/tˤabʕ/
/∫amʕ/
/wa:sʕ/
/ʤa:jʕ/
“tears”
“habit”
“candles”
“wide”
“hungry”
ħ
/baħr/
/sˤaħn/
/siħr/
/taħt/
“sea”
“dish"
“magic”
“under”
/satˤħ/
/lawħ/
/farħ/
/rabħ/
“roof”
“board”
“happy”
“monkey”
h
/ðˤahr/
/sahl/
/nahr/
/∫ahr/
“back”
“easy”
“river”
“a month”
/waʤh/ “face”
Final Lateral - Consonant Clusters in HYA
1) Lateral plus Consonant (-l + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-lm/ /ʕilm/ “science”
/-lʤ/ /Өalʤ/ “snow”
/-lb/ /kalb/ “dog”
/-lb/ /ɡalb/ “heart”
/-lm/ /ʕilm/ “knowledge”
/-lt/ /ɡult/ “I said”
/-lj/ /ba:lj/ “old”
/-lj/ /ʁa:lj/ “expensive”
2) Consonant plus Lateral (-C + l)
Sound Word Gloss
/-fl/ /ɡufl/ “padlock”
/-ʤl/ /ʕiʤl/ “calf”
/-hl/ /sahl/ “easy”
/-bl/ /ħabl/ “rope”
/-jl/ /lajl/ “night”
/-tl/ /ɡa:tl/ “killer”
/-ɡl/ /ʕaɡl/ “mind”
/-ɡl/ /ʕa:ɡl/ “wise-man”
/-jl/ /ʔal.χajl/ “the horse”
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Final Tap - Consonant Clusters in HYA
1) Tap plus Consonant (-r + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-rd/ /bard/ “cold”
/-rs/ /dars/ “a lesson”
/-rdˤ/ /ʔardˤ/ “land”
/rӨ/ /wa:rӨ/ “inheritor”
/rd/ /ba:rd/ “cold”
/rj/ /ɡa:rj/ “reader”
/rg/ /sa:rɡ/ “thief”
2) Consonant plus Tap (-C + r)
Sound Word Gloss
/-ħr/ /baħr/ “sea”
/-mr/ /tamr/ “dates”
/-hr/ /mahr/ “marriage settlement”
/-br/ /ɡabr/ “grave”
/-ħr/ /siħr/ “magic”
/-kr/ /sa:kr/ “drunkard”
/-tˤr/ /matˤr/ “rain”
/-fr/ /ðˤufr/ “nail”
/-hr/ /sˤihr/ “brother-in-law”
/-jr/ /za:jr/ “visitor”
/-mr/ /ʕumr/ “age”
/-hr/ /nahr/ “river”
/-hr/ /ðˤahr/ “back”
/-jr/ /tˤajr/ “bird”
/-hr/ /∫ahr/ “a month”
/-ʕr/ /∫iʕr/ “poetry”
/-ʕr/ /∫aʕr/ “hair”
/-dr/ /sˤadr/ “breast”
/-br/ /sˤa:br/ “patient”
/-fr/ /ka:fr/ “unbeliever”
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Geminate Consonants in HYA
Geminate consonants refer to a consonant sound occurring in a sequence.
Geminate consonants in Hajji dialect occur only in two positions of the word; medial,
between two vowels (V-V) and finally, after vowels (V-). The geminate consonants in
Hajji are shown below:
Final –Geminate Medial - Geminate
/sinn/ “tooth” /ʕallam/ “(he) taught”
/ʔumm/ “mother” /sukkar/ “sugar”
/bass/ “enough” /ʤaddah/ “grandmother (f)”
/ba:sˤsˤ/ “bus” /ħummah/ “fever”
/ʤaww/ “they came” /faʤʤa:ʕ/ “fearful”
/lajj/ “hose” /tˤajji:b/ “good heart”
/ħubb/ “love” /χabba:z/ “baker”
/χadd/ “cheek” /tˤamma:ʕ/ “greedy”
/sadd/ “dam” /ʤamma:l/ “camel driver”
/ħa:dd/ “sharp” /lajji:n/ “flexible”
/ħaɡɡ/ “right” /matˤtˤa:tˤ/ “rubbers”
/kaff/ “hand” /liʕʕi:b/ “very playful”
/ʤa:ff/ “dry” /tˤabba:l/ “drummer”
/ruzz/ “rice” /tiffa:l/ “sputum”
/kammu:n/ “cumin”
/ħatˤtˤa:b/ “wood cutter”
/dukka:n/ “shop”
/tˤajja:r/ “pilot”
Consonant Sequences (Abutting Consonants) in Hajji Dialect
Like modern standard Arabic, there are only two consonant sequences of Hajji
dialect that occur in the word medial. Consonant sequences occur when the final
sound of the first syllable (coda) combine with the first sound of the second syllable
(onset). The consonant sequences in HYA are shown below:
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Sequences Word Gloss
/-l + ʕ-/ /ɡal.ʕah/ “castle”
/- r + j-/ /ɡar.jah/ “village”
/- w + t-/ /sˤaw.tak/ “your voice”
/- k + t-/ /mak.tab/ “office”
/- ʕ + b-/ /maʕ.bad/ “temple”
/- χ + r-/ /nuχ.rah/ “nose”
/- s + m-/ /ʔis.mak/ “your name”
/- n + tˤ-/ /∫an.tˤah/ “bag”
/- f + t-/ /maf.ta:ħ/ “key”
/- r + w-/ /sir.wa:l/ “trousers”
/- n + w-/ /ʔin.wa:n/ “address”
/- b + sˤ-/ /mab.sˤu:tˤ/ “pleasant”
Table 4.21: Final Two Consonant Clusters in HYA
b d ɡ t dˤ ʤ f Ө z s sˤ ∫ ʕ ħ h m n l r w j
b + + + + + + + + + +
d + + + +
ɡ + + + + +
k +
t +
dˤ +
tˤ + +
ʤ + + + +
f + + + +
z +
s + + + +
sˤ +
ʕ + + +
ħ + + + +
h + +
m + + + + +
n + + +
l + + + + +
r + + + + + + +
w + + + + + + +
j + + + + + + + +
The table above clearly shows that Hajji dialect has many final consonant clusters.
The presensce of a cluster is marked by a plus sign (+).
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HYA contains only final consonant clusters (coda), as shown in the following
diagrams.
Bilabials
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Dental
Inter- dental
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Alveolar
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Palatal
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Velar
Uvular
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Pharyngeal
Laryngeal
Figure 4.8: Diagrams of Final Consonant Clusters in HYA
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4.1.6 An OT Analysis of Syllable Structure in Hajji Dialect
4.1.6.1 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT Related to the Syllable
Structure in Hajji Dialect
4.1.6.1.1 Markedness Constraints
In markedness constraints there are four types of constraints:
ONSET
*COMPLEXONS
NO-CODA
*COMPLEXCOD
4.1.6.1.1.1 ONSET
As discussed earlier, every syllable in Hajji dialect must begin with a consonant
(onset) and no syllable starts with a nucleus (vowel). Onset is obligatory in Hajji.
Therefore, ONSET constraint is highly ranked in HYA. That means syllable in Hajji
dialect satisfies ONSET and considers it as the highest constraint. Syllable satisfies
ONSET constraint when a syllable begins with a consonant while syllable violates
ONSET constraint when it begins with a vowel. For more clarification as to how
ONSET constraint is satisfied or violated in Hajji dialect we take help of the
following tableau:
Tableau 4.1: ONSET Constraint in HYA
Input /ɡalam/ “pen” ONSET
a) ☞ ɡa.lam
b) ɡal.am *!
The tableau 4.1 above shows that there is a competition between two
candidates; candidate (a) /ɡa.lam/ and candidate (b) /ɡal.am/. Only one candidate
wins the competition and is selected as optimal form, while the second candidate is
ruled out from the competition and is called loser. Candidate (a) emerges as optimal
form because it satisfies ONSET constraint because both the syllables of the word
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124
/ɡa.lam/ start with an onset (consonant). The symbol “☞” appears before candidate
(a) /ɡa.lam/ because it is the optimal candidate. While, candidate (b) /ɡal.am/ is
eliminated by the mark “*!” because the second syllable is starts with a vowel
(onsetless). Tableau 4.1 shows that, candidate (a) wins the competition by satisfying
ONSET constraint, while candidate (b) is ruled out from competition as it violates
ONSET constraint – the second syllable is onsetless. In Hajji, it is observed that for
the word /ɡalam/ “pen” with /CVCVC/ structure, we find the disyllabic form
/ɡa.lam/ with canonical structure /CV.CVC/ which is the optimal form in comparison
to other form like /ɡal.am/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in
section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 8 which shows the percentage of occurrence of
the canonical structure /CV.CVC/ in Hajji dialect to be 12.5 %.
4.1.6.1.1.2 NO-CODA
NO-CODA is satisfied in Hajji dialect when a syllable ends with a vowel
(open syllable) as in /ba/ “with”, /wa/ “and”. /fi:/ “in” and /ʤi:/ “come”. Whereas,
NO-CODA is violated in Hajji dialect when a syllable ends with a consonant (closed
syllable) as in / ħar/ “hot”, /maʕ/ “no”, /na:r/ “fair” and /sahl/ “easy”. NO-CODA is
considered to be lower ranked in Hajji dialect; it is frequently violated because Hajji
allows simple and complex coda (closed syllables).
The violations in the constraints (Onsets and No-coda) evaluate the syllable types in
Hajji dialect are presented below:
Syllable types in Hajji dialect Onset No-Coda
CV √ √
CV: √ √
CVC √ *
CV:C √ *
CVCC √ **
CV:CC √ **
Furthermore, to explain how NO-CODA is satisfied or violated in HYA we take help
of the following example given below:
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
125
Tableau 4.2: NO-CODA Constraint in HYA
Input /ħaʤar/ “stone” NO-CODA
a) ☞ ħa.ʤar *
b) ħaʤ.ar **
c) aʤ.ar **
Tableau 4.2 above clarifies that, candidate (a) is chosen as the optimal
candidate because it incurs the least violations of NO-CODA constraint. While,
candidate (b) fails because it has two closed syllables /ʤ/ and /r/ of a word /ħaʤ.ar/.
Candidate (c) is also ruled out from the competition because it violates NO-CODA
two times by having two codas. The disyllabic form of the word /ħa.ʤar/ (a) has the
canonical structure /CV.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 8,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 12.5%. Here the form
/ħa.ʤar/ is the optimal form in Hajji dialect.
Tableau 4.3: ONSET ˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /wara/ “back” ONSET NO-CODA
a) war.a *! *
b) ☞ wa.ra
c) a.ra *!
d) wa.raʔ *
As clarified in tableau 4.3 above, Candidate (a) is eliminated because it
violates markedness constraints ONSET and NO-CODA. The fatal mark “*!” is used
because the second syllable starts with a vowel /a/ (onsetless) and the first syllable
ends with a coda. Candidate (c) is also eliminated for violating highest-ranked
constraint ONSET as the first syllable starts without an onset (onsetless). Candidate
(b) is the optimal form because it satisfies the higher and the lower ranked constraints
(ONSET and NO-CODA). While, candidate (d) satisfies ONSET constraint having
two syllables with onsets; but it is ruled out for violating the lower-ranked constraint
NO-CODA having coda at the end of second syllable. It is observed that for the word
/wara/ “back” with /CVCV/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /wa.ra/ with
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
126
canonical structure /CV.CV/ which is the optimal form in comparison to other forms
like /war.a/, /a.ra/ or /wa.raʔ/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in
section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 2 which shows the percentage of occurrence of
the canonical structure /CV.CV/ in Hajji dialect to be 3.0%.
Tableau 4.4: ONSET ˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /∫amiz/ “shirt” ONSET NO-CODA
a) ☞ ∫a.miz *
b) ∫am.iz *! **
c) am.iz **! **
In the above tableau candidate (a) wins the optimal candidate because it
satisfies the higher-ranked constraints (ONSET), although it violates the lower-
ranked constraint (NO-CODA) by a coda /z/. While, candidate (b) and candidate (c)
are rejected by both markedness constraints ONSET and NO-CODA, and both
constraints are called losers. The disyllabic form of the word /∫a.miz/ (a) has the
canonical structure /CV.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 8,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 12.5%. Therefore, the
form /∫a.miz/ is the optimal form in HYA.
Tableau 4.5: ONSET ˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /∫antˤah/ “bag” ONSET NO-CODA
a) ☞ ∫an.tˤah **
b) ∫antˤ.ah *! ***
In tableau 4.5, candidate (a) emerges as the optimal form because it satisfies
higher-ranked constraint (ONSET), although it violates the lower-ranked constraint
(NO-CODA) two times as it has closed syllables /∫an.tˤah/. Candidate (b) is ruled out
by ONSET constraint because the second syllable of a word /∫antˤ.ah/ starts with a
vowel /a/. Moreover, it violates NO-CODA three times – the first syllable ends with a
comlex coda /∫antˤ/ and the second syllable ends with a simple coda /ah/. In Hajji
dialect, it is observed that for the word /∫antˤah/ “bag” with /CVCCVC/ structure, we
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
127
find that the disyllabic form /∫an.tˤah/ with canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ which is
the optimal form in comparison to other form like /∫antˤ.ah/. A detailed analysis of
the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 10 which
shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ in Hajji to
be 18.4%.
From Hajji dialect data, it is clear that all syllables in HYA begin with a
consonant (onset) and no syllable begin with a vowel (nucleus). So, most of the
candidates do not violate ONSET. On the contrary, most of the syllables in HYA end
with coda or complex coda. Hence, NO-CODA (lower ranked) is violated more than
one time in one syllable.
4.1.6.1.1.3 *COMPLEXONS
In Hajji, there is no more than one consonant in the onset position. So,
*COMPLEXONS
is not allowed. *COMPLEXONS
is ranked higher than NO-CODA
in HYA. This is clarified in the following tableau:
Tableau 4.6: ONSET ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ NO-CODA
Input/ɡarjah/“village” ONSET *COMPLEXONS
NO-CODA
a) ☞ ɡar.jah **
b) ɡa.rjah *! *
In tableau 4.6. Although candidate (a) violates NO-CODA (a lower-ranked
constraint) twice, it emerges as the optimal output because it satisfies the highest-
ranked constraints ONSET and *COMPLEXONS
. Therefore, candidate (a) /ɡar.jah/
is the more harmonic from than candidate (b) /ɡa.rjah/. Moreover, candidate (b) is
rejected as it has two initial consonant clusters /rj-/ and also, the second syllable ends
with a coda /h/. The disyllabic form of the word /ɡar.jah/ (a) has the canonical
structure /CVC.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 10,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 18.4%. Here the form
/ɡar.jah/ is the optimal form in Hajji.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
128
4.1.6.1.1.4 *COMPLEXCOD
*COMPLEXCOD
is satisfied by ending with a single consonant (simple coda).
*COMPLEXCOD
is lower ranked in Hajji dialect because the dialect allows coda
cluster. More clarification about *COMPLEXCOD
is given in the following example:
Tableau 4.7 ONSET ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃*COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
Input/ʔalχajl/“the
horse” ONSET *COMPLEX
ONS *COMPLEX
COD NO-CODA
a) ☞ /ʔal.χajl/ *! ***
b) /ʔalχ.ajl/ *! ** ****
In the above tableau, candidate (a) emerges as the optimal form because it
satisfies the highest-ranked constraints ONSET and *COMPLEXONS
, even though it
violates *COMPLEXCOD
and the lower-ranked constraint NO-CODA. Candidate (b)
loses as it violates four constraints NO-CODA, *COMPLEXCOD
and the higher
ranked ONSET. In Hajji dialect, it is observed that for the word /ʔalχajl/ “horse” with
/CVCCVCC/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /ʔal.χajl / with canonical
structure /CVC.CVCC/ which is the optimal form in comparison to other form like
/ʔalχ.ajl /. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table
4.11 at serial No. 5 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CVC.CVCC/ in Hajji to be 3.9%.
4.1.6.1.2 Faithfulness Constraints
In faithfulness constraints there are two types of constraints:
MAX-IO DEP-IO
4.1.6.1.2.1 MAX-IO
(No deletion). MAX-IO requires that the sounds in the input must be in the
output without deleting any sound from input. MAX-IO is ranked higher than DEP-IO
in Hajji dialect. This is shown in the following tableau:
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
129
Tableau 4.8: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /kajd/
“roof” ONSET MAX-IO NO-CODA
a) ☞ kajd **
b) kad *! *
c) kaj *! *
In the tableau 4.8 above, candidate (a) wins as the optimal output because it
does not violate the higher-ranked constraints MAX-IO and ONSET, even though it
violates the lower-ranked constraint NO-CODA twice. While, candidate (b) and
candidate (c) are ruled out from the competition by the constraints MAX-IO and NO-
CODA. The monosyllabic form of the word /kajd/ (a) has the canonical structure
/CVCC/. According to section 4.1.2.1, table 4.9 at serial No. 6, percentage of
occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 45.1%. Here the form /kajd/ is the
optimal form in Hajji.
Tableau 4.9: ONSET ˃˃*COMPLEXONS
˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ NO-CODA
Input/kab∫/“ram” ONSET *COMPLEXONS
MAX-IO NO-CODA
a) kab *! *
b) ☞ kab∫ **
c) ka∫ *! *
In the above tableau 4.9, candidate (a) and candidate (c) are eliminated first as they
both violate markedness constraints MAX-IO and NO-CODA. While candidate (b)
emerges as the optimal candidate as it satisfies the higher-ranked constraints ONSET,
*COMPLEXONS
and MAX-IO. Although it violates the constraint NO-CODA
twice, when the word /kab∫/ ends with a closed syllable /b/ and /∫/. In Hajji, it is
observed that for the word /kab∫/ “ram” with /CVCC/ structure, we find that the
monosyllabic form /kab∫/ with canonical structure /CVCC/ which is the optimal form
in comparison to other forms like /kab/ or /ka∫/. A detailed analysis of the same has
been presented in section 4.1.2.1, table 4.9 at serial No. 6 which shows the percentage
of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVCC/ in Hajji to be 45.1%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
130
4.1.6.1.2.2 DEP-IO
(No epenthesis). DEP-IO requires that the sounds in the output must be in the
input without adding any sound from input (No adding). This has been illustrated with
the help of tableau 4.10 below:
Tableau 4.10: ONSET ˃˃DEP-IO˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ NO-CODA
Input/tamr/“dates” ONSET DEP-IO MAX-IO NO-CODA
a) ☞ tamr **
b) ta.mir *! *
c) tam *! *
In tableau 4.8 above, the optimal candidate is (a) because it satisfies the
higher-ranked constraints MAX-IO, DEP-IO and ONSET, although it violates the
markedness constraint NO-CODA twice. Candidate (b) is rejected from competing
because it violates faithfulness constraint DEP-IO containing an epenthetic /i/. It
violates also NO-CODA constraint once. Candidate (c) satisfies the constraints
ONSET and DEP-IO, but it violates faithfulness constraint MAX-IO and
markedness constraint NO-CODA. The monosyllabic form of the word /tamr/ (a) has
the canonical structure /CVCC/. According to section 4.1.2.1, table 4.9 at serial No. 6,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 45.1%. Hence, the
form /tamr/ is the optimal form in Hajji dialect.
Tableau 4.11: DEP-IO˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /saħl / “easy” DEP-IO MAX-IO *COMPLEXCOD
a) ☞ saħl *
b) sa.ħil *!
c) saħ *!
d) sal *!
In the tableau 4.11 above, candidate (a) emerges as the optimal form because
it satisfies the faithfulness constraints DEP-IO and MAX-IO, even though it violates
lower-ranked constraint *COMPLEXCOD
by having consonant clusters /ħl/ in the
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
131
coda position of the word /saħl/. Candidate (b) is ruled out from competition because
it violates DEP-IO constraint due to an epenthetic /i/. Candidate (c) and candidate (d)
are eliminated as they violate MAX-IO constraint by deleting a consonant and for this
reason are called losers. In Hajji, it is observed that for the word /saħl/ “easy” with
/CVCC/ structure, we find the monosyllabic form /saħl/ with canonical structure
/CVCC/ which is the optimal form in comparison with other forms like /sa.ħil/, /saħ/
or /sal/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.1, table
4.9 at serial No. 6 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CVCC/ in Hajji to be 45.1%.
Tableau 4.12: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ DEP-IO
Input/ħarami/“thief” ONSET MAX-IO *COMPLEXONS
DEP-IO
a) ☞ ħa.ra.mi
b) ħra.mi *! *
c) ħar.mi *!
Candidate (a) is identified as optimal candidate because it satisfies markedness and
faithfulness constraints DEP-IO, *COMPLEXONS
, MAX-IO and ONSET.
Candidate (b) avoids the violation of the ONSET constraint. Still, it is ruled out from
being optimal as it violates MAX-IO by deleting an epenthetic /a/ and also, it violate
*COMPLEXONS
constraint due to two initial consonant clusters /ħr/ of the word
/ħra.mi/. Candidate (c) is eliminated from competing for the status of being the
optimal form because it violates MAX-IO constraint by deleting a vowel /a/. The
trisyllabic form of the word /ħa.ra.mi/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/.
According to section 4.1.2.3, table 4.13 at serial No. 4, percentage of occurrence of
this canonical structure in Hajji is 4.4%. Hence, the form /ħa.ra.mi/ is the optimal
form in Hajji.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
132
Tableau 4.13: ONSET˃˃MAX-IO˃˃*COMPLEXONS
˃˃DEP-
IO˃˃*COMPLEXCOD
˃˃NO-CODA
Input
/saʕb/“difficult”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
DE
P-I
O
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
a) ☞ saʕb *! **
b) sa.ʕib *! *
c) saʕ *! *
d) sab *! *
Candidate (a) in tableau 4.13 above emerges as the optimal candidate because
it satisfies ONSET, MAX-IO, *COMPLEXONS
and DEP-IO constraints. Although,
candidate (a) violates markedness constraints *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA but,
it is the actual optimal (the most harmonic) and incurs the least violations of the set of
constraints than other candidates. Candidate (b) is eliminated by DEP-IO constraint
for having an epenthetic /i/ in the second syllable of the word /sa.ʕib/. Also it violates
NO-CODA constraint. Candidate (c) is ruled out from competing because it violates
MAX-IO by deleting a consonant /b/. While candidate (d) fails because it violates
markedness constraints MAX-IO by deleting a consonant /ʕ/. In Hajji dialect, it is
observed that for the word /saʕb/ “difficult” with /CVCC/ structure, we find the
monosyllabic form /saʕb/ with canonical structure /CVCC/ which is the optimal form
in comparison to other forms like /sa.ʕib/, /saʕ/ or /sab/. A detailed analysis of the
same has been presented in section 4.1.2.1, table 4.9 at serial No. 6 which shows the
percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVCC/ in Hajji to be 45.1%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
133
Tableau 4.14: ONSET˃˃MAX-IO˃˃DEP-IO˃˃*COMPLEXONS
˃˃
*COMPLEXCOD
˃˃NO-CODA
Input
/ʕasal/“honey” O
NS
ET
MA
X-I
O
DE
P-I
O
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
a) ☞ ʕa.sal *
b) ʕas.al *! **
c) ʕasl *! * **
d) ʕsal *! * *
e) as.al **! * **
From the tableau above, candidate (a) emerges as the best optimal candidate
because it satisfies the higher-ranked constraints *COMPLEXONS
, *COMPLEXCOD
,
MAX-IO, DEP-IO and ONSET. Moreover, candidate (a) wins the output even
though it violates lower constraint (NO-CODA) once by having a coda. It wins the
competition and is selected as optimal form for it incurs the least violations of the
group of constraints (*COMPLEXONS
, *COMPLEXCOD
, NO-CODA, MAX-IO,
DEP-IO and ONSET) and is more harmonic than other candidates. Candidate (b) is
ruled out totally by the fatal mark (*!) because it violates the higher-ranked constraint
ONSET and it also, violates the NO-CODA constraint twice. Candidate (c) a voids
the violation of the ONSET constraint but, it violates MAX-IO constraint by deleting
a vowel /a/. In addition, candidate (c) is eliminated because it violates
*COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA constraints. Candidate (d) is also ruled out also
because it violates MAX-IO constraint. Candidate (e) is rejected totally because it
violates ONSET constraint two times as both syllables start without onset (onsetless)
it also violates MAX-IO and NO-CODA constraints and is thus, prevented from
being the optimal candidate. The disyllabic form of the word /ʕa.sal/ (a) has the
canonical structure /CV.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 8,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 12.5%. Therefore, the
form /ʕa.sal/ is the optimal form in HYA.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
134
ONSET is the highest ranked in Hajji dialect, while *COMPLEXCOD
and
*COMPLEXONS
are higher ranked than NO-CODA. Moreover, MAX-IO and DEP-
IO (faithfulness constraints) are also higher ranked than NO-CODA in Hajji.
4.1.6.2 Syllable Weight in Hajji Dialect.
Set of constraints of syllable structure by Kager 1999
*LLL
“Assign one violation mark for three light syllables”.
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ)
“Syllables are maximally mono-moraic”.
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ)
“Syllables are maximally bi-moraic”.
*3µ
“No trimoraic syllables”.
*FINAL –G
“Word- final geminates are prohibited”.
*FINAL- C- µ
“Word- final coda consonants are weightless”.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
135
Final Heavy Syllables /CVC/ and /CV:/ in HYA.
Tableau 4.15: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS ˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD ˃˃ NO-CODA
/ʔasad/ “lion”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µ µµ
a. ʔa. sad *! * *
☞ µ µ
b. ʔa.sad *
µ µ
c. ʔa. sadd *! * * **
µ µ
d. ʔa. sa *!
µ µ µ
e. ʔa.sa.di
*!
*
Candidate (e) is eliminated by DEEP-IO for adding an epenthetic /i/ at the
ultimate light syllable. It also violates *LLL because there are three light syllables in
the word and this is not allowed in this constraint. Candidate (d) is also ruled out by
MAX-IO for deleting a consonant /d/. Candidate (c) fails to be the optimal output as
it violates DEEP-IO, *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA. It also violates *FINAL –G
because there is final geminate /-dd/ and geminate is prohibited in this constraint of
Hajji dialect. While candidate (a) satisfies ONSET, MAX-IO, *LLL and DEEP-IO
but it is disqualified as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) because there are two
moraic at heavy syllable and this constraint prohibits bi-moraic. Candidate (b)
emerges as the optimal candidate because it avoids violation of ONSET, MAX-IO,
*LLL, DEEP-IO, SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ), *3µ,*FINAL
–G, *FINAL- C- µ, *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEX
COD and
it only violates NO-
CODA. In Hajji dialect, it is observed that for the word /ʔasad/ “lion” with /CVCVC/
structure, we find the disyllabic form /ʔa.sad/ with canonical structure /CV.CVC/
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
136
which is the optimal form in comparison to other forms like /ʔa.sadd/, /ʔa.sa/ or
/ʔa.sa.di/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table
4.11 at serial No. 8 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CV.CVC/ in Hajji to be 12.5%.
Tableau 4.16: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/sama:/
“sky”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. sa.ma: *!
µ µ
b. sa.ma *!
µ
c. samm *! * * * **
Candidate (c) is disqualified from competition as it violates MAX-IO, DEEP-
IO, *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA twice. It also violates *FINAL –G because
there is final geminate /-mm/. Candidate (b) satisfies ONSET but violates high ranked
MAX-IO by deleting final vowel /a/. Candidate (a) wins as the optimal form because
it avoids the violation of the *LLL, DEEP-IO, MAX-IO and ONSET. It only
violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) because there are two moraic in the second syllable.
The disyllabic form of the word /sa.ma:/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CV:/.
According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 4, percentage of occurrence of
this canonical structure in Hajji is 3.6%. Here the form /sa.ma:/ is the optimal form in
Hajji dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
137
Non-Final Heavy Syllables /CVC/ and /CV:/ in HYA.
Tableau 4.17: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/mafta:ħ/ “key”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. maf.ta:ħ *! **
µµ µ
b. maf.ta:ħ *! * **
µ µ µ
c. ma.fi.ta:ħ *! * *
µ µ µµµ
d. ma.fi.ta:ħ
*!
* *
*
*
*
Candidate (d) incurs more number of violations as in DEEP-IO by adding a
vowel /i/ at penultimate light syllable. It also violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) as it
adds more than two moraic, and it violates *3µ because there are three moraic at
ultimate super-heavy syllable. Moreover Candidate (d) is ruled out by *FINAL- C- µ
for having moraic at the last consonant /ħ/ in the word of HYA. Candidate (c) is
eliminated by DEEP-IO, *FINAL- C- µ and NO-CODA. Candidate (b) and
candidate (a) violate SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) but candidate (a) wins the optimal form
because it incurs the least violation than candidate (b) and other candidates. In Hajji
dialect, it is observed that for the word /mafta:ħ/ “key” with /CVCCV:C/ structure,
we find the disyllabic form /maf.ta:ħ/ with canonical structure /CVC.CV:C/ is the
optimal form in comparison to other forms like /ma.fi.ta:ħ/ or /maf.ta:ħ/. A detailed
analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 9
which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CV.CV:C/ in
Hajji to be 17.7%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
138
Tableau 4.18: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS ˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD ˃˃ NO-CODA
/na:hi/
“ok”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µµ µ
a. na:. hi *!
µ µ
b. na.hi *!
µ
c. nah
**!
*
Candidates (b and c) are ruled out because they violate MAX-IO constraint,
by deleting a vowel /a/ in the first syllable of candidate (b) and by deleting a vowel /i/
in the second syllable and /a/ in first syllable of candidate (c). Candidate (a) emerges
as the optimal even though it violates low ranked SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) by having
more than one moraic at the first syllable of HYA. The disyllabic form of the word
/na:.hi/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV:.CV/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table
4.11 at serial No. 3, percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is
3.0%. Therefore, the form /na:.hi/ is the optimal form in Hajji.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
139
Final Super-Heavy Syllables /CVCC/ and /CV:C/ in HYA.
Tableau 4.19: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ɡadi:m/
“old”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. ɡa.di:m *! *
µ µµ
b. ɡa.di:m *! * *
µ µµµ
c. ɡa.di:m *! * * * *
µ µ µ
d. ɡa.di:.mi *!
µ µµ
e. ɡa.dim
*!
* *
*
Candidates (e and d) are ruled out because they violate MAX-IO and DEEP-
IO, respectively. Candidate (c) is also rejected as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY
(µ), SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ), *3µ, FINAL- C- µ and NO-CODA. Candidate (b)
too fails to be the optimal form as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), *FINAL- C-
µ and NO-CODA. Candidate (a) is the optimal form, even though it violates low
ranked SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) and NO-CODA. In Hajji dialect, it is observed that
for the word /ɡadi:m/ “old” with /CVCV:C/ structure, we find that the disyllabic
form /ɡa.di:m/ with canonical structure /CV.CV:C/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /ɡa.di:.mi/ or /ɡa.dim/. A detailed analysis of the
same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 11 which shows
the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CV.CV:C/ in Hajji to be
19.3%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
140
Tableaub 4.20: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ħaɡɡ/
“right”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ
a. ħaɡɡ *! * **
µµ
b. ħaɡɡ *! * * **
µµµ
c. ħaɡɡ *! * * * * * **
µ µ
d. ħaɡ.ɡi *! *
µ
e. ħaɡ
*!
*
Candidate (e) is eliminated from the competition as it violates the high
ranked MAX-IO by deleting the final consonant /ɡ/. Candidate (d) is also ruled out
by DEEP-IO as it adds a vowel /i/ at the second syllable of HYA. Candidate (c) is
disqualified because it incurs more number of violations as in SYL-MAXIMLITY
(µ) for adding more than one moric (mono-moraic), and it violates SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µµ) because there are more than two moraic (bi-moric). Moreover
Candidate (c) is ruled out by *3µ for having three moraic (trimoric) at the word. It
also violates *FINAL –G by having final geminate of the consonant /ɡ/ as well as
*FINAL- C- µ by having a moraic at the last consonant /ɡ/ at the syllable of HYA.
Candidate (c) violates *COMPLEXCOD
and
NO-CODA too. Candidate (b) is
rejected as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), *FINAL –G, *COMPLEXCOD
and
NO-CODA. Candidate (a) emergers as the optimal form as it satisfies the high
ranked constraints even though it violates *FINAL –G, *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-
CODA. The monosyllabic form of the word /ħaɡɡ/ (a) has the canonical structure
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
141
/CVCC/. According to section 4.1.2.1, table 4.9 at serial No. 6, percentage of
occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 45.1%. Hence, the form /ħaɡɡ/ is
the optimal form in Hajji.
The final hierarchy rank of syllable structure constraints in Hajji dialect are
organized as follows: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA.
For more clarity tableaux 4.21 show a set of constraints of syllable structure in Hajji
dialect through OT.
Tableaux 4.21: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ħana∫/
“snake”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µ µµ
a. ħa.na∫ *! * *
µ µµ
b. ħa.na∫∫ * *! * * * **
☞ µ µ
c. ħa.na∫ *
µ µ
d. ħa.na *!
µ µ µ
e. ħa.na.∫i
*!
*
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
142
/waba:/
“epidemics”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. wa.ba: *!
µ µ
b. wa.ba *!
µ
c. wabb *! * * * **
/maʤnu:n/
“crazy”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µ µµµ
a. maʤ.nu:n *! * * * **
☞ µ µµ
b. maʤ.nu:n *! **
µ µµ
c. maʤ.nu:n *! * **
µ µ µ
d. ma.ʤi.nu:n
*!
*
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
143
/ra:ʕi/
“wait” O
NS
ET
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µµ µ
a. ra:. ʕi *!
µ µ
b. ra.ʕi *!
µ
c. raʕ
*!*
*
/tˤari:ɡ/
“road”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. tˤa.ri:ɡ *! *
µ µµ
b. tˤa.ri:ɡ *! * *
µ µµµ
c. tˤa.ri:ɡ *! * * * *
µ µ
d. tˤa.riɡ *! *
µ µ µ
e. tˤa.ri:.ɡi
*!
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
144
/baħr/
“sea”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µµµ
a. baħr *! * * * * **
µµ
b. baħr *! * **
☞ µ
c. baħr *! **
µ µ
d. ba.ħir *! *
µ
e. baħ
*!
*
4.1.7 Word Stress Patterns in Hajji Dialect
Stress goes to the final syllable (rightmost) of the word in Hajji dialect, if it is
superheavy as in /CV:C/ or /CVCC/.
/tuf.f'a:ħ/ “apples” /tif.f'a:l/ “sputum”
/χar.r'a:tˤ/ “lies” /ri. sˤ'a:sˤ/ “buckshot”
/χaj.r'a:t/ “a lot” /ʁa.r'i:b/ “stranger”
/ɡa.sˤ'i:r/ “short” /ma∫.ʁ'u:l/ “busy”
/maf.t'a:ħ/ “key” /za.m'a:n/ “period”
/ħa.m'a:m/ “doves” /tˤaj.j'i:b/ “good heart”
/faʤ.ʤ'a:ʕ/ “fearful” /ħa.l'i:b/ “milk”
/ʁa.l'i:ðˤ/ “thick” /maʤ.n'u:n/ “crazy”
/mas.m'a:r/ “nail” /tˤa.bi:b/ “doctor”
/ʕi.ðˤ'a:m/ “bones” /sir.w'a:l/ “trousers”
/tˤam.ma:ʕ/ “greedy” /∫a.m'a:l/ “north”
/ba.n'a:t/ “girls” /nis.w'a:n/ “women”
/ʤam.ma:l/ “camel driver” /ka.Ө'i:r/ “much”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
145
/tˤa.r'i:ɡ/ “road” /ʔal.n'ahr/ “the river”
/ɡa.l'i:l/ “few” /wa.s'i:m/ “handsome”
/ra.χ'i:sˤ/ “cheap” /ʔal.b'int/ “the girl”
/sˤa.ʁ'i:r/ “small” /tˤa:.w'a:s/ “peacock”
/∫a.m'i:z/ “shirt” /ta:.r'i:χ/ “date”
/ʔal.χ'ajl/ “the horse” /ʤa:.n'i:ħ/ “wing”
Stress falls on the penultimate (heavy syllable) as in /CV:/ or /CVC/, if the last
syllable in Hajji Yemeni dialect is not superheavy.
/ɡ'am.bir/ “sit” /n'uχ.rah/ “nose”
/w'a:.siʕ/ “wide” /tˤ'a:.ɡah/ “window”
/d'af.tar/ “notebook” /ʔ'aħ.mar/ “red”
/h'a:.win/ “thin” /ʤ'ad.dah/ “grandmother (f)”
/ɡ'al.ʕah/ “castle” /∫'af.tak/ “I saw you”
/ʤ'a:.hil/ “kid” /ʔ'ib.sir/ “look”
/ʤa.r'i:.mah/ “crime” /ʤ'a:.wiʕ/ “hungry”
/ɡ'ar.jah/ “village” /ɡ'a:.law/ “they said”
/b'al.wah/ “trouble” /t'a:. ʤir/ “trader”
/ħa.w'a:.ʤib/ “eyebrows” /s'a:.kin/ “resident”
/s'a:.far/ “he travelled” /sˤ'u:.rah/ “picture”
/m'ux.lisˤ/ “faithful” /ma.r'a:.wiħ/ “fans”
/n'a:.∫if/ “dry” /wa.Ө'i:.ɡah/ “document”
/sˤ'aw.tak/ “your voice” /f'a:.riħ/ “happy”
/na.t'i: ʤah/ “result” /sa.f'i:.nah/ “ship”
/ʔ'as.wad/ “black” /da.ʤ'a:.ʤah/ “chicken”
/χ'ub.zah/ “a loaf of bread” /mu.s'a:.fir/ “traveler”
/∫'an.tˤah/ “bag” /ʕa.sˤ'i:.dah/ “gruel”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
146
Stress goes on antepenultimate (heavy syllable), if the final syllable in Hajji is
not superheavy and the penultimate is not heavy.
/sˤ'a:.ħi.bi/ “my friend” /ʕ'ak.ba.ri:/ “rat”
/t'an.ʤa.rah/ “pot” /ʔ'aħ.na.ʤak/ “I love you”
/ʤ'a:.mi.ʕah/ “university” /l'in.nu.hum/ “because they”
/ɡ'il.ti.lah/ “I said to him” /dˤ'if.tˤa.ʕah/ “frog”
/m'il.ʔa.ɡah/ “spoon” /m'u∫.ki.lah/ “problem”
/m'aħ.ka.mah/ “court” /m'al.za.mah/ “handout”
/m'in.∫a.fah/ “towels” /ʔ'ar.na.bah/ “rabbit (f)”
/m'ad.ra.sah/ “school” /ʔ'aχ.ta.bar/ “he examined”
● Stress falls on monosyllabic words in Hajji, no matter whether this syllable is
superheavy as in /CVCC/ or /CV:C/, heavy as in /CV:/ or /CVC/ or light as in /CV/.
/m'aʕ/ “no” /r'abħ/ “monkey”
/s'u:ɡ/ “market” /f'i:l/ “elephant”
/ʔ'aj/ “which” /r'i:ħ/ “wind”
/n'a:s/ “people” /r'u:ħ/ “soul”
/ʔ'ab/ “father” /b'aħr/ “sea”
/m'a:t/ “he died” /s'aʕb/ “difficult”
/ʔ'aw/ “or” /b'ard/ “cold”
/w'ajn/ “where” /w'a:sʕ/ “wide”
/b'a:b/ “door” /s'iħr/ “magic”
/w'aʕd"/ “promise” /r'a:tb/ “salary”
/d'ub/ “bear” /ʕ'umr/ “age”
/r'i:∫/ “feather” /b'a:lj/ “old”
/∫'ul/ “take” /l'awħ/ “board”
/t'i:n/ “figs” /χ'a:jf/ “scared”
/ʔ'aχ/ “brother” /w'aɡt/ “time”
/k'a:n/ “was” /ʤ'a:ff/ “dry”
/ðˤ'ufr/ “nail” /sˤ'a:br/ “patient”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
147
/m'a:/ “water” /χ'add/ “cheek”
/χa:l/ “uncle” /ħ'a:dd/ “sharp”
/L'ak/ “for you” /j'ad/ “hand”
/ʤ'i:/ “come” /k'ab∫/ “sheep”
/tˤ'i:.n/ “mud” /Ө'u:r/ “ox”
/l'i:/ “to me” /k'alb/ “dog”
/s'a:ɡ/ “leg” /b'a/ “with”
/f'i:/ “in” /s'a:kr/ “drunkard”
/L'ajl/ “night” /b'ikr/ “virgin”
/J'awm/ “day” /ʁ'a:lj/ “costly”
/L'ajj/ “hose” /k'am/ “how much”
/ɡ'a:tl/ “killer” /s'a:rɡ/ “thief”
/ʕ'irɡ/ “vein” /d'i:n/ “religion”
/χ'a:dm/ “servant” /k'ul/ “all”
/ʤ'a:jʕ/ “hungry” /z'i:d/ “do more”
/b'a:rd/ “cold” /w'a:ɡf/ “standing”
/ħ'aɡɡ/ “right” /n'a:r/ “fire”
/ħ'a:sd/ “envier” /s'a:r/ “he walked”
/ħ'a:mj/ “hot” /b'a:sˤsˤ/ “bus”
● Stress falls on the initial syllable (leftmost) of disyllabic words in Hajji dialect.
/ʔ'a.biz/ “i take” /tˤ'a:.ɡah/ “window”
/s'a.mak/ “fish” /ħ'a.ʤar/ “stone”
/d'af.tar/ “notebook” /r'uk.bah/ “knee”
/ʔ'a.sad/ “lion” /χ'a.saʕ/ “mud”
/ɡ'al.ʕah/ “castle” /r'a:ʕi/ “wait”
/r'aɡ.sˤah/ “dance” /ʕ'a:.tˤi∫/ “thirsty”
/Ө'a.man/ “price” /ʔ'a.sal/ “honey”
/ɡ'ar.jah/ “village” /h'a:.win/ “thin”
/ʕ'a.mal/ “work” /b'a:.rid/ “cold”
/s'uk.kar/ “sugar” /χ'a:.li:/ “my cousin”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
148
/∫'a.miz/ “shirt” /m'a.lik/ “king”
/sˤ'aw.tak/ “your voice” /w'a.fi/ “loyal”
/l'a.mah/ “why” /∫'a:.hi/ “tea”
/χ'ub.zah/ “a loaf of bread” /ʁ'i.tˤa:/ “cover”
/χ'a.∫ab/ “wood” /ɡ'a.mar/ “moon”
/ʔ'as.raħ/ “I go” /ʁ'a.da:/ “lunch”
/h'a.waʔ/ “air” /r'a:.tib/ “salary”
/∫'af.tak/ “I saw you” /w'a:.ħid/ “one”
/n'a:.hi/ “ok” /r'a.mu:/ “they threw
/sˤ'a.ʕib/ “hard” /h'a:.nak/ “there”
/ʔ'ib.sir/ “look” /w'a.ba:/ “epidemics”
/l'a.ban/ “milk” /n'i.∫a/ “he grew”
/r'u:.ti/ “bread” /s'a.ma:/ “sky”
Stress goes to antepenultimate of trisyllabic words in Hajji Yemeni dialect, if the
final syllable is not superheavy and penultimate is not heavy.
/ħ'a.ra.mi/ “thief” /ʕ'ak.ba.ri:/ “rat”
/sˤ'a:.ħi.bi/ “my friend” /ʤ'a:.mi.ʕah/ “university”
/b'a.ɡa.rah/ “cow” /w'a.ra.ɡah/ “leaf
/t'an.ʤa.rah/ “pot” /m'ad.ra.sah/ “school”
/l'in.nu.hum/ “because they” /m'ak.ta.bah/ “library”
/ʔ'aħ.na.ʤak/ “I love you” /ɡ'il.ti.lah/ “I said to him”
/m'il.ʔa.ɡah/ “spoon” /m'aħ.ka.mah/ “court”
/m'u∫.ki.lah/ “problem” /m'iz.ra.ʕah/ “farm”
/m'in.∫a.fah/ “towels” /s'aj.ji.dah/ “lady”
/ʔ'aχ.ta.bar/ “he examined” /m'al.za.mah/ “handout”
/dˤ'if.tˤa.ʕah/ “frog” /ʔ'ar.na.bah/ “rabbit (f)”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
149
Stress goes to the antepenultimate syllable in poly-syllabic words in Hajji Yemeni
dialect.
/mak.t'a.ba.ti:/ “my library
/zi.ja:.r'a.tu.hum/ “visit (NOM.SG)3pl.poss”
/ʃa.ʤ'a.ra.tuh/ “his tree”
/ju.χ'aw.wi.fu./ “he is frightening me”
/sa.l'a.ma.tak/ “your safety”
/ra.ɡ'a.ba.tuh/ “his neck”
4.1.8 An OT Analysis of Word Stress in Hajji Dialect
This part deals with the constraint hierarchy of word stress for Hajji Yemeni
dialect in Optimality Theory. Eight constraints hierarchies have been discussed for
word stress in HYA, i.e. GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY, FT-BIN, WSP,
RIGHTMOST, LEFTMOST, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ. Word stress constraints in
Hajji are analyzed as follows:
● GR WD = PR WD
“A grammatical word must be a PR WD” Kager (1999: 152).
● NONFINALITY
“No foot is final in PrWd” Kager (1999: 151).
Tableau 4.22: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY
Input /∫antˤah/ “bag” GR WD = PR WD NONFINALITY
a. ☞ (∫'an).tˤah
b. ∫an.(tˤ'ah) *
c. (∫an.tˤ'ah) *
d. ∫an.tˤah *!
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
150
Candidate (d) is eliminated totally for violating the higher ranked GR WD =
PR WD because it does not carry a foot (no feet) in the word /∫an.tˤah/ of HYA at
all, even though it satisfies NONFINALITY constraint (lower ranked). Allthough
candidates (b, c) satisfy the constraint GR WD = PR WD, they are ruled out for
violating NONFINALITY as they leave the final syllable of both candidates with a
foot. Candidate (a) is the optimal output because it avoids the violation of both
constraints GR WD = PR WD and NONFINALITY. In Hajji dialect, it is observed that
for the word /∫antˤah/ “bag” with /CVCCVC/ structure, we find the disyllabic form
/(∫'an).tˤah/ with canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /∫an.(tˤ'ah)/, (∫an.tˤ'ah) or /∫an.tˤah/. A detailed
analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 10
which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ in
Hajji to be 18.4%.
UNEVEN-LAMB
(LH) ˃ (LL), (H). Kager (1999: 151).
(light + heavy) is better lamb than (light+ light) or (heavy).
Tableau 4.23: NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB
Input /ħaʤar/
“stone” NONFINALITY UNEVEN-LAMB
a. ☞ (ħ'a).ʤar *
b. ħa.(ʤ'ar) *! *
c. (ħ'a.ʤar) *!
The optimal candidate is (a) because it does not violate the high ranked
NONFINALITY. Candidate (b) is rejected for violating higher and lower constraints
NONFINALITY and UNEVEN-LAMB. Candidate (c) forfeits optimality in Hajji since
it violates NONFINALITY constraint by having a foot at the end of the word
/(ħ'a.ʤar)/ in HYA. The disyllabic form of the word /ħa.ʤar/ (a) has the canonical
structure /CV.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 8,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 12.5%. Hene, the
form /ħa.ʤar/ is the optimal form in Hajji.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
151
● PARSE-σ
“Feet are parsed by feet” Kager (1999: 153).
Tableau 4.24: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃
PARSE-σ
Input /ɡarjah/
“village”
GR WD = PR
WD NONFINALITY
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (ɡ'ar). jah *! *
b. (ɡ'ar.jah) *! *
c. (ɡ'ar).(jah) *! **
d. ɡar.jah *! **
Candidate (d) and candidate (c) are rejected for violating GR WD = PR WD
and NONFINALITY, respectively. Candidate (b) is eliminated immediately for
violating UNEVEN-LAMB as a foot of the word /(ɡ'ar.jah)/ does not contain light
and heavy syllable (LH). Candidate (b) is ruled out also by the fatal violation
NONFINALITY. Candidate (a) is the optimal output because it avoids the violation of
both constraints GR WD = PR WD and NONFINALITY. In Hajji, it is observed that
for the word /ɡarjah/ “village” with /CVCCVC/ structure, we find that the disyllabic
form /(ɡ'ar).jah/ with canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /(ɡ'ar.jah)/, /(ɡ'ar).(jah)/ or /ɡar.jah/. A detailed
analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No. 10
which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ in
Hajji to be 18.4%.
As shown in the tableau above, GR WD = PR WD dominates NONFINALITY, while
NONFINALITY dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ, so GR WD = PR WD
dominates all constraints NONFINALITY, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ in HYA. GR
WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
152
Tableau 4.25: NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /ʔasad/
“lion” NONFINALITY UNEVEN-LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (ʔ'a).sad *! *
b. ʔa.(s'ad) *! * *
c. (ʔ'a.sad) *!
Candidates (b,c) are ruled out as they violate NONFINALITY (high ranked).
Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal output because it satisfies NONFINALITY
constraint when the final heavy syllable of the word /(ʔ'a).sad/ in HYA leaves without
a foot. However, it violates UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ. The disyllabic form of the
word /ʔa.sad/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CVC/. According to section 4.1.2.2,
table 4.11 at serial No. 8, percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji
is 12.5%. Therefore, the form /ʔa.sad/ is the optimal form in this dialect.
WSP (weight to stress principle)
“Heavy syllables are stressed” Kager (1999: 155).
Tableau 4.26: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB
˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /dˤaru:ri/
“necessary”
GR WD =
PR WD NONFINALITY WSP
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (dˤa.r'u:).ri
*
b. (dˤ'a.ru:).ri
*! *
c. dˤa.(r'u:.ri)
*! * *
d. dˤa.ru:.ri *!
* ***
Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal output because it satisfies (higher ranked) GR
WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY, WSP and UNEVEN-LAMB. Nonetheless, it violates
the lower ranked PARSE-σ when the final syllable of the word /(dˤa.r'u:).ri/ leaves it
without foot in HYA. Candidates (d, c) are ruled out as they violate GR WD = PR
WD and NONFINALITY, respectively. Candidate (b) also is disqualified for violating
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
153
WSP because it does not carry stress at heavy penultimate syllable of the word
/(dˤ'a.ru:).ri/ in HYA. Moreover, candidate (b) is ruled out also by PARSE-σ
constraints because it does not parse the right edge syllable of the word /(dˤ'a.ru:).ri/
(no feet at the final light syllable). In Hajji dialect, it is observed that for the word
/dˤaru:ri/ “necessary” with /CVCV:CV/ structure, we find that the trisyllabic form
/(dˤa.r'u:).ri/ with canonical structure /CV.CV:.CV/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /(dˤ'a.ru:).ri/, /dˤa.(r'u:.ri)/ and /dˤa.ru:.ri/. A
detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.3, table 4.13 at serial
No. 9 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure
/CV.CV:.CV/ in Hajji to be 5.1%.
As shown in the tableau above, WSP dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB and
PARSE-σ in HYA. WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB, PARSE-σ.
FT-BIN
“Feet are binary under moraic or syllabic analysis” Kager (1999: 156).
Tableau 4.27: NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃
PARSE-σ
Input /na:hi/
“ok” NONFINALITY FT-BIN WSP
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (n'a:).hi *! *
b. (n'a).hi *! * *
c. (n'a:.hi) *! *
Candidates (c, b) are eliminated immediately for violating NONFINALITY and
FT-BIN, respectively. Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal form as it satisfies
NONFINALITY, FT-BIN and WSP, even thought it violates UNEVEN-LAMB and
PARSE-σ. But, it is still more harmonic than other candidates and incurs least
violations than other candidates (b, c). The disyllabic form of the word /na:.hi/ (a) has
the canonical structure /CV:.CV/. According to section 4.1.2.2, table 4.11 at serial No.
3, percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Hajji is 3.0%. Hence, the
form /na:.hi/ is the optimal form in Hajji dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
154
RIGHTMOST
“The head foot is rightmost in PR WD” Kager (1999: 167).
LEFTMOST
“The head foot is leftmost in PR WD” Kager (1999: 167).
Table 4.28: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /tanʤarah/
“pot”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(t'an).ʤa.rah *! * * **
b. tan.(ʤ'a).rah *! ** * * * **
c. tan.ʤa.(r'ah) *! * * * **
d. (t'an.ʤa).(rah) *! * **
e. tan.ʤa.rah *! ** * * ***
Candidate (e) is eliminated immediately for violating GR WD = PR WD as it
does not carry any foot in any syllable of the word /tan.ʤa.rah/ (no feet at all).
Candidates (d, c) are also ruled out from competition for the fatal violation
NONFINALITY because both the candidates (d , c) end with a foot. Candidate (b) is
rejected for incurring more violations of FT-BIN, WSP, LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST,
UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ twice. Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal candidate
as it satisfies higher ranked GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY and FT-BIN. However,
it violates WSP because it does not carry stress on heavy ultimate syllable of the word
/(t'an).ʤa.rah/. It also violates RIGHTMOST, because the final heavy syllable of the
word /(t'an).ʤa.rah/ in HYA does not carry a foot at the end of the word (right edge).
It violates UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ as well. Still, it is more harmonic and incurs
least violations than other candidates. In Hajji dialect, it is observed that for the word
/tanʤarah/ “pot” with /CVCCVCVC/ structure, we find that the trisyllabic form
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
155
/(t'an).ʤa.rah/ with canonical structure /CVC.CV.CVC/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /tan.(ʤ'a).rah/, /tan.ʤa.(r'ah)/, /(t'an.ʤa).(rah)/ or
/tan.ʤa.rah/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.1.2.3,
table 4.13 at serial No. 13 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CVC.CV.CVC/ in Hajji to be 16.2%.
As shown in the tableau above, FT-BIN dominates both LEFTMOST and
RIGHTMOST, while both constraints LEFTMOST and RIGHTMOST dominate PARSE-
σ. So, FT-BIN dominates all LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST and PARSE-σ in HYA: FT-
BIN ˃˃ LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST, PARSE-σ.
Tableau 4.29: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /ħarami/
“thief”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞ (ħ'a.ra).mi *! * *
b. (ħa.r'a).(mi) *! * **
c. (ħ'a).(ra).(mi) *! *** ***
d. ħa.(r'a.mi) *! * * *
e. ħa.ra.mi *! * * ***
Candidate (e) is ruled out immediately by the fatal violation (*!) for violating
GR WD = PR WD because there is no foot in any syllable of the word /ħa.ra.mi/ at
all. Candidates (d, c and b) are rejected for violating higher ranked NONFINALITY as
the final light syllable of the words /(ħa.r'a).(mi)/, /(ħ'a).(ra).(mi)/ and /ħa.(r'a.mi)/
contain a foot. Candidate (a) wins the optimal because it incurs least violations as
compared to other candidates. Nonetheless, it violates RIGHTMOST because there is
no foot at the right edge of the word /(ħ'a.ra).mi/ in HYA. The trisyllabic form of the
word /ħa.ra.mi/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/. According to section
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
156
4.1.2.3, table 4.13 at serial No. 4, percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure
in Hajji is 4.4%. Hence, the form /ħa.ra.mi/ is the optimal form in Hajji.
The final hierarchy rank of word stress constraints in Hajji dialect are
organized as follows: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
For more clarification, tableaux 4.30 show a set of constraints of word stress in Hajji
dialect through OT:
Tableaux 4.30: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /ʤa:hil/ “kid” NONFINALITY PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (ʤ'a:).hil *
b. (ʤ'a:.hil) *!
c. ʤa:.(h'il) *! *
d. ʤa:.hil **
Input /∫amiz/
“shirt” NONFINALITY UNEVEN-LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (∫'a).miz * *
b. (∫'a.miz) *!
c. ∫a.(m'iz) *! * *
Input /ʔaħmar/
“red” GR WD = PR WD UNEVEN-LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (ʔ'aħ).mar * *
b. (ʔ'aħ.mar) *
c. ʔaħ.(m'ar) * *
d. ʔaħ.mar *! **
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
157
Input /ra:.tib/
“salary”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ra:.(t'ib) *! * * * *
b. ☞ (r'a:).tib * * * *
c. (r'a:).(tib) *! * **
d. (r'a:.tib) *! * *
e. ra:.tib *! ** * * **
Input /sˤa:.ħi.bi/
“my friend”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(sˤ'a:).ħi.bi *! * **
b. (sˤ'a:).(ħi).bi *! * ** *
c. sˤa:.(ħ'i).(bi) *! ** * * ** *
d. sˤa:.(ħ'i.bi) *! * * * *
e. sˤa:.ħi.bi *! * * * ***
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
158
Input / nati: ʤah/
“result”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞na.(t'i:). ʤah *! * * * **
b. (n'a).(ti:).ʤah *! ** * ** *
c. (n'a).ti:.ʤah *! ** * * **
d. na.ti:.(ʤ'ah) *! * * * **
e. na.ti:. ʤah *! ** * * ***
Input
/dˤif.tˤa.ʕah/
“frog”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(dˤ'if).tˤa.ʕah *! * * **
b. dˤif.(tˤ'a).ʕah *! ** * * * **
c. dˤif.(tˤ'a.ʕah) *! ** * *
d. (dˤ'if.tˤa.ʕah) *! * *
e. dˤif.tˤa.ʕah *! ** * * ***
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
159
Part II: Zabidi dialect
4.2.1 The Phonemic Inventory of ZYA
4.2.1.1 Consonant Sounds of ZYA
Table 4.22: Consonant Sounds in ZYA
Bil
ab
ial
Lab
io-d
enta
l
Inte
r-d
enta
l
Den
tal-
alv
eola
r
Pala
tal
Vel
ar
Uvu
lar
Ph
ary
n-g
eal
Glo
ttal
Plosive
Voiced b d ɡ
Voiceless t k q ʔ
Emphatic dˤ tˤ
Fricative
Voiced ð z ʁ
Voiceless f Ө s ∫ χ ħ h
Emphatic ðˤ sˤ
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Tap r
Glide w j
The consonant sounds of Zabidi dialect, as presented in Table 4.22 above,
consists of 27 consonant sounds arranged in nine places of articulation, (bilabial,
labio-dental, inter-dental, dental-alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal and
glottal), and six manners of articulation, including nine plosives / b, t, d, k, ɡ, q, tˤ, ʔ,
dˤ/, two nasals /m/ and /n, /, twelve fricatives /f, Ѳ, ðˤ , ð, s, z, sˤ, ∫ , χ , ʁ , ħ , h/, one
trill/tap /r/, one lateral /l/, two glides /j/ and /w/. Zabidi dialect includes all the MAS
consonant sounds except two sounds /ʤ/ and /ʕ/ which are replaced by /ɡ/ and /ʔ/.
Furthermore, /ʤ/ ˃ /ɡ/ in Zabidi dialect, the consonant /ʤ/ voiced palatal
affricate of MSA is replaced by voiced velar stop /ɡ/, as in the following examples:
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
160
MSA ZYA Gloss
/naʤm/ /naɡ.mu/ “star”
/ʤa:.wab/ /ɡa:.wab/ “to answer”
/zu:ʤ/ /zo:ɡu/ “husband”
/ʤlis/ /ɡlis/ “sit”
/sˤnaʤ/ /sˤnaɡ/ “deaf”
/ʤad.dah/ /ɡad.deh/ “grandmother (f)”
/ʔal.ʤa:r/ /ʔam.ɡa:r/ “the neighbor”
/ʕiʤl/ /ʔiɡ.lu/ “calf”
Moreover, the phoneme /ʕ/ voiced pharyngeal frictive in MSA is substituted by
voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/ in ZYA as noticed below:
ZYA MSA Gloss
/ɡa:ʔ/ /ʤa:ʕ/ “he became hungry”
/ʔind/ /ʕind/ “at”
/sˤlaʔ/ /sˤlaʕ/ “bald”
/ʔe:.nu/ /ʕa:.n/ “an eye”
/ʔa.∫eʔ/ /ʕa.∫aʔ/ “diner”
/zʔaq / /zʕaq/ “he shouted”
/be:.ʔu/ /ba:ʕ/ “selling”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
161
Table 4.23: Exemplification of ZYA Consonants
Sound Word Gloss
b /ba:ku/ “they went”
d /d:meh/ “kitchen”
ɡ /ɡda:ru/ “wall”
t /tam.ru/ “dates”
k /kil.meh/ “word”
q /qisˤ.sˤah/ “story”
ʔ /ʔib.reh/ “needle”
tˤ /tˤe:.ru/ “bird”
ð /ðnu/ “ear”
z /zʔaq/ “shout”
ʁ /ʁali:ðˤu/ “thick”
f /fa:ru/ “rat”
Ө /Өmu/ “mouth”
s /sah.lu/ “easy”
∫ /∫aʔ.ru/ “hair”
χ /χad.du/ “cheek”
ħ /ħa:wju/ “tired”
h /hibeh/ “gift”
ðˤ /ðˤahru/ “back”
dˤ /mudˤrabu/ “striker”
sˤ /sˤudfah/ “chance”
m /muχlsˤu/ “sincere”
n /na:ru/ “fire”
l /le:leh/ “night”
r /ra:su/ “head”
w /wa:rӨu/ “inheritor”
j /jar.qud/ “he sleeps”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
162
4.2.1.1.1 Description of Consonants in ZYA
Stops
voiced-stop- bilabial /b/
voiceless-stop- dental-alveolar /t/
voiced-stop- dental-alveolar /d/
voiceless- emphatic- dental-alveolar /tˤ/
voiceless-stop- velar /k/
voiced-stop- velar
voicless- stop- uvular /ɡ/
/q /
voiceless-stop- glottal
inter dental -voiced-stop /ʔ/
/dˤ/
Fricatives
voiceless-fricative- labio-dental /f/
voiceless- fricative- inter-dental /Ѳ/
voiced- fricative- inter-dental /ð/
voiced-emphatic- inter-dental /ðˤ /
voiceless- fricative- dental-alveolar /s/
voiced- fricative- dental-alveolar /z/
voiceless- emphatic- dental-alveolar /sˤ/
voiceless- fricative- palatal /∫/
voiceless- fricative- uvular /χ/
voiced- fricative- uvular /ʁ/
voiceless- fricative- pharyngeal / ħ/
voiceless- fricative – glottal /h/
Nasals
voiced-nasal- bilabial /m/
voiced- nasal- dental-alveolar /n/
Lateral
voiced- lateral- dental-alveolar /l/
Tap
/r/ voiced-tap- dental-alveolar
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
163
Glides
/j/ voiced- glide- palatal
/w/ voiced-glide- velar
4.2.1.1.2 Distribution of Consonants in ZYA
Stops
Table 4.24: Distribution of Consonants of Zabidi Dialect
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/b/ /be:ʔu/ “selling” /kalbu/ “dog” /ʔamba:b/ “the door”
/d/ /diqnu/ “beard” /ʁadeʔ/ “lunch” /rɡad/ “he slept”
/ɡ/ /ɡabu/ “local bag /ħa:ɡbu/ “eyebrow” /za:waɡ/ “he made double”
/t/ /taʔba:nu/ “tired(m)” /ru:ti/ “bread” /ma:t/ “he died”
/k/ /kaðab/ “he told a lie” /ba:ku/ “they went” /ba:k/ “he went”
/q/ /qisˤsˤah/ “story” /sa:qu/ “leg” /zʔaq/ “he shouted”
/ʔ/ /ʔamba:b/ “the door” /zʔaq/ “he shouted” /wa.beʔ/ “epidemic”
/ tˤ/ /tˤabi:bah/ “doctor(f)” /sˤutˤfah/ “chance” /nutˤ/ “jump”
Fricatives
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/ð/ /ðnu/ “ear” /kaðab/ “he told a lie”
/z/ /za:r/ “he visited” /ħazi:nu/ “sad” /bozz/ “take(imp)”
/ʁ/ /ʁadeʔ/ “lunch” /sˤʁa:ru/ “small (pl)”
/f/ /fikreh/ “idea” /nafsu/ “soul” /wqaf/ “stand-up”
/Ө/ /Өo:ru “ox” /wirӨu/ “inheritance” /ʔamwarӨ/ “the inheritance”
/s/ /sinnu/ “tooth” /bisseh/ “cat” /ʔamnafs/ “ the soul”
/∫/ /∫e:beh/ “old man” /ʔa∫eʔ/ “diner” /ʔamkab∫/ “the sheep”
/χ/ /χe:meh/ “tent” /zaχmu/ “nice” /χo: χ/ “peach”
/ħ/ /ħa:ssu/ “feeling” /ðˤabħa:nu/ “angry” /ʔammilħ/ “the salt”
/h / /habli/ “give me” /sah.lu/ “easy” /tˤa:qah/ “window”
/ ðˤ/ /ðˤahru/ “back” /wðˤi:fah/ “job”
/ sˤ / /sˤabru/ “patience” /rsˤa:sˤah/ “bullet” /ba:sˤ/ “bus”
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Nasals
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/m/ /matˤʔa.mu/“restaurant” /ħmar/ “red” /ʔamnaɡm/ “the star”
/n/ /na:m/ “ he slept” /ʔamnafs/ “the soul” /ʔamti:n/ “the figs”
Lateral
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/l/ /li:mu/ “lemon (pl)” /muχxlsˤu/ “sincere” /qa:l/ “he said”
Tap
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/r/ /riħleh/ “journey” /birkeh/ “pool” /ʔamfa:r/ “the mouse”
Glides
Sound Syllable-Initially Syllable-Medially Syllable-Finally
/w/ /wqaf/ “stand-up” /ħwal/ “cross-eyed” /ʔamʔadaw/
“the enemy”
/j/ /jhi:n/ “when” /ma:ju/ “water”
As seen from the distribution of consonants in Zabidi dialect in table 4.24
above, all consonant sounds (stops, nasals, lateral, fricatives, tap and glides) in ZYA
occur in all positions of syllable (syllable-initially, syllable-medially and syllable-
finally). However, the following consonants (/ð/, /ʁ/, /ðˤ/ and /j/) do not occur
syllable finally.
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4.2.1.1.3 Consonantal Contrasts in ZYA
The minimal pairs in Zabidi dialect occur when two words differ only in one sound as
illustrated below:
Table 4.25: Consonantal Contrasts in ZYA
Contrast Word Gloss Word Gloss
/ħ/ vs. /z/ /ħi:d/ “see/ look” /zi:d/ “do more”
/ð/ vs. /b/ /ðnu/ “ear” /bnu/ “son”
/k/ vs. /ʔ/ /kam/ “how much” /ʔam/ “the”
/ʔ/ vs. /k/ /laʔ/ “no” /lak/ “for you”
/q/ vs. /tˤ/ /qa:l/ “he said” /tˤa:l/ “it became long”
/ħ/ vs. /∫/ /ħwal/ “cross-eyed” /∫wal/ “left-handed’
/ħ/ vs. /sˤ/ /ħmar/ “red” /sˤmar/ “tan”
/s/ vs. /l/ /sa.meʔ/ “sky” /la.meh/ why
/b/ vs. /s/ /ba.leʔ/ “affliction” /sa.leʔ/ “entertainment”
/ɡ/ vs. /n/ /ɡa:ru/ “neighbor” /na:ru/ “fire”
/ħ/ vs. /f/ /ħa:.rah/ “neighborhood” /fa:.rah/ “rat (f)”
/k/ vs. /q/ /ʔam.kalb/ “the dog” /ʔam.qalb/ “the heart”
/k/ vs. /r/ /ka:su/ “glass” /ra:su/ “head”
/s/ vs. /q/ /sʔa:.deh/ “happiness” /qʔa:.deh/ “bed”
/ʔ/ vs. /ɡ/ /ʔa.ma.lu/ “work” /ɡa.ma.lu/ “camel”
/Ө/ vs. /b/ /ka.Өi:.ru/ “many, much” /ka.bi:.ru/ “big”
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Table 4.26: Distinctive Features (Consonant Sounds) for Zabidi Dialect.
C
on
son
an
tal
stri
den
t
corn
al
son
ora
nt
an
teri
or
nasa
l
lab
ial
con
tin
uan
t
dors
al
tril
l
late
ral
Voic
ed
b + - + - +
d + + - + - +
ɡ + - - + +
t + + - + - -
k + - - + -
ʔ + - - -
dˤ + + - - +
tˤ + + - + - -
q + - +
ð + - + - + + +
z + + + - + + +
ʁ + - + + +
f + - + - + + -
s + + + - + + -
Ө + - + - + + -
∫ + + - - + + -
ħ + + - + + +
χ + - + + -
m + + + + + +
n + + + + + + +
l + - + + + + + +
r + - - + + + + +
w + - + + + + +
j + - + + - + +
h + + - + + -
ðˤ + - + - + + +
sˤ + + + - + + -
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4.2.1.2 Vowel Sounds in ZYA
Figure 4.9: Short Vowels in ZYA
There are 10 vowels; 5 short vowels attested in Zabidi dialect are (/a/, /o/, /u/,
/e/ and /i/) as in /χu/ “brother”, /ser/ “secret”, / hi/ “she”, /laʔ/ “no”and /hon/ “they
(f)”. The very same vowels mentioned above are lengthened to produce 5 long
vowels in Zabidi dialect (/a:/, /o:/, /u:/, /e:/ and /i:/) as in /ħi:d/ “see/look”, / ke:f/
“how”, / bu:k/ “go”, / ja:n/ “where” and /fo:q/ “up”
Short Vowels in ZYA
Sound Word Gloss
/u/ /mu/ “mother”
/i/ /li/ “to me”
/u/ /Өmu/ “mouth”
/a/ /laʔ/ “no”
/e/ /ser/ “secret”
/a/ /lak/ “for you”
/i/ /∫inf/ “lip”
/o/ /kont/ “I was”
/e/ /m∫eʔ/ “he walked”
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Long Vowels in ZYA
Sound Word Gloss
/i:/ /ħi:d/ “see/ look”
/i:/ /rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
/a:/ /za:r/ “he visited”
/a:/ /ba:k/ “he went”
/o:/ /fo:q/ “up, above”
/o:/ /∫qo:l/ “he will say”
/e:/ /le:l/ “night”
/e:/ /ʔe:t/ “come”
/u:/ /∫tmu:t/ “she will die”
/u:/ /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
4.2.1.2.1 Description of Vowels in ZYA
(i) Short Vowels:
/a/ open- front –short
/u/ close-back-short
/i/
/o/
/e/
close-front-short
close-back- short
open- front –short
(ii) Long Vowels:
/a:/ open-front-long
/u:/ close-back-long
/i:/
/o:/
/e:/
close-front-long
close-back-long
open- front –long
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4.2.1.2.2 Distribution of Vowels in ZYA
In Zabidi dialect, vowels occur in two positions of the syllables (medial and final).
(i) Medial Position:
Example Gloss
/lak/ “for you”
/kel/ “he ate”
/kul/ “all”
/zi:d/ “do more”
/qo:m/ “standup”
/kont/ “I was”
/ħmar/ “red”
/∫wal/ “left-handed”
/rɡad/ “he slept”
/rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
(ii) Final Position:
Example Gloss
/mu/ “mother”
/hu/ “he”
/χu/ “brother”
/li/ “to me”
/ba/ “with”
/bu/ “father”
/fi/ “in”
/ðnu/ “ear”
/wa/ “and”
/Өmu/ “mouth”
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Table 4.27: Distinctive Features (Vowel Sounds) for Zabidi Dialect.
Features i a i: u a: u: e o e: o:
High + - + + - + - - - -
Back - - - + - + - + - +
Low - + - - + - - - - -
Round - - - + - + - + - +
Tense - - + - + + - - + +
4.2.1.3 Diphthongs in ZYA
Table 4.28: Diphthongs in ZYA and MSA
Diphthongs in ZYA
Diphthongs in MSA
aj
/mχaj.jamu/ “camp” aw
/ʔaw/ “or”
aw
/mzaw.wa.ɡu/ “married” aj
/mχaj.jam/ “camp”
a:j
/ba:j.ku/ “leaving” -
ij
/na.bij.ju/ “prophet” -
a:w
/ħa:w.ju/ “tired” -
As seen in the table above, Zabidi dialect has five diphthongs (/aj/, /aw/, /ij/,
/a:j/ and /a:w/) while, MSA has only two diphthongs (/aj/ and /aw/). Some examples
are presented below for more elaboration:
Example Gloss
/nij.ju/ “unripe”
/tˤa:w.lah/ “table”
/ba:j.ku/ “leaving”
/fa:j.deh/ “usefulness”
/ħa:w.ju/ “tired”
/mχaj.ja.mu/ “camp”
/mʁaj.jmu/ “cloudy”
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/za:j.ru/ “visitor”
/mħaj.jru/ “greenish”
/ħa.mij.ju/ “brother-in law”
/wa.lij.ju/ “saint”
/mħaw.wmu/ “feeling hot (m)”
/wa.fij.ju/ “loyal”
/mzaw.wa.ɡu/ “married”
/na.bij.ju/ “prophet”
/mχaj.ja.tˤu/ “stitched”
4.2.2 Syllable Types in Zabidi Yemeni Dialect
Zabidi dialect has four types of syllable structures: monosyllabic, disyllabic,
trisyllabic and tetrasyllabic words. There are altogether 61 different canonical
structures for various syllable types of Zabidi dialect. In Zabidi, syllable types can be
classified into four groups: the first group has, light syllable as in /CV/ the second
group has, heavy syllables as in (/CCV/ and /CVC/) whereas the third group consists
of super-heavy syllables as in (/CV:C/, /CCV:/, /CCVC/, /CCV:C/, /CCVCC/ and
/CVCC/). The fourth group includes ultra super-heavy syllables as in (/CCCVC/,
/CCCV:C/ and /CCCVCC/). All syllables in Zabidi have obligatory simple onset or
complex onset, while the codas are optional and are either empty, simple or complex
coda.
4.2.2.1 Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
In monosyllabic words of Zabidi dialect, there are 12 different canonical structures as
in (/CV/, /CCV/, /CVC/, /CV:C/, /CVCC/, /CCV:/, /CCVC/, /CCV:C/, /CCVCC/,
/CCCVC/, /CCCV:C/ and /CCCVCC/). Examples are presented below:
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Table 4.29 Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi dialect
listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV/ /mu/ “mother”
2 /CCV/ /Өmu/ “mouth”
3 /CVC/ /ser/ “secret”
4 /CV:C/ /ba:k/ “he went”
5 /CVCC/ /ʔardˤ/ “earth”
6 /CCV:/ /m∫i:/ “walk (imp)”
7 /CCVC/ /ħmar/ “red”
8 /CCV:C/ /hna:k/ “there”
9 /CCVCC/ /rsamt/ “You drew”
10 /CCCVC/ /∫tluħ/ “she will make bread”
11 /CCCV:C/ /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
12 /CCCVCC/ /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
The canonical structure /CV/, above is the most preferred type and exists in all
languages and dialects of the world. This structure /CV/ consists of simple onset plus
short vowel as in /hu/ “he”, /ba/ “with” and /wa/ “and”. In Zabidi, the canonical
structure /CV/ occurs very frequently in all positions of the word. It occurs word
initially as in /da.mu/ “blood”, /ja.du/ “hand”, /la.meh/ “why”, /qa.mar/ “moon” and
/ka.ðab/ “he told a lie”, word medially as in /ka.ra.mu/, “generosity”, /ʔa.sa.du/
“lion”, /qa.la.mu/ “pen”, /ħa.ɡa.ru/ “stones” and /ʔa.sa.lu/ “honey” or word finally as
in /qa.ri:.bu/ “near”, /ʔa.ɡu:.zu/ “old woman”, /ba.ru:.du/ “coldness”, /ʔa.Өa:.Өu/
“furniture” and /ħa.zi:.nu/ “sad”.
Furthermore, it is observed that the canonical structure /CCV/ of Zabidi
consists of complex onset plus short vowel as in /ðnu/ “ear”, /bnu/ “son” and /Өmu/
“mouth”. Moreover, the canonical structure /CCV/ in Zabidi dialect occurs only word
final position as in /muf.tˤru/ “not fasting”, /mus.lmu/ “muslim (m)”, /mkaf.rnu/
“angry (m)” and /mħaj.jru/ “confusing”.
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The canonical structure /CVC/ of Zabidi consists of simple onset plus short
vowel followed by simple coda as in /ser/ “secret”, /kam/ “how much”, /laʔ/ “no”,
/lak/ “for you” and /hon/ “they (f)”. It can occur also in all positions, that is, word
initially, medially and finally. It occurs word initially as in /jat.nim/ “’ plow”,
/war.qah/ “leaf”, /bir.keh/ “pool”, /ħor.mah/ “woman” and /nuχ.rah/ “nose”, word
medially as in /ʔam.mas.ɡid/ “the mosque”, /ħa.mij.ju/ “brother-in law”, /wa.lij.ju/
“saint”, /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/ “prophet” and /wa.fij.ju/ “loyal”, and word finally as in
/sˤa.di:.qah/ “friend (f)”, /wa.Өi:.qah/ “document”, /ɡa.ri:.meh/ “crime”, /mil.ʔa.qah/
“spoon” and /min.∫a.feh/ “towel”.
It is also seen that the canonical structure /CV:C/ of Zabidi consists of simple
onset plus long vowel followed by simple coda as in /ħi:d/ “see/look”, /ke:f/ “how”,
/qo:m/ “he stood up”, /le:l/ “night” and /bu:k/ “go”. In Zabidi dialect, the canonical
structure /CV:C/ occurs only word final position as in /lus.sa:n/ “tongue”, /ʔam.ɡa:r/
“the neighbor”, /kis.li:n/ “lazy (ms.pl)”, /ʔam.ti:n/ “the figs” and /ʔam.ba:sˤ/ “the
bus”. Furthermore, the canonical structure /CVCC/ of Zabidi consists of simple onset
plus short vowel followed by complex coda (two consonants) as in /kont/ “I was”,
/ɡzeʔ/ “he went”, /taħt/ “under”, /ʔind/ “at” and /ʔardˤ/ “earth”. This canonical
structure /CVCC/ occurs only word finally as in /ʔam.kalb/ “the dog”, /ʔam.∫ams/
“the sun”, /ʔam.baħr/ “the sea”, /ʔam.∫aʔr/ “the heir” and /ʔam.waqt/ “the time”.
The canonical structure /CCV:/ of Zabidi consists of complex onset plus long
vowel as in /m∫i:/ “walk (imp). Furthermore, the canonical structure /CCV:/ occurs
only word initially as in /rχi:.sˤu/ “cheap”, /kta:.bu/ “book”, /ɡda:.ru/ “wall” and
/ħsˤa:.nu/ “horse”. The canonical structure /CCVC/ consists of complex onset plus
short vowel followed by simple coda as in /ħmar/ “red” and /∫wal/ “left-handed”. The
canonical structure /CCV:C/ consist of complex onset plus long vowel followed by
simple coda as in /hna:k/ “there”, /∫qo:l”, “ he will say” /jhi:n/ “when” and /rχi:sˤ/
“cheap”. In Zabidi dialect, the canonical structure /CCV:C/ occurs only word finally
as in /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”.
The canonical structure /CCVCC/ of Zabidi consists of complex onset plus
short vowel followed by complex coda (two consonants) as in /rsamt/ “you drew”.
This structure /CCVCC/ cannot occur in any position of word, but only in one
syllable. We also see that the canonical structure /CCCVC/ consists of complex onset
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(three consonants) plus short vowel followed by simple coda (one consonant) as in
/∫tluħ/ “she will make bread”. And the canonical structure /CCCVC/ of this dialect
cannot occur in any position of word, it can occur in only one syllable.
The canonical structure /CCCV:C/ of Zabidi dialect consists of complex onset
(three consonants) plus long vowel and followed by simple coda (one consonant) as in
/∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”, /∫tmu:t/ “she will die” and /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”. Moreover,
the canonical structure /CCCV:C/ in Zabidi dialect cannot occur in any position of
word, it can occur in only one syllable.
The canonical structure /CCCVCC/ as found in Zabidi dialect consists of
complex onset (three consonants) plus short vowel followed by complex coda (two
consonants) as in /∫trudd/ “she will come back”. The canonical structure /CCCVCC/
in Zabidi dialect cannot occur in any position of word, except in one syllable.
Table 4.30: Percentages of Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
Serial Nos. of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CCV: 6 4.1% 4.1
2 CCVCC 6 4.1% 4.1
3 CCCVC 6 4.1% 4.1
4 CCCVCC 6 4.1% 4.1
5 CCV 8 5.5% 5.5
6 CCV:C 9 6.2% 6.2
7 CCCV:C 10 6.9% 6.9
8 CV 14 9.7% 9.7
9 CVC 16 11.0% 11.0
10 CVCC 16 11.0% 11.0
11 CV:C 24 16.6% 16.6
12 CCVC 24 16.6% 16.6
Total 145 100.0% 100.0
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Figure 4.10: Frequencies of Monosyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
The results as shown in table 4.30 and figure 4.10 above, indicate that the
monosyllabic words in Zabidi dialect have 12 canonical structures, one light syllable
/CV/, two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CCV/), six super- heavy syllables ( /CV:C/,
/CCV:/, /CCVC/, /CCV:C/, /CCVCC/ and /CVCC/) and three ultra-heavy syllables
(/CCCVC/, /CCCV:C/ and /CCCVCC/). The percentages and frequency analysis of
these 12 canonical structures reveal that super-heavy syllables /CCVC/ and /CV:C/
have a higher percentage 16.6% each and they show 24 words (frequency) in Zabidi.
It is also seen that the super-heavy syllable /CVCC/ and also heavy syllable /CVC/
have 11.0% each and they show 16 words (frequency). In addition, super-heavy
syllables (/CCV:/, /CCVCC/) and ultra-heavy syllables (/CCCVC /, /CCCVCC/ have
lower percentage 4.1% each and they show 6 words (frequency). According to these
percentages and frequencies, we may conclude that, super-heavy syllables have more
percentages rather than light, heavy or ultra-heavy syllables in this dialect.
4.2.2.2 Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
According to the data of disyllabic words of Zabidi dialect, there are 24
different canonical structures as in (/CV.CV/, /CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV:/, /CVC.CVC/,
/CVC.CV:C/, /CV:CV/, /CV:.CVC/, /CVC.CV/, /CV:C.CVC/, /CV:C.CV/,
/CCVC.CCVC/, /CV.CV:C/, /CVCC.CVC/, /CVC.CVCC/, /CV.CV:/, /CVC.CCV/,
/CCV:.CV/, /CCVC.CCV/, /CCVC.CCV:C/, /CCV:.CVC/, /CCVC.CV/,
/CVC.CCV:C/, /CCCV:.CV/, /CCCV:.CVC/). Examples are presented below:
0
5
10
15
20
25
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Table 4.31: Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV.CV/ /da.mu/ “blood”
2 /CV.CVC/ /hi.beh/ “gift”
3 /CVC.CV:/ /rak.ka:/ “he supported”
4 /CVC.CVC/ /ʔib.reh/ “needle”
5 /CVC.CV:C/ /ʔam.χe:l/ “the horse”
6 /CV:.CV/ /fa:.ru/ “rat”
7 /CV:.CVC/ /sˤu:.rah/ “picture”
8 /CVC.CV/ /kal.bu/ “dog”
9 /CV:C.CVC/ /fa:j.deh/ “usefulness”
10 /CV:C.CV/ /ħa:w.ju “tired”
11 /CCVC.CCVC/ /mkas.sreh/ “having broken”
12 /CV.CV:C/ /ma.li:ħ/ “tasty”
13 /CVCC.CVC/ /mu∫k.leh/ “problem”
14 /CVC.CVCC/ /ʔam.naɡm/ “the star”
15 /CV.CV:/ /ʔa.na:/ “I”
16 /CVC.CCV/ /mutˤ.ʔmu/ “feeder”
17 /CCV:.CV/ /kta:.bu/ “book”
18 /CCVC.CCV/ /mzal.ltˤu/ “rich (m)”
19 /CCVC.CCV:C/ /msˤaw.wri:n/ “photographer”
20 /CCV:.CVC/ /ħku:.meh/ “government”
21 /CCVC.CV/ /m∫utˤ.tˤu/ “comb”
22 /CVC.CCV:C/ /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”
23 /CCCV:.CV/ /∫tro:.ħu/ “you (pl) will go”
24 /CCCV:.CVC/ /∫tsa:.jil/ “she will ask”
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The canonical structure /CV.CV/ of Zabidi dialect consists of two light
syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) as in /da.mu/ “blood”, /ħa.wi/ “he became tired”, /wa.ra/
“behind” and /ja.du/ “hand”. In Zabidi, the canonical structure in /CV.CVC/ consists
of one light syllable /CV/ and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /sa.neh/ “year”,
/qa.mar/ “moon”, /ħa.jeʔ/ “shyness”, /la.meh/ “why” and /ha.weʔ/ “air”. The
canonical structure /CVC.CV:/ of Zabidi consists of two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and
/CV:/) as in /maʔ.we:/ “shelter”, /rab.ba:/ “he raised”, /mar.ka:/ “instrument to lean
on” and /rak.ka:/ “he supported”. The canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ consists of two
heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /χid.meh/ “service”, /riħ.leh/ “journey”,
/bir.keh/ “pool”, /qisˤ.sˤah/ “story” and /bis.seh/ “cat”.
The canonical structure in /CVC.CV:C/ of Zabidi consists of one heavy
syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as in /ʔam.χe:l/ “the horse”, /ʔam.fa:r/
“the mouse”, /ʔam.ti:n/ “the figs”, /lus.sa:n/ “tongue” and /ʔam.ba:sˤ/ “the buss”.
Furthermore, the canonical structure /CV:.CV/ consists of one heavy syllable /CV:/
and one light syllable /CV/ as in /ħu:.tu/ “fish”, /na:.su/ “people”, /ru:.ti/ “bread”,
/ra:.su/ “head” and /tˤe:.ru/ “bird”. It is also seen that the canonical structure
/CV:.CVC/ consists of two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) as in /na:ɡah/ “camel”,
/χa:.leh/ “aunt ”, /li:.meh/ “one lemon”, /de:.meh/ “kitchen” and /le:.leh / “night”.
The /CVC.CV/ canonical structure of Zabidi consists of one light syllable
/CV/ and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /kal.bu/ “dog”, /bar.du/ “cold”, /∫am.su/
“sun”, /nah.ru/ “river” and /ħub.bu/ “love”. The canonical structure /CV:C.CVC/
consists of one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super- heavy syllable /CV:C/ as in
/fa:j.deh/ “usefulness”, /ɡa:m.ʔeh/ “university”, /fa:k.hah/ “fruit”, /na:m.seh/
“mosquito” and /jo:m.jeh/ “daily”.
Furthermore, it is observed that the canonical structure /CV:C.CV/ of Zabidi
consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one super- heavy syllable /CV:C/ as in /ħa:s.su/
“feeling”, /ba:j.ku/ “leaving”, /qa:ðˤ.ju/ “judge”, /ʔa:q.lu/ “wise-man” and /na:d.ju/
“club”. And the canonical structure /CCVC.CCVC/ consists of two super-heavy
syllables (/CCVC/ and /CCVC/) as in /mkas.sreh/ “having broken”. The canonical
structure /CV.CV:C/ consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one super-heavy /CV:C/ as
in /da.ha:n/ “paint”, /qa.li:l/ “few”, /ɡa.sˤi:r/ “short” and /ma.li:ħ / “tasty”.
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In Zabidi, the canonical structure /CVCC.CVC/ consists of one heavy syllable
/CVC/ and one super- heavy syllable /CVCC/ as in /mu∫k.leh/ “problem” and
/musl.meh/ “muslim (f)”. Also, the canonical structure /CVC.CVCC/ consists of one
heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy syllable /CVCC/ as in /ʔam.waqt/ “the
time”, /ʔam.kalb/ “the dog”, /ʔam.naɡm/ “the star”, /ʔam.nahr/ “the river” and
/ʔam.baħr/ “the sea”. The canonical structure /CV.CV:/ consists of one light syllable
/CV/ and one heavy syllable /CV:/ as in /ʔa.na:/ “I”.
It is also seen that the canonical structure /CVC.CCV/ of Zabidi consists of
two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CCV/) as in /mus.kru/ “intoxicant”, /muf.tˤru/ “not
fasting”, /mχu.lsˤu/ “sincere”, /mutˤ.ʔmu/ “feeder” and /mus.lmu / “muslim (m)”. The
canonical structure /CCV:.CV/ of Zabidi consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one
super-heavy /CCV:/ as in /ħza:.mu/ “belt”, /bju:.tu/ “house ”, /wsa:.ʔu/ “wideness”
and /Өqi:.lu/ “heavy”. Furthermore, the canonical structure /CCVC.CCV consists of
one heavy syllable /CCV/ and one super-heavy syllable /CCVC/ as in /mʁaj.jmu/
“cloudy”, /mzal.ltˤu/ “rich (m)”, /mχaðˤ.ðˤru/ “greenish” and /mħaj.jru / “confusing”.
The canonical structure /CCVC.CCV:C/ of Zabidi consists of two super-heavy
syllables (/CCVC/ and /CCV:C/) as in /mdar.rsi:n/ “teachers”, /msˤaw.wri:n/
“photographer ” and /mzal.ltˤi:n/ “rich (pl)”. Moreover, the canonical structure
/CCV:.CVC/ consists of one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CCV:/ as in
/sˤʔu:.bah/ “difficulty”, /tsa:.maħ/ “she forgives”, /rsˤa:.sˤah/ “bullet”, /χtˤu:.bah/
“engagement” and /mra:.jeh/ “mirror”. Also, the canonical structure /CCVC.CV/
consists of one light syllable /CV/ and one super-heavy /CCVC/ as in /m∫utˤ.tˤu/
“comb”, and /ʔadw.wi/ “my enemy”. The canonical structure /CVC.CCV:C/ consists of
one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one super-heavy /CCV:C/ as in /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”.
It is also observed that the canonical structure /CCCV:.CV/ of Zabidi consists
of one light syllable /CV/ and one ultra-heavy syllable /CCCV:/ as in /∫tro:.ħu/ “you
(pl) will go”, /∫tba:.nu/ “you (pl) will appear” and /∫tsu:.qu/ “you (pl) will drive”. And
the canonical structure /CCCV:.CVC/ consists of one heavy syllable /CVC/ and one
ultra-heavy syllable /CCCV:/ as in /∫tsa:.jil/ “she will ask”, /∫tba:.rik/ “she will
congratulate”, /∫tsˤa:.riʔ/ “she will wrestle”, /∫tsa:.miħ / “she will forgive” and
/∫tχa:.∫if/ “she will confuse”.
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Table 4.32: Percentages of Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
Serial Nos.
of canonical
structures
Canonical
Structure
Frequency
Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV.CV: 6 1.4% 1.4
2 CCVC.CCVC 6 1.4% 1.4
3 CVC.CCV:C 6 1.4% 1.4
4 CVCC.CVC 7 1.7% 1.7
5 CCCV.CV 7 1.7% 1.7
6 CCVC.CCV:C 8 1.9% 1.9
7 CV.CV:C 9 2.2% 2.2
8 CV.CV 10 2.4% 2.4
9 CVC.CV: 10 2.4% 2.4
10 CCCV:.CV 10 2.4% 2.4
11 CVC.CCV 11 2.7% 2.7
12 CCVC.CCV 11 2.7% 2.7
13 CCCV:.CVC 12 2.9% 2.9
14 CVC.CVCC 14 3.4% 3.4
15 CVC.CV:C 16 3.9% 3.9
16 CV:C.CVC 17 4.1% 4.1
17 CCV:.CVC 19 4.6% 4.6
18 CV.CVC 21 5.1% 5.1
19 CCV:.CV 28 6.8% 6.8
20 CV:C.CV 31 7.5% 7.5
21 CV:.CVC 33 8.0% 8.0
22 CV:.CV 36 8.7% 8.7
23 CVC.CVC 37 8.9% 8.9
24 CVC.CV 49 11.8% 11.8
Total 414 100.0% 100.0
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Figure 4.11: Frequencies of Disyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
The results indicate that, disyllabic words in Zabidi dialect have 24 canonical
structures. The percentages and frequency analysis of these 24 canonical structures
reveal that the most frequent canonical structure in disyllabic words of Zabidi is
/CVC.CV/ with a percentage of 11.8% with a frequency of 49 words. This is followed
by the canonical structure /CVC.CVC / having the percentage of 8.9% and shows 37
words (frequency). While the canonical structures /CV.CV:/, /CCVC.CCVC/ and
/CVC.CCV:C/ show the least percentage 1.4% each and they appear in only 6 words.
4.2.2.3 Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
In trisyllabic words of Zabidi dialect, there are 18 different canonical
structures as in (/CV.CV.CV/, /CV.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CV.CV/,
/CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CV.CV.CVC/, /CV. CV:.CCV/, /CV.CVC.CV/, /CV.CV:.CVC/,
/CVC.CV:.CV/, /CV:.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CV.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CVC.CV:/,
/CCV:.CV:.CV/, /CCVC.CV.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CCV/, /CV.CV:C.CV/).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
CC
VC
.CC
VC
CV
.CV
:
CV
C.C
CV
:C
CV
CC
.CV
C
CC
VC
.CV
CC
VC
.CC
V:C
CV
.CV
:C
CV
.CV
CV
C.C
V:
CC
CV
:.C
V
CV
C.C
CV
CC
VC
.CC
V
CC
CV
:.C
VC
CV
C.C
VC
C
CV
C.C
V:C
CV
:C.C
VC
CC
V:.
CV
C
CV
.CV
C
CC
V:.
CV
CV
:C.C
V
CV
:.C
VC
CV
:.C
VC
CV
C.C
VC
CV
C.C
V
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Table 4.33: Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CV.CV.CV/ /ka.ra.mu/ “generosity”
2 /CV.CV:.CV/ /ħa.di:.du/ “iron”
3 /CVC.CV:.CV/ /mis.ma:.ru/ “a nail”
4 /CVC.CV.CV/ /matˤ.ʔa.mu/ “restaurant”
5 /CVC.CVC.CVC/ /ʔam.mas.ɡid/ “the mosque”
6 /CV.CV.CVC/ /∫a.fa.qah/ “mercy”
7 /CV.CV:.CCV/ /ma.ra:.wħu/ “fans”
8 /CV.CVC.CV/ /wa.fij.ju/ “loyal”
9 /CV.CV:.CVC/ /ɡa.ri:.meh/ “crime”
10 /CVC.CV:.CV/ /duk.ka:.nu/ “shops”
11 /CV:.CV:.CV/ /∫i:.tˤ a:.nu/ “devil”
12 /CVC.CV.CVC/ /min.∫a.feh/ “towel”
13 /CV.CVC.CVC/ /ʔa.ħib.bak/ “I love you”
14 /CVC.CVC.CV:/ /mis.ta∫.fa:/ “hospital”
15 /CCV:.CV:.CV/ /msa:.mi:.ru/ “nails”
16 /CCVC.CV.CV/ /mzaw.wa.ɡu/ “married”
17 /CVC.CVC.CCV/ /mit.kab.bru/ “arrogant”
18 /CV.CV:C.CV/ /ħa.wa:ɡ.bu/ “eyebrows”
The canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/ of Zabidi consists of three light syllables
(/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) as in /ða.na.bu/ “tail”, /ʔa.ma.lu/ “work”, /qa.la.mu/ “pen”,
/ʔa.sa.lu/ “honey” and /ħa.ɡa.ru/ “stones”. The canonical structure /CV.CV:.CV/ consists
of two light syllables /CV/ and /CV/ and one heavy syllable /CV:/ as in /ʔi.ðˤa:.mu/
“bonesl”, /ʁa.li:.ðˤu/ “thick”, /qa.di:.mu/ “old”, /ka.bi:.ru/ “big” and /tˤa.ri:.qu/ “road”. The
/CVC.CV:.CV/ canonical structure of Zabidi dialect consists of one light syllable /CV/
and two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CVC/) as in /χab.ba:.zu/ “baker”, /maɡ.nu:.nu/
“crazy”, /ðˤab.ħa:.nu/ “angry”, /ħam.ma:.lu/ “porter” and /naɡ.ɡa:.ru/ “carpenter”.
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It is also seen that the canonical structure /CVC.CV.CV/ in Zabidi consists of
two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /daf.ta.ru/
“copy-book”, /maχ.za.nu/ “store”, /suk.ka.ru/ “sugar” and /matˤ.ʔa.mu/ “restaurant”.
Furthermore, the canonical structure /CVC.CVC.CVC/ consists of three heavy
syllables (/CVC/ , /CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /ʔam.mas.ɡid/ “The mosque” and
/ʔam.daf.tar/ “the copy book”. And the canonical structure /CV.CV.CVC/ consists of
two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /da.ra.ɡeh/
“degree”, /ɡa.ma.neh/ “local ghee”, /∫i. ɡa.rah/ “tree” and /∫a.fa.qah/ “ mercy”.
Moreover, the canonical structure /CV.CV:.CCV/ of Zabidi consists of one light
syllables /CV/ and two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CCV/) as in /ma.ra:.wħu/ “fans”.
It is observed that the canonical structure /CV.CVC.CV/ of Zabidi consists of
one heavy syllable /CVC/ and two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) as in /wa.fij.ju/
“loyal” and /na.bij.ju/ “prophet”, and the structure /CV.CV:.CVC/ consists of one
light syllable /CV/ and two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CV:/) as in /sˤa.di:.qah/
“friend (f)”, /ɡa.ri:.meh/ “crime” and /χa.tˤi:.ʔah / “sin”. The canonical structure
/CVC.CV:.CV/ of Zabidi consists of two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CV:/) and one
light syllable /CV/ as in /taʔ.ba:.nu/ “tired (m)”, /tˤal.la:.bu/ “beggar (m)” and
/duk.ka:.nu/ “shops”.
It is also seen that in the canonical structure /CV:.CV:.CV/ of Zabidi dialect there are
two heavy syllables (/CV:/ and /CV:/) and one light syllable /CV/ as in /sa:.ni:.nu/
“teeth”, /ɡa:.ni:.ħu/ “wing”, /∫i:.tˤa:.nu/ “devil” and /tˤa:.wa:.su/ “peacock”. The
canonical structure /CVC.CV.CVC/ consists of two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and
/CVC/) and one light syllable /CV/ as in /mil.ʔa.qah/ “spoon”, /sam.ma.ʔeh/ “ear
phone”, /maħ.ka.meh/ “court” and /min.∫a.feh/ “towel”. Furthermure, the canonical
structure /CV.CVC.CVC/ consists of one light syllable /CV/ and two heavy syllables
(/CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /ha.dij.jeh/ “gift”, and /ʔa.ħib.bak / “I love you”.
It may be pointed out that the canonical structure /CVC.CVC.CV:/
consists of three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and /CV:/) as in /mis.ta∫.fa:/
“hospital” and the canonical structure /CCV:.CV:.CV/ of ZYA consists of one light
syllable /CV/, one heavy syllable /CV:/ and one super-heavy syllable /CCV:/ as in
/msa:.mi:.ru/ “nails”. The canonical structure /CCVC.CV.CV/ of ZYA consists of one
super-heavy syllable /CCVC/ and two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) as in
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183
/mzaw.wa.ɡu/ “married” and /mχaj.ja.mu/ “camp”. Moreover, the canonical structure
/CVC.CVC.CCV/ of Zabidi consists of three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and
/CCV/) as in /mit.kab.bru/ “arrogant”. Also, the canonical structure /CV.CV:C.CV/ of
Zabidi dialect consists of one super-heavy syllable /CV:C/ and two light syllables
(/CV/ and /CV/) as in /ħa.wa:ɡ.bu/ “eyebrows”.
Table 4.34: Percentages of Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
Serial Nos. of
canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV.CV:.CCV 6 3.0% 3.0
2 CVC.CVC.CV: 6 3.0% 3.0
3 CCV:.CV:.CV 6 3.0% 3.0
4 CV.CV:C.CV 6 3.0% 3.0
5 CVC.CVC.CCV 6 3.0% 3.0
6 CVC.CVC.CVC 7 3.5% 3.5
7 CV.CVC.CVC 7 3.5% 3.5
8 CVC.CV:.CV 8 4.0% 4.0
9 CVC.CV.CV 9 4.5% 4.5
10 CV.CV.CVC 9 4.5% 4.5
11 CV.CVC.CV 9 4.5% 4.5
12 CV.CV:.CVC 10 5.0% 5.0
13 CCVC.CV.CV 11 5.5% 5.5
14 CV:.CV:.CV 12 6.0% 6.0
15 CVC.CV.CVC 14 7.0% 7.0
16 CV.CV.CV 21 10.4% 10.4
17 CVC.CV:.CV 24 11.9% 11.9
18 CV.CV:.CV 30 14.9% 14.9
Total 201 100.0% 100.0
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184
Figure 4.12: Frequencies of Trisyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
It is seen that in table 4.34 and figure 4.12 above, Zabidi dialect has 18 canonical
structures in trisyllabic words. It is clear that the maximum canonical structure (the most)
in trisyllabic words of Zabidi dialect is /CV.CV:.CV/ 14.9% and shows 30 words
(frequency) in Zabidi dialect. In addition, the canonical structures /CV.CV:.CCV/,
/CVC.CVC.CV:/, /CCV:.CV:.CV/, /CV.CV:C.CV/ and /CVC.CVC.CCV/ have the
minimum percentage (least) about 3.0% each and they show only 6 words (frequencies)
in ZYA.
4.2.2.4 Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
In tetrasyllabic words of Zabidi dialect, there are 7 different canonical structures as
in (/CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CV.CV/, /CV.CVC.CV.CVC/, /CV:.CVC.CV:.CV/,
/CV.CV.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/ and /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
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185
Table 4.35: Tetrasyllabic words in Zabidi dialect
Listing of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Example Glossary
1 /CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/ /ʔan.ka.bu:.teh/ “spider”
2 /CV.CVC.CV.CV/ /sa.far.ɡa.lu/ “quince (pl)”
3 /CV.CVC.CV.CVC/ /sa.far.ɡa.lah/ “quince (sing.)”
4 /CV:.CVC.CV:.CV/ /ba:.ðin.ɡa:.nu/ “eggplant”
5 /CV.CV.CV:.CV/ /ka.na.ba:.tu/ “sofas”
6 /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/ /ʔam.mad.ra.sah/ “school”
7 /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ /mak.ta.ba.tuh/ “his library”
The canonical structure /CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/ of Zabidi dialect consists of one
light /CV/ and three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and /CV:/) as in
/ʔam.ħa.ma:.meh/ “the dove” and /ʔam.ɡa.ri:.meh/ “the crime”. Structure
/CV.CVC.CV.CV/ consists of three light syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and one
heavy syllable /CVC/ as in /sa.far.ɡa.lu/ “quince (pl)”. Moreover, The canonical
structure /CV.CVC.CV.CVC/ of Zabidi consists of two light syllables (/CV/ and
/CV/) and two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and /CVC/) as in /sa.far.ɡa.lah/ “quince
(sing.)”.
It is to be mentione that the canonical structure /CV:.CVC.CV:.CV/ of Zabidi
consists of one light syllable /CV/ and three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CV:/ and /CV:/)
as in /ba:.ðin.ɡa:.nu/ “eggplant” . It is also seen that in the structure /CV.CV.CV:.CV/
there are three light syllables (/CV/, /CV/ and /CV/) and one heavy syllable /CV:/ as
in /ka.na.ba:.tu/ “sofas” . The canonical structure /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/ consists of
one light syllable /CV/ and three heavy syllables (/CVC/, /CVC/ and /CVC/) as in
/ʔam.mad.ra.sah/ “school”, and the canonical structure /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ of ZYA
consists of two light syllables (/CV/ and /CV/) and two heavy syllables (/CVC/ and
/CVC/) as in /mak.ta.ba.tuh/ “his library” .
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186
Table 4.36: Percentages of Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
Serial Nos.
of canonical
structures
Canonical
structure Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 CV.CVC.CV.CV 6 13.0% 13.0
2 CV.CVC.CV.CVC 6 13.0% 13.0
3 CV:.CVC.CV:CV 6 13.0% 13.0
4 CV.CV.CV:.CV 6 13.0% 13.0
5 CVC.CVC.CV.CVC 6 13.0% 13.0
6 CVC.CV.CV.CVC 6 13.0% 13.0
7 CVC.CV.CV:.CVC 10 21.7% 21.7
Total Total 46 100.0% 100.0
Figure 4.13: Frequencies of Tetrasyllabic Words in Zabidi Dialect
Table 4.36 and figure 4.13 above show that, Zabidi dialect has 7 canonical
structures in tetrasyllabic words. It is clear that the most common canonical structure
(maximum) /CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/ has a percentage of 21.7% and shows 10 words
(frequency) in Zabidi. In addition, the other canonical structures /CV.CVC.CV.CV/,
/CV.CVC.CV.CVC/, /CV:.CVC.CV:CV/, /CV.CV.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/
and /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ have the minimum percentage (least) about 13.0% each and
they show 6 words (frequencies) in ZYA.
0123456789
10
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187
Table 6.37: Percentages of Syllable Types in Zabidi Dialect
Serial Nos.
of syllable
types
Types of
syllables Frequency Percentage
Valid
percentage
1 Monosyllabic 145 18.0% 18.0
2 Disyllabic 414 51.4% 51.4
3 Trisyllabic 201 24.9% 24.9
4 Tetrasyllabic 46 5.7% 5.7
Total 806 100.0% 100.0
Figure 4.14: Frequencies of Syllable Types in Zabidi Dialect
Table 6.37 and figure 4.14 illustrate that, there are 61 different canonical
structures distributed to four types of syllables in Zabidi dialect (twelve monosyllabic
canonical structures, twenty four disyllabic canonical structures, eighteen trisyllabic
canonical structures and seven tetrasyllabic canonical structures). The percentages and
frequency analysis of these 4 types of syllables reveal that disyllabic words have the
highest percentage 51.4% and show 414 words (frequency) in Zabidi. While, the
trisyllabic words have 24.9% and show 201 words (frequency). Moreover, the
monosyllabic words have 18.0% and show 145 words (frequency). Finally,
tetrasyllabic words have the least percentage 5.7% and show only 46 words
(frequency) in Zabidi dialect.
18%
51%
25%
6%
Syallable types in ZYA
Monosyllabic
Disyllabic
Trisyllabic
Tetrasyllabic
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4.2.3 Structure of Syllable in Zabidi Dialect
4.2.3.1 Onset in ZYA
Onsets are obligatory in Zabidi dialect, and the maximum number of
consonant sounds (onsets) are three, unlike MSA or CA, and many other Yemeni
dialects, which accept only one sound (simple onset). Zabidi has two types of onset
(simple and complex).
Simple Onset in ZYA
Simple onset in ZYA, show the following canonical structures (CVCC, CV, CV:C
and CVC).
Sound Word Gloss
/m/ /mu/ “mother”
/f/ /fi/ “in”
/w/ /wa/ “and”
/m/ /min/ “of/from”
/k/ /kul/ “all”
/k/ /kel/ “he ate”
/∫/ /∫ol/ “take”
/q/ /qa:l/ “he said
/b/ /bu:k/ “go”
/z/ /za:r/ “he visited”
/m/ /ma:t/ “he died”
/j/ /ja:n/ “where”
/l/ /le:l/ “night”
/k/ /kont/ “I was”
/ʔ/ /ʔardˤ/ “earth”
/b/ /bass/ “enough”
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189
Complex Onset in ZYA
Complex onset in ZYA, have the following canonical structures (CCV, CCV:,
CCCVCC, CCVC, CCCV:C, CCV:C, CCCVC and CCVCC).
Sound Word Gloss
/ðn/ /ðnu/ “ear”
/Өm/ /Өmu/ “mouth”
/ħw/ /ħwal/ “cross-eyed”
/ħm/ /ħmar/ “red”
/sˤf/ /sˤfar/ “yellow”
/sˤn/ /sˤnaɡ/ “deaf
/hn/ /hneh/ “here”
/hn/ /hna:k/ “there”
/rχ/ /rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
/∫q/ /∫qo:l/ “he will say”
/∫tl/ /∫tluħ/ “she will make bread”
/∫tr/ /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
/∫tʔ/ /∫tʔe:t/ “she will come”
/∫ts/ /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
4.2.3.2 Nucleus in ZYA
Nucleus in Zabidi dialect is preceded by one, two or three consonants and is
followed by one or two consonant sounds, and no syllable can stand alone as a word
without vowel. Like MSA and like other Yemeni dialects of Arabic, no vowel occurs
word- initially in Zabidi Yemeni dialect of Arabic (ZYA).
Sound Word Gloss
/u/ /χu/ “brother”
/i/ /fi/ “in”
/u/ /bnu/ “son”
/o/ /hon/ “they (f)”
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190
/u:/ /bu:k/ “go”
/i:/ /ħi:d/ “see/ look”
/o:/ /fo:q/ “up, above”
/a:/ /na:m/ “he slept”
/a/ /bass/ “enough”
/o/ /kont/ “I was”
/a/ /ʔardˤ/ “earth”
/i/ /ɡlis/ “sit”
/a/ /∫wal/ “left-handed”
/a/ /Swad/ “black”
/o:/ /∫qo:l/ “he will say”
/i:/ /rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
/a/ /rsamt/ “you drew”
/o:/ /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
4.2.3.3 Coda in ZYA
Codas are not obligatory and the maximum number of permitted consonant
sounds are two at the end position of the syllable in Zabidi. Like MSA and like many
other Yemeni dialects which accept only two sounds, Zabidi dialect has three types of
coda (empty coda, simple coda and complex coda).
Empty coda in ZYA have the following canonical structures (CCV, CCV: and
CV)
Simple coda in ZYA show the following canonical structures (CV:C, CVC,
CCVC, CCV:C, CCCVC and CCCV:C).
Complex Coda ZYA have the following canonical structures (CCCVCC, CCVCC
and CVCC).
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191
Simple and Complex Coda in ZYA
Table 4.38: Simple and Complex Coda in ZYA
Simple coda in ZYA Complex coda in ZYA
Word Gloss Word Gloss
/hon/ “they (f)” /∫inf/ “lip”
/ser/ “secret /qarb/ “come closer”
/kam/ “how much” /kont/ “I was”
/laʔ/ “no” /ʔind/ “at”
/min/ “of, from” /rsamt/ “you drew”
/qa:l/ “he said” /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
/zi:d/ “do more” /bazz/ “he took”
/fo:q/ “up, above” /kutb/ “write”
/ħwal/ “cross-eyed” /ʔam.waqt/ “the time”
/ħmar/ “red” /ʔam.baħr/ “the sea”
/∫wal/ “left-handed” /ʔam.nafs/ “the soul”
/rtˤab/ “it became damp” /ʔam.naɡm/ “the star”
/rɡad/ “he slept” /taħt/ “under”
/hneh/ “here” /ʔardˤ/ “earth”
/∫qo:l/ “he will say” /bass/ “enough”
/rχi:sˤ/ “cheap” /ʔam.Өalɡ/ “the ice”
/∫tro:ħ/ “she will go” /ʔam.∫aʔr/ “the heir”
/∫tsu:q/ “she will drive” /ʔam.∫ams/ “the sun”
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4.2.4 Classification of Syllables in ZYA
In Zabidi dialect, syllables can be classified into open or close syllables
according to the consonant (coda) at the end of the syllable. Also, syllable in Zabidi
can be classified into light, heavy, super-heavy and Ultra heavy syllables.
Open Syllable in ZYA
Canonical structure Word Gloss
CV /mu/ “mother”
CV /wa/ “and”
CV /hu/ “he”
CV /fi/ “in”
CV /bu/ “father”
CV /li/ “to me”
CCV /Өmu/ “mouth"
CCV /bnu/ “son”
CCV /ðnu/ “ear”
CCV: /m∫i:/ “walk (imp)”
Close Syllable in ZYA
Canonical structure Word Gloss
CVC /min/ “of, from”
CVC /kul/ “all”
CVC /ser/ “secret”
CV:C /ħi:d/ “see/ look”
CV:C /ma:t/ “he died”
CV:C /le:l/ “night”
CVCC /bass/ “enough”
CVCC /taħt/ “under”
CVCC /ʔind/ “at”
CCVC /ħmar/ “red”
CVCC /rqasˤ/ “he danced”
CCVC /swad/ “black”
CCCV:C /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
CCCV:C /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
CCCV:C /∫tmu:t/ “she will die”
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Light Syllable as in (CV)
Word Gloss
/mu/ “mother”
/li/ “to me”
/ba/ “with”
/fi/ “in”
/χu/ “brother”
/wa/ “and”
/hi/ “she”
/hu/ “he”
● Heavy Syllables as in (CVC, CCV)
Word Gloss
/bnu/ “son”
/ser/ “secret”
/min/ “of, from”
/lak/ “for you”
Super-Heavy Syllables as in (CV:C, CVCC , CCV:, CCVC, CCV:C and
CCVCC)
Word Gloss
/ħi:d/ “see, look”
/bu:k/ “go”
/na:m/ “he slept”
/bass/ “enough”
/taħt/ “under”
/ʔardˤ/ “earth”
/ħwal/ “cross-eyed”
/∫wal/ “left-handed”
/zʔaq/ “he shouted”
/m∫eʔ/ “he walked”
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/hna:k/ “there”
/rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
/∫qo:l/ “he will say”
/jhi:n/ “when”
/rsamt/ “you drew”
● Ultra –heavy syllables as in (CCCVC, CCCV:C and CCCVCC)
/∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
/∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
/∫tmu:t/ “she will die”
/∫tba:n/ “she will appear”
/∫tʔe:t/ “she will come”
/∫tluħ/ “she will make bread”
/∫trudd/ “she will come back”
4.2.5 Consonant Clusters in ZYA
In Zabidi dialect, there are consonant clusters in all positions of the word,
initial, medial and final position. Unlike CA, MSA and many other Yemeni dialects,
which do not accept initial and medial consonant clusters. Moreover, the maximum
number of complex onset are three while, two complex codas are the maximum
number in ZYA.
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4.2.5.1 Initial Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Two Initial- Stop Consonant Clusters in ZYA
All stop consonant clusters in Zabidi occur in initial consonant clusters, except
the inter-dental stop voiced /dˤ/.
Table 4.39: Two Initial- Stop Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Stop
Stop + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Stop
Word Gloss
b
/bnu/
/bju:.tu/
/bχi:.lu/
/bʔi:.du/
“son”
“house”
“stingy”
“far”
d /dha:.nu/
/dqi:.qah/
“paint”
“minute”
/wda:.nu/
/ɡda:.ru/
/ɡdi:.du/
“cover”
“wall”
“new”
ɡ
/ɡlis/
/ɡda:.ru/
/ɡdi:.du/
“sit”
“wall”
“new”
/rɡad/
/wɡa:.ʔu/
/∫ɡa:.ʔu/
“he slept”
“pain”
“brave”
k /kta:.bu/ “book”
/mkas.sreh/
/mkaf.rnu/
/ħku:.meh/
“having broken”
“angry (m)”
“government”
t /tħa:.weʔ/
/tsa:.maħ/
“wait
“she forgives”
/kta:.bu/
/qta:.lu/
“book”
“fighting”
ʔ /ʔmeʔ/
“blind”
/zʔaq/
/bʔi:.du/
/sˤʔu:.bah/
“he shouted”
“far”
“difficulty”
tˤ /tˤʁi:.zu/ “twinge” /rtˤab/
/χtˤu:.bah/
“it became
damp”
“engagement”
q /qta:.lu/
/qʔa:.deh/
“fighting”
“bed”
/wqaf/
/rqasˤ/
/∫qo:l/
/Өqi:.lu/
“stand-up”
“he danced”
“he will say”
“heavy”
dˤ - - - -
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Two initial- Fricative Consonant Clusters in ZYA
All fricative consonant clusters occur as initial consonant clusters in Zabidi
dialect.
Table 4.40: Two Initial -Fricative Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Fricative
Fricative + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Fricative
Word Gloss
f /fqi:.hah/ “quranic
teacher (f)” /sˤfar/ “yellow”
Ө /Өqi:.lu/ “heavy”
z /zʔaq/
/zra:.ʔah/
“he shouted”
“cultivation”
/ħza:.mu/
/mzal.ltˤu/
“belt”
“rich (m)”
s /swad/ “back”
/ħsan/
/rsamt/
/wsa:.ʔu/
“better”
“you drew”
“wideness”
sˤ /sˤfar/
/sˤnaɡ/
“yellow”
“deaf”
/ħsˤa:.nu/
/rsˤa:.sˤu/
“horse”
“bullets”
∫
/∫wal
/∫qo:l/
/∫χi:.ru/
“left-handed”
“he will say”
“snoring”
/m∫eʔ/
/m∫utˤ.tˤu/
“he walked”
“comb”
χ /χtˤu:.bah/ “engagement”
/rχi:.sˤu/
/∫χi:.ru/
/bχ i:.lu/
“cheap”
“snoring”
“stingy”
ʁ /sˤʁa:.ru/ “small (pl)
ħ
/ħwal/
/ħneʔ/
/ħsan/
/ħmar/
“cross-eyed”
“we"
“better
“red”
/mħaj.jru/
/mħaw.wmu/
“confusing”
“feeling hot
(m)”
h /hneh/
/hna:k/
“here”
“there”
/jhi:n/
/dha:.nu/
“when”
“paint”
ðˤ /wðˤi:.fah/ “job”
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Two Initial- Nasal Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Table 4.41: Two Initial- Nasal Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Nasal
Nasal + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Nasal
Word Gloss
n
/hna:k/
/ðnu/
/sˤnaɡ/
/bnu/
“there”
“ear”
“deaf”
“son”
m
/m∫eʔ/
/mkas.sreh/
/mzal.ltˤu/
/mra:.jeh/
/mkaf.rnu/
/msa:.mi:.ru/
/mħaw.wmu/
/mʁaj.jmu/
/mzaw.wa.ɡu/
/mχaðˤ.ðˤru/
/mħaj.jru/
“he walked”
“having broken”
“rich (m)”
“mirror”
“angry (m)”
“nails”
“feeling hot (m)”
“cloudy”
“married”
“greenish”
“confusing”
/Өmu/
/ħmar/
/ħma:.ru/
/sˤmar/
“mouth”
“red”
“donkey”
“tan”
Two Initial- Lateral Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Two initial-lateral consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are formed by
combining voiced velar stop /ɡ/ or voiceless dental-alveolar fricative /s/ as in /ɡl-/ and
/sˤl-/ with voiced dental-alveolar lateral /l/.
1) Consonant plus Lateral (-C + l)
Sound Word Gloss
/ɡl-/ /ɡlis/ “sit”
/sˤl-/ /sˤlaʔ/ “bald”
Two Initial- Tap Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Two initial- tap consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by combining voiced
dental-alveolar tap /r/ with consonants as in /rq-/, /rɡ-/, /rχ-/ and /rs-/. Moreover,
some tap consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced dental-alveolar fricative
/z/ with voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/ as in /zr-/.
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Table 4.42: Two initial- Tap consonant clusters in ZYA
Tap
Tap + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Tap
Word Gloss
r
/rqasˤ/
/rɡad/
/rχi:sˤu/
/rsamt/
“he danced”
“he slept”
“cheap”
“you drew”
/zra:.ʔah/ “cultivation”
Two Initial- Glide Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Two initial- glide- consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are formed by
combining voiced bilabial glide /w/ or voiced palatal glide /j/ with consonants as in
/wq-/, /wd-/, /wɡ-/, /ws-/ and /jh-/. Moreover, some glide consonant clusters are
formed by combining consonant with voiced bilabial glide /w/ or voiced palatal glide
/j/ as in /ħw-/, /∫w-/, /sw-/, /bj-/ and /mj-/.
Table 4.43: Two Initial- Glide Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Glide
Glide + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Glide
Word Gloss
w
/wqaf/
/wda:.nu/
/wɡa:.ʔu/
/wsa:.ʔu/
“stand-up”
“cover”
“pain”
“wideness”
/ħwal/
/∫wal/
/swad/
“cross-eyed”
“left-handed”
“black”
j
/jhi:n/ “when”
/bju:.tu/
/mjas.sa.ru/
“houses”
“facilitated”
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Table 4.44: Two Initial - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
b d ɡ k t ʔ tˤ q f Ө z s sˤ ∫ Χ ʁ ħ h n m l r w j
b + + + +
d + + +
ɡ + +
k t
t + +
ʔ +
tˤ +
q + + +
f +
Ө + +
z + +
s + + + +
sˤ + + + + +
∫ + + +
χ +
ʁ
ħ + + + + + +
h +
n
m + + + + + +
l
r + + + + + +
w + + + +
j +
The table above clearly shows that Zabidi dialect has many initial consonant clusters.
The presensce of a cluster is marked by a plus sign (+).
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Three Initial - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Three initial - consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are permitted and formed
by combining voiceless palatal fricative /∫/ plus voiceless dental-alveolar stop /t/ with
any of the following consonant sounds (/l/, /r/, /m/, /ʔ/, /b/, /s/, /ħ/, /sˤ/ and /χ/).
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CCCVC/ /∫tluħ/ “she will make bread”
/CCCV:C/ /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
/CCCV:CVC/ /∫tħa:.rib/ “she will fight”
/CCCV:C/ /∫tmu:t/ “she will die”
/CCCV:CVC/ /∫tsˤa:.riʔ/ “she will wrestle”
/CCCV:C/ /∫tʔe:t/ “she will come”
/CCCV:CVC/ /∫tχa:.∫if/ “she will confuse”
/CCCV:C/ /∫tba:n/ “she will appear”
/CCCV:C/ /∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
/CCCVCC/ /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
4.2.5.2 Medial Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Medial Stop - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Medial stop - consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by combining stop
sounds as in (/k/, /tˤ/, /ʔ/, /d/ and /b/) with voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/, voiced
bilabial glide /w/ or voiced bilabial nasal /m/ as in (/-kr-/, /-tˤr-/, /-br-/, /-ʔm-/, /-dw-/).
1) Stop plus Consonant (S + C-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
CVC.CCV /mus.kru/ “intoxicant”
CVC.CCV /muf.tˤru/ “not fasting”
CVC.CCV /mutˤ.ʔmu/ “feeder”
CVC.CCV:C /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”
CVC.CVC.CCV /mit.kab.bru/ “arrogant”
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2) Lateral plus Stop (l + S-)
Furthermore, medial stop - consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by
combining voiced dental-alveolar lateral /l/ with voiceless dental-alveolar stop /sˤ/ or
voiceless dental-alveolar fricative /tˤ/ as in (/-lsˤ-/ and /-ltˤ-/.
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV/ /muχ.lsˤu/ “sincere”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mzal.ltˤu/ “rich (m)”
● Medial Fricative - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Medial fricative - consonant clusters are formed by combining voiceless
labiao-dental fricative /f/ with voiceless dental-alveolar lateral /l/ as in /-fl-/. Also,
medial fricative - consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced inter-dental
fricative /ðˤ/ with voiceless dental-alveolar tap /r/ as in /-ðˤr-/.
1) Fricative plus Consonant (S + C-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV/ /fil.flu/ “pepper”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mχaðˤ.ðˤru/ “greenish”
● Medial Glide - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Medial glide- consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by combining voiced
velar glide /w/ with voiced bilabial nasal /m/ or voiceless glottal fricative /ħ/ as in /-
wm-/ and /-wħ-/. In addition, medial glide consonant clusters are formed by
combining voiced palatal glide /j/ with voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/as in /-jr-/.
Furthermore, medial glide consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced dental-
alveolar stop /d/ with voiced bilabial glide /w/as in /-dw-/.
1) Glide plus Consonant (S + C-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CCVC.CCV/ /mħaw.wmu/ “feeling hot (m)”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mħaj.jru/ “confusing”
/CV.CV:.CCV/ /ma.ra:.wħu/ “fans”
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2) Consonant plus Glide (S + C-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV:C/ /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”
Media nasal - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Medial nasal- consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by combining
consonant sounds (/ʔ/, /l/, /w/ and /j/) with voiced bilabial nasal /m/ as in /-ʔm-/, /-lm-
/, /-wm-/ and /-jm-/.
1) Consonant plus Nasal (S + n-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV/ /mutˤ.ʔmu/ “feeder”
/CVC.CCV/ /mus.lmu/ “muslim (m)”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mħaw.wmu/ “feeling hot (m)”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mʁaj.jmu/ “cloudy”
● Media tap - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
In Zabidi dialect, medial tap - consonant clusters are formed by combining any
one of the following stop consonants (/tˤ/, /k/, and /b/) with voiced dental-alveolar tap
/r/ as in /-tˤr-/, /-kr-/, and /-br-/. Moreover, Medial tap- consonant clusters in Zabidi
are formed by combining voiceless dental-alveolar fricative /s/ or voiced inter-dental
fricative /ðˤ/ with voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/ as in /-ðˤr-/ and /-sr-/. Furthermore,
medial tap - consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/
with voiced dental-alveolar nasal /n/ or voiceless dental-alveolar fricative /s/ as in /-
rn-/ and /-rs-/.
1) Stop plus Tap (S + t-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV/ /muf.tˤru/ “not fasting”
/CVC.CCV/ /mus.kru/ “intoxicant”
/CVC.CVC.CCV/ /mit.kab.bru/ “arrogant”
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2) Fricative plus Tap (f + t-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CCVC.CCVC/ /mkas.sreh/ “having broken”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mχaðˤ.ðˤru/ “greenish”
3) Tap plus Consonant (r + c-)
Canonical Structure Word Gloss
/CCVC.CCV/ /mkaf.rnu/ “angry (m)”
/CCVC.CCV:C/ /mdar.rsi:n/ “teachers msp”
Media lateral- Consonant Clusters in ZYA
1) Lateral plus Consonant (C + l-)
It is seen that in Zabidi dialect, medial lateral- consonant clusters are formed
by combining voiced dental-alveolar lateral /l/ with any one of the following sounds
(/s/, /m/, and /tˤ/) as in /-ls-/, /-lm-/ and /-ltˤ-/.
Canonical structure Word Gloss
/CVC.CCV/ /muχ.lsˤu/ “sincere”
/CVC.CCV/ /mus.lmu/ “muslim (m)”
/CCVC.CCV/ /mzal.ltˤu/ “rich (m)”
4.2.5.3 Final Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final Stop - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final stop - consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are formed by combining stops /t/, /z/,
/d/, /q/ and /ɡ/ with consonants as in /-tb/, /-zz/, /-dd/, /-qt/, /-ʔr/ and /-ɡm/. Moreover,
some consonant clusters are formed by combining consonant with stop as in /-rb/, /-
nt/, /-ħt/, /-nd/, /-lɡ/, /-lb/, /-mt/ and some consonant clusters are formed by combining
two stops as in /-qt/ and /-tb/.
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1) Stop plus Consonant (-S + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-tb/ /kutb/ “write”
/-zz/ /bozz/ “take”
/-dd/ /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
/-qt/ /ʔam.waqt/ “the time”
/-ʔr/ /ʔam.∫aʔr/ “the heir”
/-ɡm/ /ʔam.naɡm/ “the star”
2) Consonant plus Stop (-C + S)
Sound Word Gloss
/-rb/ /qarb/ “come closer”
/-nt/ /kont/ “I was”
/-ħt/ /taħt/ “under”
/-qt/ /ʔam.waqt/ “the time”
/-nd/ /ʔind/ “at”
/-lɡ/ /ʔam.Өalɡ/ “the ice”
/-tb/ /kutb/ “write”
/-lb/ /ʔam.kalb/ “the dog”
/-mt/ /rsamt/ “you drew”
/-lb/ /ʔam.qalb/ “the heart”
● Final Fricative - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final fricative - consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are formed by combining
voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/ with voiceless dental-alveolar stop /t/ or voiced
dental-alveolar tap /r/ as in /-ħt/ and /-ħr/. Also, Final fricative - consonant clusters in
Zabidi are formed by combining voiceless labio-dental fricative /f/ with voiceless
dental-alveolar fricative /s/ as in /-fs/. Moreover, some fricative consonant clusters are
formed by combining voiced bilabial nasal /m/ with voiceless dental-alveolar fricative
/s/ as in /-ms/.
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1) Fricative plus Consonant (-F + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-ħt/ /taħt/ “under”
/-ħt/ /ʔam.baħr/ “the sea
/-fs/ /ʔam.nafs/ “the soul”
2) Consonant plus Fricative (-C + F)
Sound Word Gloss
/-ms/ /ʔam.∫ams/ “the sun”
Final Nasal - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final nasal-consonant clusters in Zabidi are formed by combining voiced
dental alveolar nasal /n/ or voiced bilabial nasal /m/ with consonant as in /-nf/ /-nt/ /-
nd/, /-mt/ and /-ms/. Moreover, some nasal consonant clusters are formed by
combining consonant with voiced bilabial nasal /m/ as in /-ɡm/.
Table 4.45: Final Nasal - consonant clusters in ZYA
Nasal
Nasal + Consonant
Word Gloss
Consonant + Nasal
Word Gloss
n
/∫inf/
/kont/
/ʔind/
“lip”
“I was”
“at”
m /ʔam∫ams/
/rsamt/
“the sun”
“you drew” /ʔam.naɡm/ “the star”
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Final Lateral - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final lateral - consonant clusters are formed by combining voiced dental
alveolar lateral /l/ with voiced bilabial stop /b/ or voiced velar stop /ɡ/ as in /-lb/ and /-
lɡ/.
1) Lateral Plus Consonant (-l + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/-lb/ /ʔam.qalb/ “the heart”
/-lɡ/ /ʔam.Өalɡ/ “the ice”
/-lɡ/ /ʔam.kalb/ “the dog”
● Final Tap - Consonant Clusters in ZYA
Final tap - consonant clusters in Zabidi dialect are formed by combining
voiced dental-alveolar tap /r/ with voiced bilabial stop /b/ or voiced inter-dental stop
/dˤ/ as in /-rb/ and /-rdˤ/. Moreover, some tap consonant clusters are formed by
combining voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/ or voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/ with voiced
dental-alveolar tap /r/ as in /-ʔr/ and /-ħr/.
1) Tap plus Consonant (-r + C)
Sound Word Gloss
/rb/ /qarb/ “come closer”
/-rdˤ/ /ʔardˤ/ “earth”
2) Consonant plus Tap (-C + r)
Sound Word Gloss
/-ħr/ /ʔam.baħr/ “the sea”
/-ʔr/ /ʔam.∫aʔr/ “the heir”
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Geminate Consonants in ZYA
Geminate consonants refers to any two sounds occurring in a sequence.
Geminate consonants in Zabidi dialect occur in two positions of the word; medial,
between two vowels (V-V) and final position as seen in following examples:
Medial – Geminate in ZYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-bb-/ /rabba:/ “he raised”
/-ss-/ /lussa:n/ “tongue”
/-rr-/ /marrka:/ “he supported”
/-jj-/ /nijju/ “unripe”
/-sˤsˤ-/ /qisˤsˤah/ “story”
/-tt-/ /bittu/ “girl”
/-mm-/ /jumman/ “south”
/-nn-/ /sinnu/ “tooth”
/-dd-/ /ɡaddeh/ “grandmother (f)”
/-bb-/ /ħubbu/ “love”
/-mm-/ /ħummeh/ “fever”
/-dd-/ /χaddu/ “cheek”
/-ss-/ /bisseh/ “cat”
/-ss-/ /mkassreh/ “having broken”
/-bb-/ /mitkabbru/ “arrogant”
/-jj-/ /mʁajjmu/ “cloudy”
/-bb-/ /χabba:zu/ “baker”
/-sˤsˤ-/ /mχaðˤðˤru/ “greenish”
/-mm-/ /ʔammasɡid/ “the mosque”
Final –Geminate in ZYA
Sound Word Gloss
/-zz/ /bazz/ “he took”
/-ss/ /bass/ “enough”
/-dd/ /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
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Consonant Sequences (Abutting Consonants) in Zabidi Dialect
Table 4.46: Consonant Sequences in Zabidi Dialect
Sequences Word Gloss
/-l + b-/ /kal.bu/ “dog”
/-q + n-/ /diq.nu/ “beard”
/-f + r-/ /ðˤuf.ru/ “nail”
/-h + r-/ /nah.ru/ “river”
/-f + s-/ /naf.su/ “soul”
/-r + d-/ /war.du/ “roses”
/- ɡ + m-/ /naɡ.mu/ “star”
/-m + s-/ /∫am.su/ “sun”
/-χ+ m-/ /zaχ.mu/ “nice”
/-l + b-/ /qal.bu/ “heart”
/-m+ r-/ /tam.ru/ “dates”
/-r + d-/ /bar.du/ “cold”
/-r + m-/ /ħor.mah/ “woman”
/-l + j-/ /ʁa:l.ju/ “costly”
/-w + j-/ /ħa:w.ju/ “tired”
/- ɡ + b-/ /ħa:ɡ.bu/ “eye brow”
/-r + Ө-/ /wa:r.Өu/ “inheritor”
/-k + r-/ /sa:k.ru/ “drunkard”
/-χ + l-/ /muχ.lsˤu/ “sincere”
The following diagrams exemplify the occurrence of onset and coda consonant
clusters in Zabidi dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
209
Bilabials
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
210
Dental
Alveolar
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
211
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
212
Palatal
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
213
Velar
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
214
Uvular
Pharyngeal
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
215
Glottal
Figure 4.15: Diagrams of Occurrence of Onset and Coda Consonant Clusters in
Zabidi Dialect
4.2.6 An OT Analysis of Syllable Structure in Zabidi Dialect
4.2.6.1 Basic Syllable Structure Constraints in OT Related to the Syllable
Structure in Zabidi Dialect
4.2.6.1.1. Markedness Constraints in ZYA
In markedness constraints there are four types of constraints:
ONSET
*COMPLEXONS
NO-CODA
*COMPLEXCOD
4.2.6.1.1.1 ONSET
Onset is obligatory in Zabidi dialect. ONSET constraint is violated when the
candidate (syllable) begins with a vowel (onsetless) as in /VC/, /VCC/, /V:C/ and it is
satisfied when the candidate (syllable) begins with simple or complex onset as in
/CV/, /CVC/, /CCV/, /CV:C/, /CVCC/, /CCV:/, /CCVC/, /CCV:C/, /CCVCC/,
/CCCVC/, /CCCV:C/ and /CCCVCC/. ONSET constraint is very highly ranked in
Zabidi dialect. For more clarification as to how ONSET constraint is satisfied or
violated in Zabidi dialect we take help of the following tableau:
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
216
Tableau 4.31: ONSET Constraint in ZYA
Input /hibeh/ “gift” ONSET
a) ☞ hi.beh
b) hib.eh *!
Candidate (a) is optimal candidate because it satisfies ONSET constraint.
While, Candidate (b) is disqualified because it violates ONSET, when the second
syllable /hib.eh/ begins with a vowel /e/. It is observed that for the word /hibeh/
“gift” with /CVCVC/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /hi.beh/ with
canonical structure /CV.CVC/ which is the optimal form in comparison to other form
like /hib.eh/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.2,
table 4.32 at serial No. 18 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CV.CVC/ in Zabidi dialect to be 5.1 %.
4.2.6.1.1.2 NO-CODA
NO-CODA constraint is violated when the candidate ends with coda or
complex coda as in /CVC/, /CVCC/, /CV:C/, /CCVCC/, /CCV:C/ and /CCCVC/.
While it is satisfied when the candidate ends with a vowel (open syllable) as in /CV:/,
/CCV/ and /CV/. NO-CODA constraint is lower ranked in Zabidi dialect.
The violations in the constraints (Onsets and No-coda) to evaluate the syllable types
in Zabidi dialect are presented below in the following examples:
Syllable types in Zabidi dialect Onset No-Coda
CV √ √
CCV √ √
CVC √ *
CV:C √ *
CVCC √ **
CCV: √ √
CCVC √ *
CCV:C √ *
CCVCC √ **
CCCVC √ *
CCCV:C √ *
CCCV:C √ *
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
217
Furthermore, to explain how NO-CODA is satisfied or violated in Zabidi, we take
help of the following example below:
Tableau 4.32: NO-CODA Constraint in ZYA
Input /damu/ “blood” NO-CODA
a) ☞ da.mu
b) dam.u *
Candidate (a) is identified as optimal form because it avoids the violation of
the markedness constraint NO-CODA, when both syllables /da.mu/ end with a vowel.
Candidate (b) is ruled out because it violates NO-CODA as it has one coda /m/ at the
end of first syllable /dam.u/. The disyllabic form of the word /da.mu/ (a) has the
canonical structure /CV.CV/. According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 8,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 2.4%. Hene, the form
/da.mu/ is the optimal form in ZYA.
Tableau 4.33: ONSET ˃˃ NO-CODA
Input /jadu/ “hand” ONSET NO-CODA
a) jad.u *! *
b) ☞ ja.du
Candidate (b) in tableau 4.33 emerges as optimal candidate because it satisfies
both constraints, ONSET and NO-CODA. Candidate (a) is eliminated because it
violates markedness constraints ONSET and NO-CODA, when the second syllable
/jad.u/ starts with a vowel /u/ and when the first syllable ends with a coda /d/. In
Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /jadu/ “hand” with /CVCV/ structure,
we find that the disyllabic form /ja.du/ with canonical structure /CV.CV/ is the
optimal form in comparison to other form like /jad.u/. A detailed analysis of the same
has been presented in section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 8 which shows the
percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CV.CV/ in Zabidi dialect to be
2.4%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
218
4.2.6.1.1.3 COMPLEXONS
In Zabidi, simple and complex onsets are allowed. *COMPLEXONS
constraint
is violated when the candidate (syllable) begins with complex onset (more than one
consonant) as in /CCVC/, /CCVCC/, /CCV:C/, /CCCVC/, /CCCV:C/ and /CCCVCC/.
While it is satisfied when the candidate begins with simple onset as in /CV/, /CVC/
/CV:/ and /CV:C/. *COMPLEXONS
is higher ranked in ZYA.
Tableau 4.34: ONSET ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ NO-CODA
Input
/Өmu/“mouth” ONSET *COMPLEX
ONS NO-CODA
a) Өam.u *! *
b) ☞ Өmu *!
In the above tableau candidate (a) is ruled out from competition because it
violates ONSET and NO-CODA for having coda /m/ at the end of first syllable
/Өam.u/, also the second syllable begins with a vowel /u/ (onsetless). Candidate (b)
wins the optimal candidate because it satisfies ONSET and NO-CODA, although it
violates *COMPLEXONS
for having initial clusters (complex onset) /Өm-/. The
monosyllabic form of the word /Өmu/ (b) has the canonical structure /CCV/.
According to section 4.2.2.1, table 4.30 at serial No. 5, percentage of occurrence of
this canonical structure in Zabidi is 5.5%. Therefore, the form / Өmu/ is the optimal
form in ZYA.
4.2.6.1.1.4 *COMPLEXCOD
*COMPLEXCOD
constraint is satisfied in ZYA when the candidate (syllable)
ends with a vowel (open syllable) or a single consonant (simple coda) as in /CV/,
/CVC/ /CCV/, /CV:C/, /CV:/ and /CCVC/. It is violated in ZYA when the candidate
ends in more than one consonant (complex coda) as in /CVCC/, /CV:CC/, /CV:CC/
and /CCVCC/.
*COMPLEXCOD
, it is lower ranked because Zabidi allows complex
coda. This is futher illutreted in the following tableau:
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
219
Tableau 4.35: ONSET ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃*COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
Input/∫antˤah/“bag” ONSET *COMPLEXONS
*COMPLEXCOD
NO-CODA
a) ∫antˤ.ah *! * ***
b) ☞ ∫an.tˤah **
In tableau 4.35, candidate (a) is rejected becuae it violates three constraints
ONSET *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA for not having a consonant in the second
syllable and the first syllable ends with complex coda /-ntˤ/. Moreover, it is ruled out
for having three codas. Candidate (b) emerges as the optimal candidate because it
satisfies ONSET, *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEXCOD
, although it violates NO-
CODA twice by having codas /n/ in the first syllable and /h/ in the second syllable of
a word /∫an.tˤah/. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /∫antˤah/ “bag”
with /CVCCVC/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /∫an.tˤah/ with canonical
structure /CVC.CVC/ which is the optimal form in comparison to other form like
/∫antˤ.ah/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.2, table
4.32 at serial No. 23 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CVC.CVC/ in Zabidi dialect to be 8.9 %.
4.2.6.1.2 Faithfulness Constraints in ZYA
In faithfulness constraints there are two types of constraints in ZYA:
MAX-IO DEP-IO
4.2.6.1.2.1 MAX-IO
MAX-IO constraint is satisfied when all the sounds (consonant and vowel) in the input
exist in the output without deleting any sound from input. It is violated when any sound in
the input does not exist in the output. MAX-IO constraint is highly ranked than
*COMPLEXCOD
in Zabidi dialect. This is shown in the following tableau:
Tableau 4.36: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
Input
/lameh/“why” ONSET MAX-IO
*COMPLEXCOD
a) lam.eh *!
b) lamh *! *
c) ☞ la.meh
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
220
In the tableau 4.36, candidate (a) is eliminated totally from competition for
violating ONSET constraint by having an onsetless syllable as the second syllable of
the word /lam.eh/. Candidate (b) satisfies higher ranked ONSET but violates MAX-
IO by deletion of the segment /e/ and it also violates *COMPLEXCOD
by having
complex coda /mh/. Candidate (c) wins as the optimal candidate because it satisfies
markedness and faithfulness constraints (ONSET, *COMPLEXCOD
and MAX-IO).
The disyllabic form of the word /la.meh/ (c) has the canonical structure /CV.CVC/.
According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 18, percentage of occurrence of
this canonical structure in Zabidi is 5.1%. Therefore, the form /la.meh/ is the optimal
form in this dialect.
4.2.6.1.2.2 DEP-IO
DEP-IO constraint is satisfied when the sounds (consonant and vowel) in the
output exist in the input without adding any sound. It is violated when a new sound
appears in the output. DEP-IO constraint is highly ranked than *COMPLEXCOD
in
Zabidi dialect. This has been illustrated with the help of tableau 4.37 below:
Tableau 4.37: ONSET˃˃MAX-IO˃˃DEP-IO˃˃*COMPLEXCOD
Input/∫inf/ “lip” ONSET MAX-IO DEP-IO *COMPLEXCOD
a) ∫i.nif *!
b) ☞ ∫inf *
c) ∫in *!
d) ∫if *!
In the tableau, candidate (a) is eliminated from competition because it violates
DEP-IO constraint by adding one segment /i/ at the second syllable of a word /∫i.nif/.
Candidate (b) emerges as the optimal candidate because it satisfies the higher- ranked
constraints ONSET, MAX-IO and DEP-IO, although it violates *COMPLEXCOD
by
having coda clusters /-nf/ in the word /∫inf/. Candidate (c) satisfies ONSET
constraint but it violates MAX-IO constraint by deleting the last consonant /f/.
Candidate (d) avoids the violation of the ONSET, DEP-IO and *COMPLEXCOD
but
it is ruled out by MAX-IO for deleting the last segmental /n/. MAX-IO and DEP-IO
are higher ranked rather than *COMPLEXCOD
in Zabidi dialect. It is observed that
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
221
for the word /∫inf / “lip” with /CVCC/ structure, we find that the monosyllabic form
/∫inf/ with canonical structure /CVCC/ which is the optimal form in comparison to
other forms like /∫i.nif/, /∫in/ and /∫if/. A detailed analysis of the same has been
presented in section 4.2.2.1, table 4.30 at serial No. 10 which shows the percentage of
occurrence of the canonical structure /CVCC/ in Zabidi to be 11.0%.
Tableau 4.38: MAX-IO˃˃ DEP-IO ˃˃*COMPLEXONS
Input/ħwal/“cross-
eyed” MAX-IO DEP-IO *COMPLEX
ONS
a) ħwa *! *
b) ħa.wal *!
c) ☞ ħwal *
Candidate (c) in tableau 4.38 emerges as optimal candidate because it avoids the
violation of faithfulness constrains DEP-IO and MAX-IO, although it violates the
lower ranked *COMPLEXONS
for having complex onset /ħw-/. Candidate (a) avoids
the violation of the DEP-IO but it is ruled out as it violates MAX-IO for deleting the
last segmental /l/ of a word /ħwal/. Candidate (b) satisfies MAX-IO constraint but it
violates DEP-IO constraint for adding a vowel /a/ in the first syllable of a word
/ħa.wal/. MAX-IO and DEP-IO are higher ranked rather than *COMPLEXONS
in
Zabidi dialect. The monosyllabic form of the word /ħwal/ (c) has the canonical
structure /CCVC/. According to section 4.2.2.1, table 4.30 at serial No. 10, percentage
of occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 11.0%. Hence, the form /ħwal/ is
the optimal form in Zabidi.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
222
Tableau 4.39: ONSET˃˃MAX-IO˃˃DEP-IO˃˃*COMPLEXONS
˃˃
*COMPLEXCOD
˃˃NO-CODA
Input
/ħmar/“red”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
P-I
O
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
a) i.mar *! *
b) ☞ ħmar *! *
c) ħi.marʔ **! * **
d) ħam *! *
e) ħim.ar *! * **
Candidate (b) in tableau 4.39 emerges as optimal candidate because it avoids
the violation of ONSET, DEP-IO, MAX-IO and *COMPLEXCOD
, even though it
violates *COMPLEXONS
constraint by having complex onset /ħm-/ in the word
/ħmar/. It also violates the lower ranked NO-CODA by having coda /r/ in the second
syllable of a word /ħmar/. Candidate (a) is ruled out totally because it violates higher
ranked ONSET constraint when the first syllable begins with a vowel (onsetlss) and it
violates NO-CODA constraint by having coda /r/. Candidate (c) avoids the violation
of ONSET, *COMPLEXONS
and MAX-IO but it violates DEP-IO two times by
adding two sounds to the input. It also, violates *COMPLEXCOD
containing two
complex coda /-rʔ/ and NO-CODA twice when the second syllable ends with two
consonants /rʔ/. Candidate (d) is eliminated from competing because it fails to satisfy
MAX-IO for deleting a coda /r/ and it also violates NO-CODA. Candidate (e) is
ruled out totally because it violates the higher ranked ONSET and it also violates the
DEP-IO containing a vowel /i/. Moreover, it violates NO-CODA twice as it contains
two consonants. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /ħmar/ “red” with
/CCVC/ structure, we find that the monosyllabic form /ħmar/ with canonical structure
/CCVC/ which is the optimal form in comparison to other forms like /ħi.marʔ/,
/i.mar/, /ħam/ and /ħim.ar/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in
section 4.2.2.1, table 4.30 at serial No. 12 which shows the percentage of occurrence
of the canonical structure /CCVC/ in Zabidi to be 16.6%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
223
ONSET is the highest ranked, while MAX-IO and DEP-IO are higher
ranked than *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEXCOD
in Zabidi dialect. Moreover,
NO-CODA is lower ranked in Zabidi.
4.2.6.2 Syllable Weigh in Zabidi Dialect.
Final Heavy Syllables /CVC/ and /CV:/ in ZYA.
Tableau 4.40: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/qamar/
“moon”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µ µµ
a. qa.mar *! * *
☞ µ µ
b. qa.mar *
µ µ
c. qa.ma *!
µ µ
d. qa.marr *! * * **
µ µ µ
e. qa.ma.ri
*!
*
As shown in tableau 4.40 above, candidate (e) is eliminated from the
competition for incurring more violations of DEEP-IO and *LLL. Candidates (d and
c) are also rejected as they violate DEEP-IO and MAX-IO, respectively. Moreover,
candidate (a) is ruled out as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), *FINAL- C- µ and
NO-CODA. Candidate (b) emerges as the optimal form for satisfying the high ranked
DEEP-IO, *LLL, SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), *FINAL- C- µ ,MAX-IO *LLL and
*3µ, even though it violates the low ranked NO-CODA one time. In Zabidi dialect, it
is observed that for the word /qamar/ “moon” with /CVCVC/ structure, we find that
the disyllabic form /qa.mar/ with canonical structure /CV.CVC/ which is the optimal
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
224
form in comparison with other forms like /qa.ma/, /qa.marr/ and /qa.ma.ri/. A
detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial
No. 18 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure
/CV.CVC/ in Zabidi to be 5.1%.
Tableau 4.41: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/rabba:/ “he
raised”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. rab.ba: *! *
µ µ
b. rab.ba *! *
µ
c. rabb *!* * * **
Candidates (d and c) are ruled out for violating the high ranked MAX-IO
constraint. While, candidate (a) wins the optimal output as it satisfies MAX-IO,
DEEP-IO, *LLL and ONSET, even thought it violates the low ranked SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) and NO-CODA. The disyllabic form of the word /rab.ba:/ (a) has
the canonical structure /CVC.CV:/. According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial
No. 9, percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 2.4%.
Therefore, the form /rab.ba:/ is the optimal form in Zabidi dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
225
Non-Final Heavy Syllables /CVC/ and /CV:/ in ZYA.
Tableau 4.42: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/qalbu/
“heart”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
S
YL
-MA
XIM
LIT
Y
(µ)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µµ
)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. qal.bu *
µµ µ
b. qal.bu *! *
µ µ µ
c. qa. li.bu *! *
µ
d. qalb *! * **
Candidate (d) is eliminated by MAX-IO, *COMPLEXCOD
as it violates NO-
CODA twice. Candidate (c) satisfies MAX-IO constraint but it violates *LLL because,
there are three light syllables in the word and this is not allowed in this constraint of
ZYA. It also violates DEEP-IO for having a vowel /i/ at the second syllable. Moreover,
candidate (b) is ruled out as it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) because there are two
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
226
moraic in the heavy syllable and this constraint is prohibited in this constraint.
Candidate (a) wins as the optimal candidate because it avoids violation of ONSET,
MAX-IO, *LLL, DEEP-IO, SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ),
*3µ,*FINAL –G, *FINAL- C- µ, *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEX
COD and
it only
violates NO-CODA only one time. In Zabidi, it is observed that for the word /qalbu/
“heart” with /CVCCV/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /qal.bu/ with
canonical structure /CVC.CV/ which is the optimal form in comparison with other
forms like /qa.li.bu/ or /qalb/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in
section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 24 which shows the percentage of occurrence of
the canonical structure /CVC.CV/ in Zabidi to be 11.8%.
Tableau 4.43: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ħu:tu/
“fish”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µµ µ
a. ħu:.tu *!
µ µ
b. ħu.tu *!
µ
c. ħut *!* *
Candidates (c and d) are ruled out for violating the high ranked MAX-IO
constraint. While, candidate (a) emerges as the optimal candidate because it avoids
violation of MAX-IO, even thought it violates the low ranked SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ).
The disyllabic form of the word /ħu:.tu/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV:.CV/.
According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 22, percentage of occurrence of this
canonical structure in Zabidi is 8.7%. Here the form /ħu:.tu/ is the optimal form in
Zabidi.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
227
Final Super-Heavy Syllables /CVCC/ and /CV:C/ in ZYA.
Tableau 4.44: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ʔamba:b/
“the door”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µµ
)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. ʔam.ba:b *! **
µ µµ
b. ʔam.ba:b *! * **
µ µµµ
c. ʔam.ba:b *! * * * **
µ µµ
d. ʔam.bab *! * * **
µ µ µ
e.ʔam.ba.bi
*!
*
Candidate (a) is the optimal form, even though it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY
(µ) and NO-CODA twice, but it is still more harmonic than other candidates.
Candidate (b) is ruled out by SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) for having more than one
moraic. It violates *FINAL- C- µ by having a moraic at the last consonant /b/ in the
final heavy syllable of ZYA. It violates NO-CODA two times when both syllables
end with a consonant. Candidate (c) violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) by having more
than one moraic and it violates SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) because there are more than
two moraic. It is ruled out by *3µ for having three moraic (trimoraic) in the heavy
syllable. Candidate (c) also violates *FINAL- C- µ amd NO-CODA twice.
Candidates (d and e) are disqualified because they violate MAX-IO and DEEP-IO
respectively. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /ʔamba:b/ “the door”
with /CVCCV:C/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /ʔam.ba:b/ with
canonical structure /CVC.CV:C/ which is the optimal form in compatition with other
forms like /ʔam.bab/ or /ʔam.ba.bi/. A detailed analysis of the same has been
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
228
presented in section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 15 which shows the percentage of
occurrence of the canonical structure /CVC.CV:C/ in Zabidi to be 3.9%.
Tableau 4.45: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ʔamwaqt/ “the
time”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. ʔam.waqt *! ***
µ µµ
b. ʔam.waqt *! * ***
µ µµµ
c. ʔam.waqt *! * * * ***
µ µ
d. ʔam.waq *! **
µ µ µ
e. ʔam.waq.ti
*!
**
As shown above, candidate (a) is the optimal form because it incurs the least
violation in comparison to the other candidates in Zabidi, it violates only
*COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA. Candidates (b and c) are ruled out by SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) for having more than one moraic. Candidate (d) is rejected as the
optimal because it violates MAX-IO by deleting a final consonant /t/, it also violates
NO-CODA two times. Moreover, candidate (e) is eliminated as it violates DEEP-IO
and NO-CODA. The disyllabic form of the word /ʔam.waqt/ (a) has the canonical
structure /CVC.CVCC/. According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 14,
percentage of occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 3.4%. Therefore, the
form /ʔam.waqt/ is the optimal form in this dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
229
Non-Final Super-Heavy Syllables /CVCC/ and /CV:C/ in ZYA.
Tableau 4.46: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ra:tbu/
“salary”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. ra:t.bu *
µµ µ
b . ra:t.bu *! *
µµµ µ
c. ra:t. bu *! * * *
µ µ
d. ra:. tbu *!
µ µ µ
e. ra:.ti.bu
*!
Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal form even though it violates the low
ranked NO-CODA. Candidate (b) and candidate (c) are rejected because they violate
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ). Candidate (d) fails because it violates *COMPLEXONS
by
having two consonants /tb-/ at the initial position of the second syllable in Zabidi.
Moreover, candidate (e) violates DEEP-IO by adding a vowel /i/ at the penultimate
light syllable. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /ra:tbu/ “salary” with
/CV:CCV/ structure, we find that the disyllabic form /ra:t.bu/ with canonical
structure /CV:C.CV/ which is the optimal form in comparison with other forms like
/ra:.tbu/ or /ra:.ti.bu/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section
4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 20 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the
canonical structure /CV:C.CV/ in Zabidi to be 7.5%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
230
Tableau 4.47: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/mu∫kleh/
“problem”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. mu∫k.leh *! ***
µµ µ
b. mu∫k.leh *! ***
µµµ µ
c. mu∫k.leh *! * * * ***
µ µ
d. mu∫.leh *! **
µ µ µ
e.mu∫.ki.leh
*!
*
**
Candidate (e) and candidate (d) are ruled out because they violate DEEP-IO
and MAX-IO, respectively. Candidate (c) is eliminated totally from competition as it
incurs more violation SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ), SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ), *3µ,
*COMPLEXCOD
and NO-CODA. Candidate (b) is rejected because it violates SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) by adding more than one moraic in heavy syllable and it also
violates NO-CODA by having three consonants at coda position. Candidate (a)
emerges as the optimal form as it satisfies high ranked SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ),
SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ), DEEP-IO, MAX-IO, ONSET, *LLL *3µ, *FINAL –G,
*FINAL- C- µ, *COMPLEXONS
and it only violates *COMPLEXCOD
and NO-
CODA. The disyllabic form of the word /mu∫kleh/ (a) has the canonical structure
/CVCC.CVC/. According to section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 4, percentage of
occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 1.7%. Hence, the form /mu∫k.leh/ is
the optimal form in Zabidi.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
231
The final hierarchy rank of syllable structure constraints in Zabidi dialect are
organized as follows: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA.
For more clarity, tableaux 4.48 show a set of constraints of syllable structure in Zabidi
dialect through OT.
Tableaux 4.48: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL ˃˃ SYL-
MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA
/ha.weʔ/
“air”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
µ µµ
a. ha.weʔ *! * *
☞ µ µ
b. ha.weʔ * *
µ µ
c. ha.we *!
µ µ
d. ha.weʔʔ *! * * **
µ µ µ
e. ha.we. ʔi
*!
*
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
232
/rakka:/ “he
supported”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. rak.ka: *! *
µ µ
b. rak.ka *! *
µµµ
c. rakk *!* * * * * * * **
/kalbu/
“dog”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. kal.bu *
µµ µ
b. kal.bu *! *
µ
c. kalb *! * **
µ µ µ
d. ka.li.bu
*!*
*
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
233
/fa:.ru/
“rat” O
NS
ET
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µµ µ
a. fa:.ru *!
µ µ
b. fa.ru *!
µ
c. fa:r *! *
/lussa:n/
“tongue”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µµ
a. lus.sa:n *! **
µ µµ
b. lus.sa:n *! * **
µ µµµ
c. lus.sa:n *! * * * **
µ µ
d. lus.san *! **
µ µ µ
e lus.sa:.ni
*!
*
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
234
/ʔam.naɡm/
“the star”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a.ʔam.naɡm * ***
µ µµ
b.ʔam.naɡm *! * * ***
µ µµµ
c. ʔam.naɡm *! * * * * ***
µ µ
d. ʔam.naɡ *! **
µ µ µ
e. ʔam.naɡ.mi
*!
**
/ħa:wju/
“tired”
ON
SE
T
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. ħa:w.ju *
µµ µ
b. ħa:w.ju *! *
µµµ µ
c. ħa:w.ju *! * * *
µ µ
d. ħaw.ju *! *
µ µ µ
e. ħa:.wi.ju
*!
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
235
/muslmeh/
“muslim (f)” O
NS
ET
MA
X-I
O
DE
EP
-IO
*L
LL
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
)
SY
L-M
AX
IML
ITY
(µ
µ)
*3µ
*F
INA
L –
G
*F
INA
L-
C-
µ
*C
OM
PL
EX
ON
S
*C
OM
PL
EX
CO
D
NO
-CO
DA
☞ µ µ
a. musl.meh * ***
µµ µ
b. musl.meh *! * ***
µµµ µ
c. musl.meh *! * * * ***
µ µ
d. mus.meh *! **
µ µ µ
e.mus.li.meh
*!
**
4.2.7. Word Stress Patterns in Zabidi Dialect
Stress goes to the final syllable (rightmost) of the word in Zabidi dialect, if it is
superheavy, as in /CV:C/ or /CVCC/.
/ʔam.b'a:b/ “the door” /ʔam.b'aħr/ “the sea”
/ʔam.w'aqt/ “the time” /mzal.ltˤ'i:n/ “rich (pl)”
/Lus.s'a:n/ “tongue” /ʔam.n'afs/ “the soul”
/ʔam.Ө'alɡ/ “the ice” /mdar.rs'i:n/ “teachers”
/ʔam.χ'e:l/ “the horse” /ʔam.dw'a:b/ “livestock”
/ʔam.K'alb/ “the dog” /da.h'a:n/ “paint”
/ʔam.ɡ'a:r/ “the neighbor” /msˤaw.wr'i:n/ “photographers”
/ʔam.∫ 'aʔr/ “the heir” /ta.m'a:m/ “good”
/ħam.r'i:n/ “the mouse” /mkas.sr'eh/ “having broken”
/ʔam.q'alb/ “the heart” /qa.l'i:l/ “few”
/ʔam.f'a:r/ “angry (ms.pl)” /ma.l'i:ħ/ “tasty”
/ʔam.n'aɡm/ “the star”
/kis.l'i:n/ “lazy (ms.pl)”
/ʔam.∫ams/ “the sun”
/ʔam.ti:n/ “the figs”
/ʔam.ba:sˤ/ “the bus”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
236
Stress falls on the penultimate (heavy syllable) as in /CV:/ or /CVC/, if the last
syllable in Zabidi Yemeni dialect is not superheavy.
/z'aχ.mu/ “nice” /tˤ'i∫.tu/ “dish”
/r'ak.ka:/ “he supported” /k'a:.su/ “glass”
/ʔ'ib.reh/ “needle” /f'ik.reh/ “an idea”
/ħ'or.mah/ “woman” /jah.ri∫/ “rub”
/ħ'u:.tu/ “fish” /tˤ'i:.nu/ “mud”
/r'iħ.leh/ “journey” /ro:.ħu/ “soul”
/f'a:.ru/ “rat” /∫'e:.beh/ “old man”
/d'aʁ.mar/ “ventured” /ʔ'a:.deh/ “habit”
/n'a:.su/ “people” /k'al.bu/ “dog”
/b'ir.keh/ “pool” /r'uz.zu/ “rice”
/r'a:.su/ “head” /n'ah.ru/ “river”
/∫'a:.jim/ “north” /ħ'ub.bu/ “love”
/d'e:.meh/ “kitchen” /∫'am.su/ “sun”
/ʔ'e:.nu/ “an eye” /sˤ'ud.ru/ “cheek”
/tˤ'a:.qah/ “window” /∫'ah.ru/ “a month”
/ðˤ'uf.ru/ “nail” /b'aħ.ru/ “sea”
/l'o:.nu/ “color” /ħ'ab.lu/ “rope”
/q'al.bu/ “heart” /s'aʔ.bu/ “difficult”
/na:gah/ “camel” /f'ar.ħu/ “happy”
● Stress goes on antepenultimate (heavy syllable), if the final syllable in Zabidi is not
superheavy and the penultimate is not heavy.
/d'af.ta.ru/ “copy-book” /m'il.ʔa.qah/ “spoon”
/ʔ'ar.qa.bah/ “scorpion” /s'am.ma.ʔeh/ “ear phone”
/m'aχ.za.nu/ “store” /m'aħ.ka.meh/ “court”
/q'ab.ja.lah/ “terribleness” /m'iz.ra.ʔah/ “farm”
/m'atˤ.ʔa.mu/ “restaurant” /m'in.∫a.feh/ “towel”
/m'ad.ra.sah/ “school” /ʔ'ar.na.bah/ “rabbit (f)”
/s'uk.ka.ru/ “sugar”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
237
Stress falls on monosyllabic words in Zabidi, no matter whether this syllable is
superheavy as in /CVCC/ or /CV:C/, heavy as in /CV:/ or /CVC/ or light as in /CV/.
/ħ'i:d/ “see/ look” /∫'inf/ “lip”
/m'u/ “mother” /ðn'u/ “ear”
/b'u:k/ “go” /ħs'an/ “better”
/b'a/ “with” /h'on/ “they (f)”
/j'a:n/ “where” /zʔ'aq/ “he shouted”
/χ'u/ “brother” /∫'ol/ “take”
/w'a/ “and” /Өm'u/ “mouth”
/b'u/ “father” /rχ'i:sˤ/ “cheap”
/bn'u/ “son” /∫tr'o:ħ/ “she will go”
/k'el/ “he ate” /∫tr'udd/ “she will come back”
Stress falls on the initial syllable (leftmost) of disyllable words in Zabidi dialect.
/ħ'a.wi/ “he became tired” /j'a.du/ “hand”
/h'i.beh/ “gift” /ma'r.ka:/ “instrument to lean on”
/m'aʔ.we:/ “shelter” /J'at.nim/ “plow”
/r'ak.ka:/ “he supported” /n'uχ.rah/ “nose”
/ħ'um.meh/ “fever” /m'an.qaʔ/ “mango”
/ħ'u:.tu/ “fish” /l'o:.ħu/ “board”
/∫'o:.ka/ “fork” /ħ'i:.leh/ “trick”
/f'a:.ru/ “rat” /l'o:.nu/ “color”
/n'a:gah/ “camel” /n'aɡ.mu/ “star”
/n'a:.su/ “people” /r'ab.ħu/ “monkey”
/l'i:.meh/ “one lemon” /sˤ'ud.ru/ “tears”
/n'a:.hi/ “ok” /t'a:g.reh/ “merchant (f)”
/k'al.bu/ “dog” /k'a:t.beh/ “writer (f)”
/r'u:.ti/ “bread” /ħ'a:s.su/ “feeling”
/b'ar.du/ “cold” /j'o:m.jeh/ “daily
/s'u:.qu/ “market” /ʁ'a:b.bu/ “thirsty”
/b'aħ.ru/ “sea” /m'uχ.lsˤu/ “sincere”
/z'a:w.jeh/ “an angle” /∫χ'i:.ru/ “snoring”
/b'a:χ.reh/ “a ship” /ʔ'a:q.lu/ “wise-man”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
238
Stress goes to antepenultimate of trisyllable words in Zabidi dialect, if the final
syllable is not superheavy and penultimate is not heavy.
/k'a.ra.mu/ “generosity” /ʔ'a.sa.lu/ “honey”
/d'af.ta.ru/ “copy-book” /q'ab.ja.lah/ “terribleness
/ð'a.na.bu/ “tail” /m'iz.ra.ʔah/ “farm”
/s'uk.ka.ru/ “sugar” /ħ'a.ɡa.ru/ “stones”
/l'a.ba.nu/ “milk” /m'ad.ra.sah/ “school”
/m'aχ.za.nu/ “restaurant” /χ'a.∫a.bu/ “wood”
/ʔ'a.ma.lu/ “work” /s'am.ma.ʔeh/ “ear phone”
/m'aχ.za.nu/ “sugar” /m'il.ʔa.qah/ “spoon”
/ʔ'a.sa.du/ “lion” /ħ'a.na.∫u/ “snake (m)”
/d'a.ra.geh/ “degree” /mχ'aj.ja.mu/ “camp”
/sˤ'a.la.bu/ “dry, harsh” /ʔ'ar.na.bah/ “rabbit (f)”
/∫'i.ga.rah/ “tree” /∫'a.na.bu/ “moustache”
/ɡ'a.ma.lu/ “camel” /mw'asˤ.sˤa.lu/ “connected”
/ɡ'a.ma.neh/ “local ghee” /m'aħ.ka.meh/ “court”
/χ'a.sa.ʔu/ “mud” /k'u.tu.bu/ “books”
/∫'a.fa.qah/ “mercy” /mz'aw.wa.ɡu/ “married”
/m'a.li.ku/ “king” /m'in.∫a.feh/ “towel”
/ʔ'ar.qa.bah/ “scorpion” /mt'ar.ga.mu/ “translated”
/q'a.la.mu/ “pen” /mχ'aj.ja.tˤu/ “stitched”
Stress goes to the antepenultimate syllable in poly-syllable words of Zabidi dialect.
/sa.f'ar.ɡa.lu/ “quince (pl)”
/mak.t'a.ba.tuh/ “his library”
/sa.f'ar.ɡa.lah/ “quince (sing.)”
/ka.n'a.ba:.tu/ “sofas”
/ʔam.m'ad.ra.sah/ “school”
/ba:.ð'in.ɡa:.nu/ “eggplant”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
239
4.2.8. An OT Analysis of Word Stress in Zabidi Dialect
Tableau 4.49: NONFINALITY ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /damu/ “blood” NONFINALITY PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (d'a).mu *
b. da.(m'u) *! *
c. (d'a).(mu) *!
d. (da.m'u) *!
Candidate (d) and candidate (c) are eliminated totally from the competition for
violating NONFINALITY (high ranked). Also candidate (b) is rejected for incurring
more violations of both constraints NONFINALITY, when the final light ultimate
syllable of the word /da.(m'u)/ in ZYA has foot. It is also ruled out for violating
PARSE-σ. While candidate (a) is the optimal form because it avoids the violation of
high ranked NONFINALITY. It also violates PARSE-σ, because the final syllable of the
word /(d'a).mu/ leaves without feet. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word
/damu/ “blood” with /CVCC/ structure, we find the disyllabic form /(d'a).mu/ with
canonical structure /CV.CC/ which is the optimal form in comparison with other
forms like /da.(m'u)/, /(da.m'u)/ or /(d'a).(mu)/. A detailed analysis of the same has
been presented in section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 8 which shows the
percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CV.CV/ in Zabidi to be 2.4%.
Tableau 4.50: NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /haweʔ/
“air” NONFINALITY UNEVEN-LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (h'a).weʔ *! *
b. ha.(w'eʔ) *! * *
c. (h'a.weʔ) *!
Candidate (c) is grounded by NONFINALITY constraint (high ranked).
Candidate (b) also is ruled out because it violates all constraints NONFINALITY,
UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ. Candidate (a) wins as the optimal form because it
satisfies NONFINALITY constraint. NONFINALITY dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
240
and PARSE-σ. NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB, PARSE-σ in ZYA. The disyllabic
form of the word /ha.weʔ/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CVC/. According to
section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 18, percentage of occurrence of this canonical
structure in Zabidi is 5.1%. Here the form /(h'a).weʔ/ is the optimal form in Zabidi.
Tableau 4.51: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /birkeh/
“pool”
GR WD =
PR WD NONFINALITY UNEVEN-LAMB PARSE-σ
a. (bir.k'eh) *! *
b. ☞ (b'ir).keh *! *
c. bir.(k'eh) *! * *
d. bir.keh *! **
Candidate (d) is rejected for violating GR WD = PR WD, as there is no foot at
all in any syllable of the word /bir.keh/ in ZYA. It also violates PARSE-σ twice.
Candidate (c) is disqualified as it violates NONFINALITY, because there is a foot in
the final heavy ultimate syllable of the word /bir.(k'eh)/ in ZYA. Candidate (a) is also
ruled out immediately from competition for violating UNEVEN-LAMB and
NONFINALITY. Candidate (b) emerges as the optimal candidate as it satisfies higher
ranked GR WD = PR WD and NONFINALITY. In Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for
the word /birkeh/ “pool” with /CVCCVC/ structure, we find the disyllabic form
/(b'ir).keh with canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ which is the optimal form in
comparison to other forms like /(bir.k'eh)/, /bir.(k'eh)/ and /bir.keh/. A detailed
analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.2, table 4.32 at serial No. 23
which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CVC.CVC/ in
Zabidi to be 8.9%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
241
Tableau 4.52: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB
˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /ʔasalu/
“honey”
GR WD =
PR WD NONFINALITY WSP
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (ʔ'a).sa.lu *! **
b. (ʔ'a).(sa).lu *!* *
c. (ʔ'a).(sa:).lu *! *!* *
d. (ʔa.s'a).(lu)
*! **
e. ʔa.sa.lu *! ***
Candidates (e, d and c) are eliminated immediately from the competition for violating
GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY and WSP, respectively. Candidate (b) satisfies
GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY and WSP constraints but it is ruled out for
violating UNEVEN-LAMB twice. Candidate (a) is the optimal form because it incurs
the least violation than other candidates. WSP dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB and
PARSE-σ in ZYA. WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB, PARSE-σ. The trisyllabic form of the
word /ʔa.sa.lu/ (a) has the canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/. According to section
4.2.2.3, table 4.34 at serial No. 16, percentage of occurrence of this canonical
structure in Zabidi is 10.4%. Therefore, the form /(ʔ'a).sa.lu/ is the optimal form in
this dialect.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
242
Tableau 4.53: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /ʔasadu/
“lion”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
WS
P
FT
-BIN
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(ʔ'a).sa.du *! * * **
b. (ʔa).(s'a).du *!* * ** *
c. ʔa.(s'a).du: *! * * * * **
d. (ʔa.sa.d'u) *! *
e. ʔa.sa.du *! * * ***
Candidate (e) is eliminated immediately from the competition for violating GR
WD = PR WD, because the word /ʔa.sa.du/ in ZYA, as it does not carry any foot for
any syllable. It also violates PARSE-σ three times, because there are three syllables
without a foot. Candidate (d) is rejected for violating NONFINALITY, because the final
light syllable of the word (ʔa.sa.d'u) contains a foot. It also violates UNEVEN-LAMB.
Candidate (c) is also ruled out because of the fatal violation (*!) of WSP as it does not
carry stress on a heavy ultimate syllable of the word /(ʔa.s'a).du:/. It also violates FT-
BIN, RIGHTMOST, LEFTMOST, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ. Moreover, candidate
(b) is disqualified for violating FT-BIN, because a foot of the word /(ʔa).(s'a).du/ must
contain two syllables and to avoid light (L) feet. It also violates RIGHTMOST,
UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ. Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal candidate as it
satisfies high ranking GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY and WSP. However, it
violates RIGHTMOST because there is no foot at the right edge of the word /(ʔ'a).sa.du/.
It also violates FT-BIN, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ but it is the candidate that incurs
the least violations and is more harmonic than other candidates. In Zabidi dialect, it is
observed that for the word /ʔasadu/ “lion” with /CVCVCV/ structure, we find the
trisyllabic form /(ʔ'a).sa.du/ with canonical structure /CV.CV.CV/ which is the optimal
form in comparison to other forms like /(ʔa).(s'a).du/, /ʔa.(s'a).du:/, /(ʔa.sa.d'u)/ and
/ʔa.sa.du/. A detailed analysis of the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.3, table
4.34 at serial No. 16 which shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical
structure /CV.CV.CV/ in Zabidi to be 10.4%.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
243
Tableau 4.54: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /sukkaru/
“sugar”
G
R W
D =
PR
WD
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(s'uk).ka.ru *! * **
b. suk.(k'a).ru *! * * * * **
c. (s'uk).(ka). ru *! * ** *
d. suk.ka.(r'u) *! * * * * **
e. suk.ka.ru *! * * * ***
Candidate (e) and candidate (d) are disqualified from competition for violating
GR WD = PR WD and NONFINALITY, respectively. Candidate (c) is ruled out in
Zabidi dialect as it violates FT-BIN, RIGHTMOST, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ.
Candidate (b) is also eliminated as it incurs large number of violations in comparison
to the other candidates, when it violates FT-BIN, WSP, RIGHTMOST, UNEVEN-
LAMB, LEFTMOST and PARSE-σ. Candidate (a) wins as the optimal form because it
satisfies the higher ranked GR WD = PR WD, NONFINALITY, FT-BIN and WSP.
The trisyllabic form of the word /suk.ka.ru/ (a) has the canonical structure
/CVC.CV.CV/. According to section 4.2.2.3, table 4.34 at serial No. 9, percentage of
occurrence of this canonical structure in Zabidi is 4.5%. Hence, the form
/(s'uk).ka.ru/ is the optimal form in Zabidi dialect.
As shown in the tableau above, GR WD = PR WD dominates both LEFTMOST
and RIGHTMOST, while both constraints LEFTMOST and RIGHTMOST dominate
PARSE-σ. So, GR WD = PR WD dominates all LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST and
PARSE-σ in ZYA: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST, PARSE-σ.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
244
Tableau 4.55: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /wafijju/
“loyal”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(w'a).fij.ju *! * * * **
b. (w'a).(fij).ju: *! ** * ** *
c. (wa).(f'ij).(ju) *! ** * ***
d. (w'a.fij).(ju) *! * * *
e. wa.fij.ju *! * * * ***
Candidate (e) is eliminated for violating GR WD = PR WD because the word
/wa.fij.ju/ does not carry any foot for any syllable. Candidate (d) is rejected for
violating NONFINALITY, because the final light syllable of the word /(w'a.fij).ju/ in
Zabidi contains a foot. Candidate (c) is also ruled out because of the fatal violation of
NONFINALITY, and it also violates FT-BIN twice because it does not avoid light
syllables (L) feet at the first and third syllables. While, candidate (b) is disqualified
for violating FT-BIN and it also violates WSP, because it does not carry stress at
heavy syllable of the word /wa.(fij).ju:/. Candidate (a) emerges as the optimal
candidate as it satisfies the high ranking GR WD = PR WD and NONFINALITY. In
Zabidi dialect, it is observed that for the word /wafijju/ “loyal” with /CVCVCCV/
structure, we find that the trisyllabic form /(w'a).fij.ju/ with canonical structure
/CV.CVC.CV/ which is the optimal form in comparison with other forms like
/(w'a).(fij).ju:/, /(wa).(f'ij).(ju)/, /(w'a.fij).(ju)/ and /wa.fij.ju/. A detailed analysis of
the same has been presented in section 4.2.2.3, table 4.34 at serial No. 11 which
shows the percentage of occurrence of the canonical structure /CV.CVC.CV/ in
Zabidi to be 4.5%.
The final hierarchy rank of word stress constraints in Zabidi dialect are
organized as follows: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
245
For more clarification, tableaux 4.56 show a set of constraints of word stress in Zabidi
dialect through OT.
Tableaux 4.56: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ WSP ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃
RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ
Input /birkeh/
“pool” GR WD = PR WD NONFINALITY
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. (b'ir.keh) *! *
b. ☞ (b'ir).keh *! *
c. bir.(k'eh) *! * *
d. bir.keh *! **
Input /∫a.na.bu/
“moustache” GR WD = PR WD NONFINALITY WSP
UNEVEN-
LAMB PARSE-σ
a. ☞ (∫'a).na.bu *! **
b. (∫a.n'a).bu *! *
c. ∫a.(n'a).bu *! **
d. (∫'a.na.bu) *! *
e. ∫a.na.bu *! ***
Input /karamu/
“generosity”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
WS
P
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(k'a).ra.mu
*! **
b. (ka).(r'a).mu
*!* *
c. ka.ra.(m'u)
*! * **
d. (k'a.ra).mu
*! *
e. ka.ra.mu *! ***
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
246
Input /ʔankabu:teh/
“spider”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞ʔan.(k'a).bu:.teh *! *** * * * ***
b. (ʔan).(k'a).bu:.teh *! *** * ** **
c. ʔan.ka.bu:.(t'eh) *! ** * * ***
d. ʔan.(k'a.bu:).(teh) *! *** * * *
e. ʔan.ka.bu:.teh *! *** * * ****
Input /ħa.zi:.nu/
“sad”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(ħa.z'i:).nu *! *
b. ħa.(zi:.n'u) *! * * * *
c. (ħ'a).zi:.nu *! * * * **
d. ħa.zi:.(n'u) *! * * * * **
e. ħa.zi:.nu *! * * * ***
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
247
Input /ja.du/
“hand”
GR
WD
= P
R G
R
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞(j'a).du *! * * *
b. ja.(d'u) *! * * * *
c. (j'a.du) *! *
d. ja.du *! * * **
Input /ʔam.sˤa.di:.qah/
“the friend (f)”
GR
WD
= P
R W
D
NO
NF
INA
LIT
Y
FT
-BIN
WS
P
RIG
HT
MO
ST
LE
FT
MO
ST
UN
EV
EN
-LA
MB
PA
RS
E-σ
a. ☞ʔam.(sˤ'a.di:).qah *!** * * **
b. ʔam.(sˤ'a.di:).(qah) *! *!** * * *
c. ʔam.sˤa.di:.(q'ah) *! ** * * ***
d. (ʔ'am.sˤa).di:.qah *!* * * **
e. ʔam.sˤa.di:.qah *! *** * * ****
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
248
4.2.9 Summary and Conclusions
This chapter has presented a detailed discussion of syllable structure and word
stress of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic through Optimality Theory (OT).
It has also presented the phonemic inventory (consonants, vowels and diphthongs) of
Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic. Moreover, the syllable types,
classification of syllables, structure of syllables, and consonant clusters of Hajji and
Zabidi dialects have also been discussed. Furthermore, an OT analysis of syllable
structure constraints and syllable weight in HYA and ZYA has also been undertaken.
Finally, it has presented word stress patterns and an OT analysis of word stress in
HYA and ZYA. To conclude, we may say a few words regarding the findings of the
study undertaken here. Moreover, more detailed results of the findings are presented
in chapter 5 which is to follow.
Hajji dialect has 28 consonants eight plosives (/b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ɡ/, /dˤ/, /tˤ/, /ʔ/), two
nasals (/m/ and /n/), thirteen fricatives (/f/, /Ѳ/, /ðˤ/ , /ð/, /ʕ/, /s/, /z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/ ,
/ʁ/ , /ħ/ , /h/), one trill/tap /r/, one lateral /l/, two glides /j/ and /w/ and one
affricates /ʤ/. Whereas, Zabidi dialect has 27 consonants, nine plosives (/b/, /t/,
/d/, /k/, /ɡ/, /q/, /tˤ/, /ʔ/, /dˤ /), two nasals /m,/and /n, /, twelve fricatives (/f/, /Ѳ/,
/ðˤ/ , /ð/, /s/, /z/, /sˤ/ , /∫/ , /χ/ , /ʁ/ , /ħ/ , /h/), one trill/tap/r/, one lateral /l/, two
glides /j/and /w/ /. While, MSA has 28 consonants. Hajji dialect includes all the
consonant sounds of MSA but the sound /q/ in MSA changes to /ɡ/ in HYA as in:
MSA HYA Gloss
/qari:b/ /ɡari:b/ “near”
/su:q/ /su:ɡ/ “market”
Zabidi dialect and MAS have the same consonant sounds; however, the sounds
/ʤ/ and / ʕ/ in MSA change to /ɡ/ and /ʔ/ in ZYA as in:
MSA ZYA Gloss
/naʤ.mu/ /naɡ.mu/ “star”
/ʤlis/ /ɡlis/ “sit”
/ʤa:ʕ/ /ɡa:ʔ/ “he became hungry”
/ʕa.∫eʔ/ /ʔa.∫eʔ/ “diner”
Chapter 4: Data and Analysis
249
Hajji dialect and MSA have 6 vowels (/i/, /u/, /a/ , /i:/, /u:/ and /a:/) whereas Zabidi
dialect has 10 vowels (/i/, /u/, /a/, /e/, /o/, /i:/, /u:/, /e:/, /o:/ and /a:/). Hajji has 4
diphthongs (/aj/, /aw/,/ ij/ and /a:j/) whereas, Zabidi has 5 diphthongs (/aj/, /aw/,
/ij/ , /a:j/ and /a:w/).
In Hajji, consonant clusters occur only word finally. Like CA, MSA and as
opposed to some Yemeni dialects which permit complex onset. Consonant
clusters are permitted syllable-finally and the maximum number of complex coda
are two in HYA as in /waɡt/ “time”, /ʕiʤl/ “calf”, /ʔism/ “name”. In Zabidi,
consonant clusters occur in all positions of the word initial, medial and final
positions. Unlike CA, MSA and as opposed to Yemeni dialects which do not
accept initial and medial complex. Moreover, the maximum number of complex
onset is three as in /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”, /∫tba:n/ “she will appear”, /∫trudd/ “she
will come back”, while two complex codas are the maximum number in ZYA as
in /ʔam.waqt/ “the time” /taħt / “under”and /ʔardˤ/ “earth”.
The percentages and frequency analysis of the types of syllables in Hajji dialect
reveal that disyllabic words have the most percentage 43.4% and show 305 words
(frequency), while pentasyllabic words have the least percentage 3.4% and show
24 words (frequency). Closed canonical structures have higher percentages rather
than open canonical structures in HYA. Moreover, the percentages and frequency
analysis of the types of syllables in Zabidi dialect reveal that disyllabic words
have the highest percentage 51.4% and show 414 words (frequency) in ZYA
while tetrasyllabic words have the least percentage 5.7% and show 46 words
(frequency). Super-heavy syllables have higher percentages rather than light,
heavy or ultra-heavy syllables in Zabidi dialect.
The final hierarchy rank of syllable structure constraints in Hajji and Zabidi
dialects are organized as follows: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL
˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –
G ˃˃ *FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA.
The final hierarchy rank of word stress constraints in Hajji and Zabidi dialects are
organized as follows: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP
˃˃ RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
250
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
5.1. Summary and Conclusions
Hajji and Zabidi, the Yemeni dialects of Arabic, exhibit syllable structure and
word stress which are more or less similar to MSA. However, there are specific
features (properties) of the syllable structure and word stress of Hajji dialect (HYA)
which differ from Zabidi dialect (ZYA) and which also differ from some Yemeni
dialects spoken in surrounding areas of HYA and ZYA spoken regions like Tazi, Ibbi
and Sana’ai. The main findings and results which were presented in chapter 4 tried to
answer the following 5 questions:
1) How are Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic different from Modern
Standard Arabic?
2) What is the comprehensive analysis of the syllable shapes and word stress in
Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic within the framework of
Optimality Theory?
3) What are the patterns of word stress attested in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni
dialects?
4) What are the most and the least frequent and percentage types of syllable
structures in Hajji and Zabidi dialects?
5) What are the most and the least frequent and percentage of canonical
structures inside each type of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects?
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
251
5.2. Results and Main Findings
Question (1): How are Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic different from
Modern Standard Arabic?
Table 5.1: Phonemic Inventory of HYA, ZYA and MSA
Phonemic inventory HYA ZYA MSA
Consonants 28 27 28
Short vowels 3 5 3
Long vowels 3 5 3
Diphthongs 4 5 2
According to the results from the table 5.1 above, Hajji dialect has 28
consonants, eight plosives (/b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ɡ/, /dˤ/, /tˤ/, /ʔ/ ), two nasals (/m/ and /n/),
thirteen fricatives (/f/, /Ѳ/, /ðˤ/, /ð/, /ʕ/, /s/, /z/, /sˤ/, /∫/, /χ/, /ʁ/, /ħ/, /h/), one trill/tap /r/,
one lateral /l/, two glides /j/ and /w/, and one affricate /ʤ/. Whereas, Zabidi dialect has
27 consonants, nine plosives (/b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ɡ/, /q/, /tˤ/, /ʔ/, /dˤ/), two nasals /m,/ and
/n,/, twelve fricatives (/f/, /Ѳ/, /ðˤ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /sˤ/, /∫/ , /χ/, /ʁ/, /ħ/, /h/), one trill/tap /r/,
one lateral /l/, two glides /j/ and /w/. While on the other hand, MSA has 28 consonants.
HYA includes all the MSA consonants, except the voiceless uvular stop /q/ which is no
longer present in HYA and it is substituted as voiced velar stop /ɡ /, as in:
MSA HYA Gloss
/qari:b/ /ɡari:b/ “near”
/su:q/ /su:ɡ/ “market”
/sa:q/ /sa:ɡ/ “leg”
/qabr/ /ɡabr/ “a grave”
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
252
Zabidi dialect and MAS have the same phonological system; however, the sound
/ʤ/ in MSA changes to /ɡ/ sound in Zabidi dialect as in:
MSA ZYA Gloss
/naʤ.mu/ /naɡ.mu/ “star”
/ʤlis/ /ɡlis/ “sit”
/sˤnaʤ/ /sˤnaɡ/ “deaf”
Zabidi dialect includes all consonants of MSA but the sound /ʕ/ in MSA changes
to /ʔ/ in Zabidi dialect as in:
MSA ZYA Gloss
/ʤa:ʕ/ /ɡa:ʔ/ “he became hungry”
/ʕa.∫eʔ/ /ʔa.∫eʔ/ “diner”
/∫aʕr/ /∫aʔ.ru/ “hair”
Hajji and MSA have 6 vowels (/i/, /u/, /a/ , /i:/, /u:/ and /a:/) whereas, Zabidi
dialect has 10 vowels (/i/, /u/, /a/, /e/, /o/, /i:/, /u:/, /e:/, /o:/ and /a:/). Hajji has 4
diphthongs (/aj/, /aw/, /ij/ and /a:j/) whereas, Zabidi dialect has 5 diphthongs (/aj/,
/aw/, /ij/ , /a:j/ and /a:w/) and MSA has only two diphthongs (/aj/ and /aw/).
Table 5.2: Number of Consonant Clusters in HYA, ZYA and MSA
Consonant clusters HYA ZYA MSA
Initial C- CCC- C-
Medial -C- -CC- -C-
Final -CC -CC -CC
In Hajji dialect, consonant clusters occur only word finally, which is also seen
in CA and MSA, and this feature opposed to some Yemeni dialects which permit
complex onset. Only consonant clusters are permitted syllable-finally and the
maximum number of complex coda is two. Moreover, all stops, glids, fricatives,
nasals, affricate, tap, lateral consonant clusters in Hajji dialect occur in final words
except voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/, the voiced inter-dental fricative /ð/, voiced uvular
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253
fricative /ʁ/ and voiced inter-dental fricative /ðˤ/ do not occur in final consonant
cluster in Hajji dialect as in /bint/ “girl”, /ʕumr/ “age”, /wajn/ “where”, /waɡt/
“time”, ʕiʤl/ “calf”, /ʔism/ “name”, /ʕilm/ “science”, /bard/ “cold”. Whereas, in
Zabidi dialect, consonant clusters occur in all positions: word initial, medial and final,
which differs from CA, MSA, and as opposed to Yemeni dialects which do not
accept initial and medial complex clusters. Moreover, the maximum number of
complex onset is three while two complex codas are the maximum number in ZYA.
All stops, fricatives, nasals, lateral, tap, glides consonant clusters in Zabidi occur as
initial consonant clusters, except the inter-dental stop voiced /dˤ/ as in /bnu/ “son”,
/sˤnaɡ/ “deaf”, /ħmar/ “red”, /sˤlaʕ/ “bald”, /rɡad/ “he slept”, /wqaf/ “stand-up”.
Three initial - consonant clusters are permitted in Zabidi and are formed by
combining voiceless palatal fricative /∫/ plus voiceless dental-alveolar stop /t/ with any
of the following consonant sounds (/l/, /r/, /m/, /ʔ/, /b/, /s/, /ħ/, /sˤ/, /χ/). For example,
if a syllable begins with /∫/ consonant, the second sound must be /t/ and the third
sound could be any of the following sounds / l, r, b, s. ʔ, ħ, sˤ, χ/ as in /∫tro:ħ/ “she will
go”, /∫tba:n/ “she will appear”, /∫trudd/ “she will come back”. Media consonant
clusters in Zabidi dialect as in /mus.kru/ “intoxicant”, /muχ.lsˤu/ “sincere”, /fil.flu/
“pepper”, /mʁaj.jmu/ “cloudy”. In Zabidi dialect we find final consonant clusters
like /ʔam.waqt/ “the time”, /taħt/ “under”, /ʔam.qalb/ “the heart”.
According to the structure of syllables, onset and nucleus are obligatory
whereas codas are not obligatory (permitted) in HYA, ZYA and MSA. Hajji dialect
like MSA has only one type of onset (simple onset) single consonant as in /kul/ “all”,
/ra:s/ “head” and /ʕumr/ “age”. Whereas, Zabidi dialect has two types of onset
(simple and complex) simple onset in ZYA as in /mu/ “mother” and /bu:k/ “go” and
complex onset as in /ðnu/ “ear” and /∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”. While, codas in Hajji,
Zabidi and MSA have three types (empty, simple and complex coda). Classification
of syllables structure in Hajji and Zabidi dialects are organized in the table 5.3 below:
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
254
Table 5.3: Classification of Syllable Structures in HYA and ZYA
Classification
of syllables
HYA ZYA
Canonical
structures Examples
Canonical
structures Examples
Open
syllables
CV
CV:
/wa/ “and”
/fi:/ “in”
CV
CCV
CCV:
/mu/ “mother”
/bnu/ “son”
/m∫i:/ “walk (imp)”
Close
syllables
CVC
CV:C
CVCC
CV:CC
/ħar/ “hot”
/ra:s/ “head”
/bard/ “cold”
/sa:rɡ/ “thief”
CVC
CV:C
CVCC
CCVC
CCCV:C
/ser/ “secret”
/ma:t/ “he died”
/bass/ “enough”
/ħmar/ “red”
/∫tro:ħ/ “she will go”
Light
syllables CV /ba/ “with” CV /χu/ “brother”
Heavy
syllables
CVC
CV:
/kal/ “all”
/ma:/ “water”
CVC
CCV /lak/ “for you”
Super-heavy
syllables
CV:C
CVCC
CV:CC
/ka:f/ “how”
/bint/ “girl”
/na:dj/ “club”
CV:C
CVCC
CCVC
CCV:C
CCV:
CCVCC
/bu:k/ “go”
/taħt/ “under”
/ħwal/ “cross-eyed”
/rχi:sˤ/ “cheap”
/m∫i:/ “walk (imp)”
/rsamt/ “you drew”
Ultra –heavy
syllables
CCCV:C
CCCVC
CCCVCC
/∫tsu:q/ “she will drive”
/∫tluħ/“she will make bread”
/∫trudd/ “she will come back”
It is to be mentioned here that, MSA includes all HYA classification of syllables.
MSA and HYA differ from ZYA when there are no Ultra –heavy syllables.
Question (2): What is the comprehensive analysis of the syllable shape and word
stress in Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects of Arabic within the framework of
Optimality Theory?
In Hajji and Zabidi dialects, there are two basic syllable structure constraints in
OT related to the syllable structure: Markedness constraints (ONSET, NO-
CODA, *COMPLEXONS,
*COMPLEXCOD),
Faithfulness constraints (MAX-IO,
DEP-IO). When there is competition (among the candidates) to win the optimal
output in Hajji and Zabidi dialect, they are filtered by the evaluator (EVAL) and
the optimal form is achieved by only one candidate, which is the most harmonic
one as compared to the other candidates (the one which incurs the least violation
of the set of constraints, the candidate which satisfies most of the of constraints)
wins the competition and is selected as the optimal form. While the other
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
255
candidates are ruled out from the competition by different constraints and they are
called losers for being less harmonic (incurs the most violation of the constraints).
From the data and analysis of syllable structure constraints through OT, it is clear
that all syllables in HYA begin with a consonant (onset) and no syllable begins
with a vowel (nucleus). So, most of the candidates are not violated by ONSET
while most of syllables in HYA end with coda or complex coda. So, NO-CODA
(lower ranked) violates more than one time in one syllable. Furthermore, ONSET
is the highest ranked in Hajji dialect, while *COMPLEXCOD
and
*COMPLEXONS
are more higher ranked than NO-CODA. Moreover, MAX-IO
and DEP-IO (faithfulness constraints) are also higher ranked than NO-CODA in
Hajji. NO-CODA is considered to be lower ranked in HYAt, it is frequently
violated because Hajji dialect allows simple and complex coda (closed syllables).
From Zabidi dialect data and analysis of syllable structure constraints through OT,
it is clear that ONSET is the highest ranked, while MAX-IO and DEP-IO are
higher ranked rather than *COMPLEXONS
and *COMPLEXCOD
. NO-CODA is
lower ranked in Zabidi dialect.
*COMPLEXONS
is violated in Zabidi dialect more than in Hajji dialect because
most of candidates in ZYA begin with two or three consonants (complex onset)
as in /ħsan/ “better”, /∫tʔe:t/ “she will come”. While, in HYA all the candidates
begin with one consonant (simple onset) as in /ħar/ “hot”, /ba:b/ “door”.
The final hierarchy rank of syllable structure constraints in Hajji and Zabidi
dialects are organized as follows: ONSET ˃˃ MAX-IO ˃˃ DEEP-IO ˃˃ *LLL
˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µ) ˃˃ SYL-MAXIMLITY (µµ) ˃˃*3µ ˃˃ *FINAL –G ˃˃
*FINAL- C- µ ˃˃ *COMPLEXONS
˃˃ *COMPLEXCOD
˃˃ NO-CODA.
From Hajji dialect data and analysis of word stress through OT, it is clear that, GR
WD = PR WD dominates NONFINALITY, while NONFINALITY dominates both
UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ, so GR WD = PR WD dominates all constraints
NONFINALITY, UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ in HYA. GR WD = PR WD ˃˃
NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ. Moreover, WSP dominates both
UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ in HYA. WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB, PARSE-σ.
Furthermore, FT-BIN dominates both LEFTMOST and RIGHTMOST, while both
constraints LEFTMOST and RIGHTMOST dominate PARSE-σ, so FT-BIN
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256
dominates all LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST and PARSE-σ in HYA. FT-BIN ˃˃
LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST, PARSE-σ.
The data and analysis of word stress through OT in Zabidi dialect, clearly shows
that NONFINALITY dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ.
NONFINALITY ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB, PARSE-σ in ZYA. Furthermore, WSP
dominates both UNEVEN-LAMB and PARSE-σ in ZYA. WSP ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB,
PARSE-σ. Moreover,, GR WD = PR WD dominates both LEFTMOST and
RIGHTMOST, while both constraints LEFTMOST and RIGHTMOST dominate
PARSE-σ, so GR WD = PR WD dominates all LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST and
PARSE-σ in ZYA. GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ LEFTMOST, RIGHTMOST, PARSE-σ.
The final hierarchy rank of word stress constraints in Hajji and Zabidi dialects are
organized as follows: GR WD = PR WD ˃˃ NONFINALITY ˃˃ FT-BIN ˃˃ WSP
˃˃ RIGHTMOST ˃˃ LEFTMOST ˃˃ UNEVEN-LAMB ˃˃ PARSE-σ.
Question (3): What are the patterns of word stress attested in Hajji and Zabidi
Yemeni dialects?
In Hajji dialect, there are seven word stress patterns. These are: firstly, stress goes
to the final syllable (rightmost) of the word in Hajji dialect, if it is superheavy as
in /CV:C/ or /CVCC/, for example, /tuf.f'a:ħ/ “apples”, /χaj.r'a:t/ “a lot”,
/ʔal.χ'ajl/ “the horse”, /ʔal.n'ahr/ “the river”. Secondly, stress falls on the
penultimate (heavy syllable) as in /CV:/ or /CVC/, if the last syllable in Hajji
Yemeni dialect is not superheavy, for example, /ɡ'am.bir/ “sit”, /ʤ'a:.hil/ “kid”,
/m'uχ.lisˤ/ “faithful”, /ʤ'a:.wiʕ/ “hungry”. Thirdly, stress goes on antepenultimate
(heavy syllable), if the final syllable in Hajji dialect is not superheavy and the
penultimate is not heavy, for example, /t'an.ʤa.rah/ “pot”, /ʔ'aħ.na.ʤak/ “i love
you”, /ʔ'aχ.ta.bar/ “he examined”. Fourtly, stress falls on monosyllable words in
Hajji dialect, no matter whether this syllable is superheavy as in /CVCC/ or
/CV:C/, heavy as in /CV:/ or /CVC/ or light as in /CV/, for example, /m'aʕ/ “no”,
/ʔ'ab/ “father”, /w'ajn/ “where”, /r'i:∫/ “feather”, /b'a:lj/ “old”, /χa:l/ “uncle”.
Fiftlh, stress falls on initial syllable (leftmost) of disyllable words in Hajji dialect.,
for example, /ʔ'a.biz/ “i take”, /ɡ'ar.jah/ “village”, /χ'a.∫ab/ “wood”, /h'a:.win/
“thin”, /ɡ'a.mar/ “moon”. Sixth, stress goes to antepenultimate of trisyllable
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
257
words in Hajji dialect, if the final syllable is not superheavy and penultimate is not
heavy, for example, /ħ'a.ra.mi/ “thief”, /dˤ'if.tˤa.ʕah/ “frog”, /m'ak.ta.bah/ “library”,
/s'aj.ji.dah/ “lady”, /w'a.ra.ɡah/ “leaf”. Finally, stress goes to the antepenultimate
syllable in poly-syllable words of Hajji dialect, for example, /mak.t'a.ba.ti:/ “my
library”, /ju.χaw.w'i.fu.ni/ “he is frightening me”, /ra.ɡ'a.ba.tuh/ “his neck”.
In Zabidi dialect, seven word stress patterns have been found. Firstly, stress goes
to the final syllable (rightmost) of the word in Zabidi dialect, if it is superheavy as
in /CV:C/ or /CVCC/, for example, /ʔam.b'a:b/ “the door”, /ʔam.k'alb/ “the dog”,
/ʔam.n'aɡm/ “the star”, /ʔam.b'aħr/ “the sea”, /ta.m'a:m/ “good”. Secondly, stress
falls on the penultimate (heavy syllable) as in /CV:/ or /CVC/, if the last syllable
in Zabidi Yemeni dialect is not superheavy, for example, /z'aχ.mu/ “nice”, /f'a:.ru/
“rat”, /r'a:.su/ “head”, /tˤ'i∫.tu/ “dish”. Thirdly, stress goes on antepenultimate
(heavy syllable), if the final syllable in Zabidi dialect is not superheavy and the
penultimate is not heavy, for example, /d'af.ta.ru/ “copy-book”, /q'ab.ja.lah/
“terribleness”, /m'iz.ra.ʔah/ “farm”, /s'uk.ka.ru/ “sugar”.
Fourth, stress falls on monosyllable words in Zabidi, no matter whether this
syllable is super-heavy syllables as in /CVCC/ and /CV:C/, heavy syllables as in
/CV:/ and /CVC/ or light syllable as in /CV/, for example, /ħ'i:d/ “see/look”, /∫'inf/
“lip”, /χ'u/ “brother”, /∫'ol/ “take”, /ħs'an/ “better”. Fifth, stress falls on initial
syllable (leftmost) of disyllable words in ZYA, for example, /ħ'a.wi/ “he became
tired”, /ħ'u:.tu/ “fish”, /b'ar.du/ “cold”, /r'ab.ħu/ “monkey”, /ʔ'a:q.lu/ “wise-man”.
Sixth, stress goes to antepenultimate of trisyllable words in Zabidi dialect, if the
final syllable is not super-heavy and penultimate is not heavy, for example,
/k'a.ra.mu/ “generosity”, /l'a.ba.nu/ “milk”, /ʔ'a.sa.lu/ “honey”, /∫'a.na.bu/
“moustache”. lastly, stress goes to the antepenultimate syllable in poly-syllable
words of Zabidi dialect, for example, /ka.n'a.ba:.tu/ “sofas”, /sa.f'ar.ɡa.lu/
“quince(pl)”, /mak.t'a.ba.tuh/ “his library”, /ba:.ð'in.ɡa:.nu/ “eggplant”.
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
258
Question (4): What are the most and the least frequent and percentage types of
syllable structures in Hajji and Zabidi dialects?
Table 5.4: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage Types of Syllable
Structures in HYA and ZYA
Types of
syllables
The most and the least frequent and
percentage types of syllable structures
in HYA
The most and the least frequent and
percentage types of syllable structures
in ZYA
No.of
Canonical
structures
Frequency Percentage
No.of
Canonical
structures
Frequency Percentage
Monosyllabic 6 204 29.0% 12 145 18.0%
Disyllabic 11 305 43.4% 24 414 51.4%
Trisyllabic 14 136 19.3% 18 201 24.9%
Tetrasyllabic 5 34 4.8% 7 46 5.7%
Pentasyllabic 4 24 3.4% ------- --------- ---------
Total 40 703 100.0% 61 806 100.0%
Hajji dialect has five types of syllables (monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic,
tetrasyllabic and pentasyllabic words). There are altogether 40 different canonical
structures for various types of syllable structures of Hajji dialect. In the monosyllabic
words of Hajji, there are 6 different canonical structures as in (/CV/, /CVC/, /CV:/,
/CVCC/, /CV:CC/ and /CV:C/). In disyllabic words, there are 11 different canonical
structures as in (/CV:.CV:/, /CV.CV/, /CVC.CVCC/, /CV:.CV/, /CV.CV:/,
/CV:.CV:C/, /CV:.CVC/, /CV.CVC/, /CVC.CVC/ /CVC.CV:C/, and /CV.CV:C/).
And in trisyllabic words of Hajji dialect, there are 14 different canonical structures as
in (/CV:.CV.CV/, /CV:.CV.CVC/, /CV.CV:CV/ /CVC.CV.CV:C/, /CV.CV.CVC/
/CV.CV.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV:/, /CV.CV:.CVC/, /CV.CV:CV:C/,
/CV.CV:.CV:/ /CVC.CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV:.CVC/, and /CV:.CVC.CV:C/). The
tetrasyllabic words have 5 different canonical structures as in (/CVC.CV.CV.CVC/,
/CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CV.CV.CV:.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV.CV:/, and
/CV.CV.CV.CVC/), and the pentasyllabic words have 4 different canonical structures
as in (/CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV/, /CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C/, and
/CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC/).
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
259
The percentages and frequency analysis of these 5 types of syllables reveal
that disyllabic words have the highest percentage 43.4% and show 305 words
(frequency). These are followed by the monosyllabic words which have 29.0% and
show 204 words (frequency). After that, trisyllabic words have 19.3% and show 136
words (frequency). The tetrasyllabic words have 4.8% and show 34 words
(frequency). Finally, pentasyllabic words have the least percentage 3.4% and show
only 24 words (frequency) in Hajji dialect.
Whereas in Zabidi dialect we see 4 types of syllables and 61 different
canonical structures inside all syllable types. Firstly, in the monosyllabic words of
Zabidi dialect, there are 12 different canonical structures as in (/CV/, /CCV/, /CVCC/,
/CVC/, /CV:C/, /CCV:/, /CCV:C/, /CCVCC/, /CCCVC/, /CCVC/, /CCCV:C/ and
/CCCVCC/). Secondly, in the disyllabic words of Zabidi, there are 24 different
canonical structures as in (/CV.CV/, /CV.CVC/, /CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CV:/,
/CVC.CV:C/, /CVC.CV/, /CV:CV/, /CV:.CVC/, /CV:C.CVC/, /CV:C.CV/,
/CCVC.CCVC/, /CVCC.CVC/, /CV.CV:C/, /CVC.CVCC/, /CV.CV:/, /CVC.CCV/,
/CCVC.CCV:C/, /CCV:.CV/, /CCVC.CCV/, /CCV:.CVC/, /CCVC.CV/,
/CCCV:.CV/, /CVC.CCV:C/ and /CCCV:.CVC/). Thirdly, the trisyllabic words of
Zabidi dialect, show 18 different canonical structures as in (/CV.CV.CV/,
/CV.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CV.CV/, /CV.CV.CVC/,
/CV.CV:.CCV/, /CV.CVC.CV/, /CVC.CV:.CV/, /CV.CV:.CVC/, /CV:.CV:.CV/,
/CVC.CV.CVC/, /CCVC.CV.CV/, /CV.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CVC.CV:/,
/CCV:.CV:.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CCV/ and /CV.CV:C.CV/). Finally, in the tetrasyllabic
words of Zabidi dialect, there are 7 different canonical structures as in
(/CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CV.CV/, /CV:.CVC.CV:.CV/, /CV.CVC.CV.CVC/,
/CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/, /CV.CV.CV:.CV/, and /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/).
The percentages and frequency analysis of these 4 types of syllables in Zabidi
dialect reveal that disyllabic words have the highest percentage 51.4% and show 414
words (frequency). There are followed by the trisyllabic words which have 24.9% and
show 201 words (frequency). After that, monosyllabic words have 18.0% and show
145 words (frequency). Finally, tetrasyllabic words have the least percentage 5.7%
and show 46 words (frequency) in Zabidi dialect.
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
260
Question (5): What are the most and the least frequent and percentage of
canonical structures inside each type of Hajji and Zabidi Yemeni dialects?
Table 5.5: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage of Canonical
Structures Inside each Type of HYA
Types of
syllables
The least frequent and percentage
canonical structures inside each type of
HYA
The most frequent and percentage
canonical structures inside each type of
HYA
Canonical structures
Fre
qu
ent
Per
cen
tag
e
Canonical structures
Fre
qu
ent
Per
cen
tag
e
Monosyllabic CV 8 3.9% CVCC 92 45.1%
Disyllabic CV:.CV: 7 2.3% CV.CV:C 59 19.3%
Trisyllabic
CV:.CV.CV
CV:.CV.CVC
CVC.CV.CV:C
CV.CV.CV
CVC.CVC.CVC
CVC.CV.CV:
“CV.CV:.CV:C
CV:.CVC.CV:C
6 4.4% CV.CV:.CVC 30 22.1%
Tetrasyllabic
CVC.CV.CV.CVC
CV.CVC.CVC.CVC
CVC.CV.CV.CV:
6 17.6% CV.CV.CV.CVC
CV.CV.CV:.CVC 8 23.5%
Pentasyllabic
CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC
CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C
CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV
CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC
6 25.0%
CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC
CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C
CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV
CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC
6 25.0%
The percentages and frequency analysis of monosyllabic words reveal that
super- heavy syllable /CVCC/ has the highest percentage 45.1% with 92 words
(frequency) in Hajji dialect. Whereas light syllable /CV/ has the least percentage 3.9%
and shows 8 words (frequency). According to these percentages and frequencies, we
may conclude that, closed canonical structures have higher percentages rather than
open canonical structures in Hajji dialect. The most predominant canonical structure
in disyllabic words of Hajji dialect is /CV.CV:C/ 19.3% which shows 59 words
(frequency) in HYA. While the canonical structure /CV:.CV:/ has the least percentage
2.3% and shows 7 words (frequency). The maximum canonical structure (the most) in
trisyllabic words is /CV.CV:.CVC/ with 22.1% percentage and shows 30 words
(frequency) in HYA. In addition, the canonical structures /CV:.CV.CV/,
/CV:.CV.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV:C/, /CV.CV.CV/, /CVC.CVC.CVC/, /CVC.CV.CV:/,
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
261
/CV.CV:.CV:C/, /CV:.CVC.CV:C/ have the minimum percentage (least) about 4.4%
each and they show only 6 words (frequency). In tetrasyllabic words the most
canonical structures (maximum) are /CV.CV.CV.CVC/ and /CV.CV.CV:.CVC/
23.5% each and they show 8 words (frequency). In addition, the canonical structures
/CVC.CV.CV.CVC/, /CV.CVC.CVC.CVC/ and /CVC.CV.CV.CV:/ have the
minimum percentage (least) about 17.6% each and they show 6 words (frequency) in
Hajji. In pentasyllabic words all canonical structures have same percentage 25.0%
each and they show 6 words (frequency) in HYA.
Table 5.6: The Most and the Least Frequent and Percentage Canonical
Structures Inside each Type of ZYA
Types of
syllables
The least frequent and percentage
canonical structures inside each type
of ZYA
The most frequent and percentage
canonical structures inside each type
of ZYA
Canonical structures
Fre
qu
ent
Per
cen
tag
e
Canonical structures
Fre
qu
ent
Per
cen
tag
e
Monosyllabic
CCV:
CCVCC
CCCVC
CCCVCC
6 4.1% CV:C
CCVC 24 16.6%
Disyllabic
CV.CV:
CCVC.CCVC
CVC.CCV:C
6 1.4% CVC.CV 49 11.8%
Trisyllabic
CV.CV:.CCV
CVC.CVC.CV:
CCV:.CV:.CV
CV.CV:C.CV
CVC.CVC.CCV
6 3.0% CV.CV:.CV 30 14.9%
Tetrasyllabic
CV.CVC.CV.CV
CV.CVC.CV.CVC
CV:.CVC.CV:CV
CV.CV.CV:.CV
CVC.CVC.CV.CVC
CVC.CV.CV.CVC
6 13.0% CVC.CV.CV:.CVC 10 21.7%
The percentages and frequency analysis of monosyllabic words reveal that super-
heavy syllables /CCVC/ and /CV:C/ have a higher percentage 16.6% each and they
show 24 words (frequency) in Zabidi dialect. Super-heavy syllables (/CCV:/,
/CCVCC/) and ultra-heavy syllables (/CCCVC /, / CCCVCC/ have lower percentage
4.1% each and show only 6 words (frequency) in ZYA. According to these
percentages and frequencies, we may conclude that, super-heavy syllables have more
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
262
percentages rather than light, heavy or ultra-heavy syllables. The most frequent
canonical structure in disyllabic words of Zabidi dialect is /CVC.CV/ 11.8% and it
shows 49 words (frequency) in this dialect while the canonical structures /CV.CV:/,
/CCVC.CCVC/ and /CVC.CCV:C/ have the least percentage 1.4% each and show 6
words (frequencies). The maximum canonical structure (the most) in trisyllabic words
of Zabidi is /CV.CV:.CV/ 14.9% and shows 30 words (frequency). Whereas, the
canonical structures /CV.CV:.CCV/, /CVC.CVC.CV:/, /CCV:.CV:.CV/,
/CV.CV:C.CV/ and /CVC.CVC.CCV/ have the minimum percentage (least) about
3.0% each and they show 6 words (frequencies). The most canonical structure
percentage (maximum) in tetrasyllabic words is /CVC.CV.CV:.CVC/ 21.7% and
shows 10 words (frequency) in Zabidi dialect. While in the other canonical structures,
/CV.CVC.CV.CV/, /CV.CVC.CV.CVC/, /CV:.CVC.CV:CV/, /CV.CV.CV:.CV/,
/CVC.CVC.CV.CVC/ and /CVC.CV.CV.CVC/ have the minimum percentage (least)
about 13.0% each and they show only 6 words (frequencies) in Zabidi.
5.3 Recommendations for Future Research
In this thesis, we relied only on syllable structure and word stress in Hajji and Zabidi
Yemeni dialects of Arabic (HYA) and (ZYA) through OT. In future, more work could
be undertaken on different dialects with a large number of participants of native
speakers so that syllable structure and word stress could be clarified in detail and
some more new constraints be generalized. Some possibilities in this direction would
be as follows:
Constraints of vowel deletion in HYA and ZYA.
Constraints of sonority in HYA and ZYA.
Constraints of epenthesis in HYA and ZYA.
Constraints of metathesis in HYA and ZYA.
Constraints of stress in HYA and ZYA.
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
263
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
264
Figure 5.1: Diagrammatic Representation of the Results
Red is for high percentage
Blue is for low percentage
Bibliography
265
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Appendices
272
Appendix (A)
Questionnaire 1
(For Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Dear student:
You are most humbly requested to answer all the questions and fill up gaps given in
this questionnaire. Write your responses within the space provided. This questionnaire
has been prepared for research purposes. Your answers will be kept confidential.
Background information
Name:
Age: Sex:
Phone number: Occupation:
E-mail address: Place of birth:
Mother tongue: Level of education:
Father’s place of birth: Mother’s place of birth:
Dialect (s) spoken at home: Other dialect (s) spoken:
SECTION (A)
Answer the following questions.
1- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that begins with a consonant.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
273
2- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that begins with consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
3- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that ends with consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
4- Give examples of any word in Hajji dialect with middle consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
5- Give examples of any word in Hajji dialect that begins with a vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
274
6- Give examples of any word in Hajji dialect that ends with a vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
7- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that ends with a long vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
8- Write down any word in Hajji dialect which have syllable – medial vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
9- Write down any word in Hajji dialect which have syllable – middle long vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
275
10. Write down any word in Hajji dialect that consists of one syllable
(Monosyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
11- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that consists of two syllables
(Disyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
12- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that consists of three syllables
(Trisyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
13- Write down any word in Hajji dialect that consists of more than three
syllables (polysyllable).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
276
SECTION (B)
Fill in the gaps from Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic
Sound Syllable-initially Syllable-medially Syllable-finally
/b/
/d/
/ɡ/
/t/
/k/
/q/
/ʔ/
/tˤ/
/ð/
/z/
/ʁ/
/f/
/Ө/
/s/
/∫/
/χ/
/ħ/
/h/
/ðˤ/
/dˤ/
/sˤ/
/m/
/n/
/l/
/r/
/w/
/j/
Appendices
277
Appendix (B)
Questionnaire 2
(For Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
Dear students:
You are cordially requested to answer all the questions and fill in all the gaps of this
questionnaire. Write your responses within the space provided. This questionnaire has
been prepared for research purposes. Your answers will be kept confidential.
Background information
Name:
Age: Sex:
Phone number: Occupation:
E-mail address: Place of birth:
Mother tongue: Level of education:
Father’s place of birth: Mother’s place of birth:
Dialect (s) spoken at home: Other dialect (s) spoken:
SECTION (A)
Answer the following questions.
1- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that begins with a consonant.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
278
2- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that begins with consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
3- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that ends with consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
4- Give examples of any word in Zabidi dialect with middle consonant clusters.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
5- Give examples of any word in Zabidi dialect that begins with a vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
279
6- Give examples of any word in Zabidi dialect that ends with a vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
7- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that ends with a long vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
8- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect which have syllable – medial vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
9- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect which have syllable – middle long
vowel.
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
280
10- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that consists of one syllable
(Monosyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
11- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that consists of two syllables
(Disyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
12- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that consists of three syllables
(Trisyllabic).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
13- Write down any word in Zabidi dialect that consists of more than three
syllables (polysyllable).
Gloss Transcription
1-
2-
3-
Appendices
281
SECTION (B)
Fill in the gaps from Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic
Sound Syllable-initially Syllable-medially Syllable-finally
/b/
/d/
/ɡ/
/t/
/k/
/q/
/ʔ/
/tˤ/
/ð/
/z/
/ʁ/
/f/
/Ө/
/s/
/∫/
/χ/
/ħ/
/h/
/ðˤ/
/dˤ/
/sˤ/
/m/
/n/
/l/
/r/
/w/
/j/
Appendices
282
Appendix (C)
Interview schedule
(For Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
English words and their transcription of Hajji Yemeni Dialect of Arabic
English words Transcription
easy
all
animal
at
moon
bone
dig
dry
earth
fall
few
fly
fruit
night
good
he
heavy
liver
one
back
full
rain
sharp
here
river
rub
hit
thin
hold
water
how
we
knee
rope
leaf
short
tongue
when
mango
peacock
Appendices
283
where
cheap
milk
wide
rice
air
cat
mirror
costly
cry
deaf
blind
fever
sugar
grandfather (f)
money
brave
mosquito
daily
grandmother (m)
village
tasty
up
tea
orphan
cuisine
hungry
sputum
notebook
paper
shirt
goats' offspring
calves
glass
pot
cover
fish
pepper
tomatoes
paint
comb
toothpick
road
fans
shop
The horse
livestock
ox
Appendices
284
ram
boons
nail
face
nose
eye brows
body
plow
the mosque
school
rooster
hot
cold
north
south
sparrow
under
my enemy
radio
with
and
in
how much
of, from
do more
take
he visited
he died
for you
he said
he slept
enough
blood
hand
chance
ventured
story
service
your name
needle
friendship
door
dance
mouse
neighbor
ok
people
mud
Appendices
285
was
bread
head
door
ox
lemons
soul
wind
market
fire
leg
window
husband
your voice
rooster
answer
rat
dog
soul
nail
star
soul
cold
back
sun
heart
grave
finger
roses
beard
ram
difficult
roof
tooth
leg
sea
monkey
love
dryness
land
happy
cheek
hair
salary
servant
judge
reader
drunkard
Appendices
286
wise-man
visitor
thief
shirt
unbeliever
club
inheritor
generosity
lion
camel
pen
honey
near
sad
doves
doctor
king
Appendices
287
Appendix (D)
Interview schedule
(For Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic)
English words and their transcription of Zabidi Yemeni Dialect of Arabic
English words Transcription
easy
all
animal
at
moon
bone
dig
dry
earth
fall
few
fly
fruit
night
good
he
heavy
liver
one
back
full
rain
sharp
here
river
rub
hit
thin
hold
water
how
we
knee
rope
leaf
short
tongue
when
mango
peacock
Appendices
288
where
cheap
milk
wide
rice
air
cat
mirror
costly
cry
deaf
blind
fever
sugar
grandfather (f)
money
brave
mosquito
daily
grandmother (m)
village
tasty
up
tea
orphan
cuisine
hungry
sputum
notebook
paper
shirt
goats' offspring
calves
glass
pot
cover
fish
pepper
tomatoes
paint
comb
toothpick
road
fans
shop
the horse
livestock
ox
Appendices
289
ram
boons
nail
face
nose
eye brows
body
plow
The mosque
school
rooster
hot
cold
north
south
sparrow
under
my enemy
radio
with
and
in
how much
of, from
do more
take
he visited
he died
for you
he said
he slept
enough
blood
hand
chance
ventured
story
service
your name
needle
friendship
door
dance
mouse
neighbor
ok
people
mud
Appendices
290
was
bread
head
door
ox
lemons
soul
wind
market
fire
leg
window
husband
your voice
rooster
answer
rat
dog
soul
nail
star
soul
cold
back
sun
heart
grave
finger
roses
beard
ram
difficult
roof
tooth
leg
sea
monkey
love
dryness
land
happy
cheek
hair
salary
servant
judge
reader
drunkard
Appendices
291
wise-man
visitor
thief
shirt
unbeliever
club
inheritor
generosity
lion
camel
pen
honey
near
sad
doves
doctor
king
Appendices
292
Appendix (E)
Data of Hajji dialect
Monosyllabic words in HYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CV
/hu/
/ba/
/wa/
“he”
“with”
“and”
CVC
/dam/
/sir/
/dub/
/kam/
/ʔaj/
/jad/
/min/
/ħar/
/kul/
/ʔab/
/ʔaw/
/∫ul/
/maʕ/
/ʔaχ/
/lak/
“blood”
“secret”
“bear”
“how much”
“which”
“hand”
“from”
“hot”
“all”
“father”
“or”
“take”
“no”
“brother”
“for you”
CV:
/li:/
/la:/
/fi:/
/ma:/
/ʤi:/
“to me”
“no”
“in”
“water”
“come”
CV:C
/su:ɡ/
/na:r/
/na:s/
/ma:t/
/ba:b/
/ti:n/
/zu:ʤ/
/Өu:r/
/ri:∫/
/ra:s/
/ʤa:ʕ/
/fi:l/
/di:n/
/li:m/
/zi:d/
/ka:n/
/ɡa:l/
/ri:ħ/
/ʤa:r/
/χa:f/
“market”
“fire”
“people”
“he died”
“door”
“figs”
“husband”
“ox”
“feather”
“head”
“he became hungry
“elephant”
“religion”
“lemons”
“do more”
“was”
“he said”
“wind”
“neighbor”
“he became afraid”
Appendices
293
/χa:l/
/ru:ħ/
/ma:t/
/tˤi:n/
/na:m/
/fa:s/
/ba:sˤ/
/fa:r/
/sa:r/
/za:r/
/di:k/
/ta:ʤ/
/ka:f/
/sa:ɡ/
“uncle”
“soul”
“he died”
“mud”
“he slept”
“axe”
“bus”
“mouse”
“he walked”
“he visited
“rooster”
“crown”
“how”
“leg”
CVCC
/baħr/
/nafs/
/ɡufl/
/wajn/
/tamr/
/satˤħ/
/saʕb/
/zawʤ/
/sˤaħn/
/ʕilm/
/waʕd/
/bard/
/ʕiʤl/
/bint/
/damʕ/
/mahr/
/ɡabr/
/siħr/
/matˤr/
/farħ/
/rabħ/
/sahl/
/kab∫/
/tˤabʕ/
/ðˤufr/
/ruzz/
/ʔism/
/ħabl/
/sˤihr/
/ʕumr/
/nahr/
/bass/
/lawħ/
/∫uχtˤ/
/lajl/
/ʤaww/
“sea”
“spirit”
“padlock”
“where”
“dates”
“roof”
“difficult”
“husband”
“dish”
“science”
“promise”
“cold”
“calf”
“girl”
“tears”
“marriage settlement”
“grave”
“magic”
“rain”
“happy”
“monkey”
“easy”
“ram”
“habit”
“nail”
“rice”
“name”
“rope”
“brother-in-law”
“age”
“river”
“enough”
“board”
“stroke”
“night”
“they came”
Appendices
294
/waʤh/
/ʕind/
/waɡt/
/taħt/
/bajt/
/Өa ʤ /
/ʤism/
/χadd/
/ðˤahr/
/nafs/
/kalb/
/ward/
/lajj/
/sinn/
/lawn/
/dars/
/kab∫/
/ɡalb/
/niʤm/
/ʔardˤ/
/raɡsˤ/
/ħubb/
/tˤajr/
/bikr/
/∫ahr/
/ʕilm/
/durʤ/
/∫iʕr/
/jubs/
/jawm/
/wirӨ/
/∫aʕr/
/ʕirɡ/
/∫ams/
/∫amʕ/
/ðˤabj/
/baħӨ/
/ʔumm/
/χubz/
/diɡn/
/ħaɡɡ/
/kajf/
/Өuɡb/
/sadd/
/ɡult/
/ʕaɡl/
/sˤadr/
/kaff/
/fawɡ/
“face”
“at”
“time”
“under”
“house”
“snow”
“body”
“cheek”
“back”
“soul”
“dog”
“roses”
“hose”
“tooth”
“color”
“a lesson”
“sheep”
“heart”
“star”
“land”
“dance”
“love”
“bird”
“virgin”
“a month”
“knowledge”
“drawer”
“poetry”
“dryness”
“day”
“inheritance”
“hair”
“vein”
“sun”
“candles
“gazelle”
“research”
“mother”
“bread”
“beard”
“right”
“how”
“hole”
“dam”
“I said”
“mind”
“breast”
“hand”
“up/ above”
CV:CC /wa:sʕ/ “wide”
Appendices
295
/ɡa:tl/
/ra:tb/
/ba:lj/
/ħa:sd/
/na:dj
/ɡa:dˤ j/
/χa:jf/
/dˤa:jʕ/
/χa:dm
/ʁa:lj/
/sˤa:br/
/ka:fr/
/ʤa:jʕ/
/ħa:ʤb/
/ħa:mj/
/ʤa:ff/
/wa:rӨ/
/ba:rd/
/ħa:dd/
/ɡa:rj/
/ʁa:lj/
/ʕa:ɡl/
/za:jr/
/ba:sˤsˤ/
/sa:rɡ/
/wa:ɡf/
/sa:kr/
“killer”
“salary”
“old”
“envier”
“club”
“judge”
“scared”
“lost”
“servant”
“expensive”
“patient”
“unbeliever”
“hungry”
“eye brow”
“hot”
“dry”
“inheritor”
“cold”
“sharp”
“reader”
“costly”
“wise-man”
“visitor”
“bus”
“thief”
“standing”
“drunkard”
Disyllabic words in HYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CV.CVC
/sa.mak/
/wa.raɡ/
/ɡa.la sˤ/
/ʔa.sad/
/Өa.man/
/∫a.miz/
/ħa.ʤar/
/sˤa.lab/
/ɡa.lam/
/mu.∫utˤ/
/ʕa.mal/
/χa.saʕ/
/∫a.nab/
/ka.tab/
/ma.lik/
/ma.taʔ/
/ʔa.biz/
/ʤa.mal/
“fish”
“paper”
“glass”
“lion”
“price”
“shirt”
“stone”
“dry/ harsh”
“pen”
“comb”
“work”
“mud”
“moustache”
“he wrote”
“king”
“when”
“i take”
“camel”
Appendices
296
/la.mah/
/ʔa.sal/
/ħa.na∫/
/ka.ram/
/χa.∫ab/
/ʤi.bal/
/ha.waʔ/
/ħa.ʤar/
/sˤa.ʕib/
/sˤa.naʤ/
/ʁa.lab/
/la.ban/
/sa.bab/
/ɡa.mar/
/ja.ħuk/
“why”
“honey”
“snake”
“generosity”
“wood”
“mountain”
“air”
“stones”
“hard”
“deaf”
“he defeat”
“milk”
“cause”
“moon”
“rub”
CVC.CVC
/fil.fil/
/daf.tar/
/ʕal.lam/
/sˤud.fah/
/ɡal.ʕah/
/ruk.bah/
/mus.lim/
/jat.nim/
/ʔaħ.mar/
/raɡ.sˤah/
/mab.χar/
/nuɡ.tˤah/
/ɡam.bir/
/ɡib.lah/
/ɡar.jah/
/suk.kar/
/maχ.raʤ/
/bal.wah/
/maχ.zan/
/muχ.lisˤ/
/ʤad.dah/
/ħum.mah/
/sˤaw.tak/
/kil.jah/
/mak.tab/
/ʔas.wad/
/ɡisˤ.sˤah/
/kib.deh/
/maʕ.bad/
/nuχ.rah/
/baj.dˤah/
/ʔis.mak/
/matˤ.ʕam/
/ʔasˤ.far/
/χub.zah/
“pepper”
“notebook”
“(he) taught”
“chance”
“castle”
“knee”
“muslim”
“he plows”
“red”
“dance”
“censers”
“point”
“sit”
“a direction to pray”
“village”
“sugar”
“exits”
“trouble”
“store”
“faithful”
“grandmother (f)”
“fever
“your voice”
“kidney”
“office”
“black”
“story”
“liver”
“temple”
“nose”
“eggs”
“your name”
“restaurant”
“yellow”
“a loaf of bread”
Appendices
297
/riħ.lah/
/∫an.tˤah/
/jadˤ.rab/
/χatˤ.wah/
/∫ak.wah/
/sˤuħ.bah/
/jan.kaʕ/
/ʔas.raħ/
/mul.him/
/jam.sak/
/∫af.tak/
/χib.rah/
/ʔas.kut/
/∫an.tˤah/
/jaħ.fir/
ʔib.sir
“Journeys”
“bag”
“he hits”
“step”
“complaint”
“friendship”
“fall”
“I go”
“inspirer”
“hold, take”
“I saw you”
“experience”
“shut up”
“bag”
“dig”
“look”
CV:.CV
/ru:.ti/
/ra:ʕi/
/∫a:.hi/
/na:.hi/
“bread”
“wait”
“tea”
“ok”
CV:.CVC
/ʤa:.wiʕ/
/χa:.dim/
/sˤu:.tak/
/χa:.rim/
/wa:.siʕ/
/ʕa:.tˤi∫/
/tˤa:.ɡah/
/ʤa:.wab/
/ra:.tib/
/ɡa:.law/
/ʁa:.miɡ/
/ha:.nak/
/ta:.ʤir/
/fa:.rah/
/ha:.win/
/wa:.dˤiħ/
/wa:.ħid/
/sa:.kin/
/ɡa:.tal/
/ba:.rid/
/ʕa:.dil/
/ʤa:.hil/
/ħa:.kim/
/li:.fah/
/mu:.ħi∫/
/sa:.far/
/sˤu:.rah/
/fa:.riħ/
/na:.∫if/
“hungry”
“servant”
“your voice”
“desire”
“wide/ broad”
“thirsty”
“window”
“answer”
“salary”
“they said”
“dark”
“there”
“trader, merchant”
“rat (f)”
“thin”
“clear”
“one”
“resident”
“killer”
“cold”
“just”
“kid”
“ruling”
“sponge/ fiber”
“derelict, desolate”
“he travelled”
“picture”
“happy”
“dry”
CV.CV:C /ja.ti:m/ “orphan”
Appendices
298
/ri.sˤa:sˤ/
/tˤa.bi:χ/
/ʁa.ri:b/
/ɡa.ri:b/
/ɡa.sˤi:r/
/ɡa.di:m/
/ħa.ma:m/
/ki.ta:b/
/Өa.ɡi:l/
/ʁa.li:ðˤ/
/da.ha:n/
/sa.la:m/
/ʕi.ðˤa:m/
/ʔa.Өa:Ө/
/ʤa.wa:b/
/za.ma:n/
/ba.na:t/
/ʔa.mi:ɡ/
/ħa.li:b/
/ʤa.nu:b/
/tˤa.bi:b/
/∫a.ʤa:ʔ/
/sˤa.di:ɡ/
/ba.li:d/
/tˤa.ri:ɡ/
/∫a.ma:l/
/sa.la:m/
/ɡa.li:l/
/tˤa.ʕi:m/
/ja.mi:n/
/ɡa.li:l/
/ħa.di:d/
/ɡa.ri:b/
/ka.Өi:r/
/ra.χi:sˤ/
/ʕa.ʤu:z/
/ħa.zi:n/
/tˤa.ri:ɡ/
/ɡa.ri:b/
/za.bu:n/
/wa.si:m/
/sˤa.ʁi:r/
/ka.bi:r/
/ra.fi:s/
/ʁa.ju:r/
/∫a.mi:z/
/tˤa.wi:l/
/ka.mi:n/
/wa.ħi:d/
/ʕi.la:ʤ/
“buckshot”
“cuisine”
“stranger”
“near”
“short”
“old”
“doves”
“book”
“heavy”
“thick”
“paint”
“greetings”
“bones”
“furniture”
“answer”
“period”
“girls”
“deep”
“milk”
“south”
“doctor”
“brave”
“friend”
“dull”
“road”
“north”
“peace”
“little”
“tasty”
“right hand”
“few”
“iron”
“near”
“much”
“cheap”
“old woman”
“sad”
“road”
“relative”
“customer”
“handsome”
“small”
“big”
“insisting”
“jealous”
“shirt”
“tall”
“trap”
“alone/ lonely”
“treatment”
Appendices
299
/ta.ma:m/
/li.sa:n/
“good”
“tongue”
CVC.CV:C
/ʕusˤ.fu:r/
/maf.ta:ħ/
/ma∫.ʁu:l/
/duk.ka:n/
/faʤ.ʤa:ʕ/
/maw.hu:b/
/tˤaj.ji:b/
/mas.ma:r/
/χab ba:z/
/tˤam.ma:ʕ/
/laj.ji:n/
/man.∫a:r/
/maʤ.nu:n/
/sar.ri:f/
/mal.ja:n/
/mis.wa:k/
/ʤam.ma:l/
/matˤ.tˤa:tˤ/
/χaj.ra:t/
/liʕ.ʕi:b/
/tif.fa:l/
/sir.wa:l/
/tˤab.ba:l/
/ʔin.wa:n/
/kam.mu:n
/ʤid.ja:n/
/nis.wa:n/
/dˤaj.ji:ɡ/
/bis.ba:s/
/maf.tu:ħ/
/χar.ra:tˤ/
/tim.sa:ħ/
/ħatˤ.tˤa:b/
/∫ar.ri:r/
/maħ.bu:s/
/ħam.ma:l/
/ʕuʤ.ʤu:l/
/mab.sˤu:tˤ/
/han.du:l/
/∫aħ.ħa:t/
/riʤ.ʤa:l/
/sik.ri:m/
/naʤ.ʤa:r/
/mar.bu:tˤ/
/χaj.ji:r/
/ɡid.da:m/
/tuf.fa:ħ/
/ħas.sa:s/
“sparrow”
“key”
“busy”
“shops”
“fearful”
“talented”
“good heart”
“nail”
“baker”
“greedy”
“flexible”
“saw”
“crazy”
“spendthrift”
“full”
“toothpick”
“camel driver”
“rubbrs”
“a lot”
“very playful”
“sputum”
“trousers”
“drummer”
“address”
“cumin”
“goat kids”
“women”
“narrow/ tight”
“chili”
“opened”
“lies”
“crocodile”
“wood cutter”
“evildoer”
“prisoner”
“porter”
“calves”
“pleasant”
“baby-cradle”
“beggar”
“man”
“ice-cream”
“carpenter”
“tied/ folded”
“charitable”
“front”
“apples”
“sensitive”
Appendices
300
CVC.CVCC
/ʔal.χajl/
/ʔal.∫ams/
/ʔal.baħr/
/ʔal.nahr/
/ʔal.waɡt/
/ʔal.∫iʕr/
/ʔal.bint/
“the horse”
“the sun”
“the sea”
“the river”
“the time”
“the poetry”
“the girl”
CV:.CV: /χa:.li:/
/na:.di:/
“my cousin”
“club”
CV.CV
/wa.ra/
/ni.∫a/
/la.na/
/wa.fi/
“back”
“he grew”
“for us/ ours”
“loyal”
CV.CV:
/ʁi.tˤa:/
/sa.ma:/
/ʁa.da:/
/wa.ba:/
/ʕa.la:/
/ra.mu:/
“cover”
“sky”
“lunch”
“epidemics”
“over”
“they threw”
CV:.CV:C
/ta:.ri:χ/
/sa:.ni:n/
/du:.la:b/
/mi:.ra:Ө/
/∫i:.tˤa:n/
/fi:.ra:n/
/fa:.nu:s/
/tˤa:.wa:s/
/ʤa:.ni:ħ/
“date”
“tooth”
“cupboard”
“inheritance”
“devil”
“rats”
“lantern”
“peacock”
“wing”
Trisyallabic words in HYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CV:.CV.CV /sˤa:.ħi.bi/ “my friend”
CV:.CV.CVC /ʤa:.mi.ʕah/ “university”
CVC.CV.CV:C /ʔad.da.wa:b/ “livestock”
CV.CV:.CV /ti.ħa:.ki/
/dˤa.ru:.ri/
“speak”
“necessary”
CV.CV.CV /ħa.ra.mi/ “thief”
CVC.CVC.CVC /kul.lij.jah/ “college”
CVC.CV.CV: /ʕak.ba.ri:/ “rat”
CV.CV.CVC
/ba.ra.kah/
/ba.ɡa.rah /
/wa.ra.ɡah/
“blessing”
“cow”
“leaf”
CV.CV:.CVC
/ʤa.ri:.mah/
/sˤa.di:.ɡah/
/ma.ra:.wiħ/
/ɡa.dˤi:.jah/
/fa.ri:. ðˤah/
/ħa.ri:.ɡah/
“crime”
“friend (f)”
“fans”
“case”
“religious duty”
“burning”
Appendices
301
/wa.Өi:.ɡah/
/ħa.wa:.ʤib/
/tˤa.li:ɡah/
/ʤa.ri:.dah/
/ma.di:.nah/
/tˤa.bi:.bah/
/sa.fi:.nah/
/wa.sˤa:.tˤah/
/ɡa.sa:.wah/
/na.ti:.ʤah/
/ħa.bi:.bah/
/da.ʤa:.ʤah/
/mu.sa:.lim/
/mu.sa:.fir/
/tˤa.bi:.nah/
/ʕa.sˤi:.dah/
/χa.tˤi:.ʔah/
/ma.ra:.jah/
“document”
“eyebrows”
“divorced woman”
“newspaper”
“city”
“doctor (f)”
“ship”
“mediation”
“cruelty”
“result”
“loved one (f)”
“chicken”
“peaceful”
“traveler”
“second wife”
“gruel”
“sin”
“mirror”
CV.CV:.CV:C /tˤa.ma: .tˤi:s/ “tomatoes”
CVC.CV.CVC
/tan.ʤa.rah/
/lin.nu.hum/
/mil.ʕa.ɡah/
/min.∫a.fah/
/mad.ra.sah/
/dˤif.tˤa.ʕah/
/ʔaħ.na.ʤak/
/ɡab.ja.lah/
/mu∫.ki.lah/
/ʔaχ.ta.bar/
/mal.za.mah/
/mak.ta.bah/
/saj.ji.dah/
/ɡil.ti.lah/
/ʔar.na.bah/
/miz.ra.ʕah/
/maħ.ka.mah/
“pot”
“because they”
“spoon”
“towels”
“school”
“frog”
“i love you”
“terribleness”
“problem”
“he examined”
“handout”
“library”
“lady”
“I said to him”
“rabbit (f)”
“farm”
“court”
CVC.CV:.CVC
/ʔal. ʤa:.miʕ/
/naðˤ.ðˤa:.rah/
/midˤ.ra:.bah/
/saj.ja:.rah/
/dab.ba:.sah/
/ħar.ra:.Өah/
/fan.na:.nah/
/Өal.la:.ʤah/
/mas.sa:.ħah/
“the mosque”
“glasses”
“fighting”
“car”
“stapler”
“tractor”
“artist (f)”
“freezer”
“duster”
CV.CV:CV: /mu.sa:.wa:/
/mu.ʕa:.fa:/
“equally”
“healthy”
CV:.CVC.CV:C /ba:.ðin.ʤa:n/ “eggplant”
Appendices
302
Tetrasyllabic words in HYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CVC.CV.CV.CVC /mak.ta.ba.tuh “his library”
CV.CV.CV:.CVC
/mu.ta.ʃa:.ʔim/
/mu.ta.sa:.wij/
/mu.ta.dˤa:.jiɡ/
“pessimistic”
“equal”
“annoyed”
CV.CVC.CVC.CVC /ji.kal.lim.hum/ “he speaks to them”
CV.CV.CV.CVC
/ʃa.ʤa.ra.tuh/
/sa.la.ma.tak/
/ra.ɡa.ba.tuh/
“his tree”
“your safety”
“his neck”
CVC.CV.CV.CV: /mak.ta.ba.ti:/ “my library”
Pentasyllabbic words in HYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CV.CV:.CV.CV.CVC /zi.ja:.ra.tu.hum/ “visit
(NOM.SG)3pl.poss”
CV.CV.CVC.CV.CV:C /ti.li.fiz.zi.ju:n/ “television”
CV.CVC.CV.CV.CV /ju.χaw.wi.fu.ni/ “he is frightening me”
CVC.CVC.CV.CVC.CVC /ʔis.taʕ.ma.lat.hum/ “she used theme”
Appendices
303
Appendix (F)
Data of Zabidi dialect
Monosyllabic words in ZYA
Canonical structure Example Glossary
CV
/mu/
/ba/
/χu/
/wa/
/bu/
/hi/
/li/
/fi/
/hu/
“mother”
“with”
“brother”
“and”
“father”
“she”
“to me”
“in”
“he”
CCV
/ðnu/
/bnu/
/Өmu/
“ear”
“son”
“mouth”
CVC
/hon/
/ser/
/kel/
/kam/
/ʔam/
/kul/
/laʔ/
/kol/
/min/
/∫ol/
/lak/
“they (f)”
“secret”
“he ate”
“how much”
“the”
“all”
“no”
“eat”
“of, from”
“take”
“for you”
CV:C
/qa:l/
/ʔe:t/
/ħi:d/
/zi:d/
/ba:sˤ/
/za:r/
/ke:f/
/bu:k/
/tˤa:l/
/ba:k/
/ma:t/
/χa:f/
/ja:n/
/qo:m/
/qa:m/
/fo:q/
/na:m/
/le:l/
/ɡa:ʔ/
“he said”
“come”
“see/ look”
“do more”
“bus”
“he visited”
“how”
“go”
“it became long”
“he went”
“he died”
“he became afraid”
“where”
“stand up”
“he stood up”
“up/ above”
“he slept”
“night”
“he became hungry”
Appendices
304
CVCC
/bazz/
/∫inf/
/bass/
/qarb/
/kont/
/taħt/
/bozz/
/ʔind/
/kutb/
/ʔardˤ/
“he took”
“lip”
“enough”
“come closer”
“I was”
“under”
“take”
“at”
“write”
“earth”
CCV: m∫i: “walk”
CCVC
/ɡlis/
/ħwal/
/ħsan/
/ħmar/
/wqaf/
/sˤmar/
/sˤlaʕ/
/∫wal/
/rqasˤ/
/sˤfar/
/rtˤab/
/sˤnaɡ/
/swad/
/ʔmeʔ/
/rqad/
/zʔaq/
/m∫eʔ/
/hneh/
/ħneʔ/
“sit”
“cross-eyed”
“better”
“red”
“stand up”
“tan”
“bald”
“left-handed”
“he danced”
“yellow”
“it became damp”
“deaf”
“black”
“blind”
“he slept”
“he shouted”
“he walked”
“here”
“we”
CCV:C
/hna:k/
/∫qo:l/
/jhi:n/
/rχi:sˤ/
“there”
“he will say”
“when”
“cheap”
CCVCC
/rsamt/
“you drew”
CCCVC
/∫tluħ/
“she will make bread”
CCCV:C
/∫tro:ħ/
/∫tmu:t/
/∫tʔe:t/
/∫tba:n/
/∫tsu:q/
“she will go”
“she will die”
“she will come”
“she will appear”
“she will drive”
Appendices
305
Disyllabic words in ZYA
CCCVCC /∫trudd/ “she will come back”
CV.CV
/da.mu/
/ħa.wi/
/ɡa.bu/
/wa.ra/
/ja.du/
“blood”
“he became tired”
“local bag”
“behind”
“hand”
CV.CVC
/sa.meʔ/
/hi.beh/
/sa.neh/
/ʁa.deʔ/
/qa.mar/
/ʔa.∫eʔ/
/ka.tab/
/ħa.jeʔ/
/ka.ðab/
/wa.beʔ/
/ki.ðeʔ/
/ba.leʔ/
/sa.leʔ/
/la.meh/
/ha.weʔ/
“sky”
“gift”
“year”
“lunch”
“moon”
“diner/ supper”
“he wrote”
“shyness”
“he told a lie”
“epidemic”
“like this”
“affliction”
“entertainment”
“why”
“air”
CVC.CV
/mal.sˤa:/
/maʔ.we:/
/rab.ba:/
/mar.ka:/
/rak.ka:/
“tool used for keeping fire
on”
“shelter”
“he raised”
“instrument to lean on”
“he supported”
CVC.CVC
/jat.nim/
/sˤud.fah/
/χid.meh/
/war.qah/
/ʔib.reh/
/riħ.leh/
/daʁ.mar/
/bir.keh/
/χib.reh/
/ħim.jeh/
/fik.reh/
/kib.deh/
/qisˤ.sˤah/
/jum.man/
/jam.sak/
/qar.jah/
/ħor.mah/
/ruk.bah/
“plow
“chance”
“service”
“leaf”
“needle”
“journey”
“ventured”
“pool”
“experience”
“regimen”
“an idea”
“liver”
“story”
“south”
“hold, take”
“village
“woman”
“knee”
Appendices
306
/ʔis.mak/
/sˤuħ.bah/
/∫an.tˤah/
/nuχ.rah/
/raq. sˤah/
/kil.meh/
/ɡad.deh/
/ħum.meh/
/bis.seh/
/mul.him/
/χub.zeh/
/man.qaʔ/
/jad.bul/
/jah.ri∫/
“your name”
“friendship”
“bag”
“nose”
“dance”
“word”
“grandmother (f)”
“fever”
“cat”
“inspirer”
“a loaf of bread”
“mango”
“fall”
“rub”
CVC.CV:C
/ʔam.ba:b/
/lus.sa:n/
/ʔam.χe:l/
/qal.be:n/
/ʔam.ɡa:r/
/niɡ.me:n/
/ħam.ri:n/
/ʔam.fa:r/
/kis.li:n/
/ʔam.ti:n/
/ʔam.ba:sˤ/
“the door”
“tongue”
“the horse”
“two hearts”
“the neighbor”
“two stars”
“angry (ms.pl)”
“the mouse”
“lazy (ms.pl)”
“the figs”
“the bus”
CV:.CV
/ħu:.tu/
/fa:.ru/
/na:.su/
/na:.hi/
/ru:.ti/
/ka:.su/
/tˤi:.nu/
/Өo:.ru/
/ra:.su/
/li:.mu/
/di:.nu/
/ro:.ħu/
/su:.qu/
/ba:.bu/
/ba:.ku/
/tˤe:.ru/
/ħo:.mu/
/ma:.ji/
/na:.ru/
/∫a:.hi/
/lo:.ħu/
/ʔe:.nu/
/du:.mu/
/sa:.qu/
“fish”
“rat”
“people”
“ok”
“bread”
“glass”
“mud”
“an ox”
“head”
“lemons”
“religion”
“soul”
“market”
“door”
“they went”
“bird”
“hot”
“water”
“fire”
“tea”
“board”
“an eye”
“body”
“leg”
Appendices
307
/be:.ʔu/
/zo:ɡu/
/lo:.nu/
/di:.ku/
/be:.tu/
“selling”
“husband”
“color”
“rooster”
“house”
CV:.CVC
/tˤa:.qah/
/∫o:.keh/
/sˤo:.tak/
/wa:.ħid/
/li:.feh/
/na:ɡah/
/ɡa:.wab/
/χe:.meh/
/sˤu:.rah/
/ħi:.leh/
/χa:.leh/
/ħa:.wal/
/qo:.bah/
/zi:.neh/
/ħa:.rah/
/za:.waɡ/
/χe:.∫eh/
/∫a:.jim/
/li:.meh/
/fa:.rah/
/∫e:.beh/
/sa:.ʔeh/
/qa:.tal/
/de:.meh/
/ʔa:.deh/
/∫a:.foh/
/sa:.far/
/le:.leh/
“window”
“fork”
“your voice”
“one”
“sponge”
“camel”
“to answer”
“tent”
“picture”
“trick”
“aunt”
“he tried”
“impetigo”
“decoration “
“neighborhood”
“he made double”
“sack”
“north”
“one lemon”
“rat (f)”
“old man”
“watch”
“he fighted”
“kitchen”
“habit”
“he saw him”
“he travelled”
“night”
CVC.CV
/kal.bu/
/ðˤuf.ru/
/naf.su/
/hab.li/
/naɡ.mu/
/zaχ.mu/
/tam.ru/
/bar.du/
/ðˤah.ru/
/qal.bu/
/ruz.zu/
/nij.ju/
/∫am.su/
/war.du/
/bit.tu/
/qab.ru/
/nah.ru/
“dog”
“nail”
“soul”
“give me”
“star”
“nice”
“dates”
“cold”
“back”
“heart”
“rice”
“unripe”
“sun”
“roses”
“girl”
“grave
“river”
Appendices
308
/diq.nu/
/sˤub. ʔu/
/sah.lu/
/baħ.ru/
/tˤi∫.tu/
/sin.nu/
/rab.ħu/
/kab.∫u/
/saʔ.bu/
/riɡ.lu/
/satˤ.ħu/
/ħub.bu/
/ʔar,ðˤu/
/wuɡ.hu/
/wir.Өu/
/sˤaʔ.bu/
/sˤab.ru/
/raq.sˤu/
/far.ħu/
/∫aʔ.ru/
/χad.du/
/dam.ʔu/
/sˤud.ru/
/ħab.lu/
/bis.su/
/ʔiɡ.lu/
/bur.ru/
/∫ah.ru/
“beard”
“finger”
“easy”
“sea”
“dish”
“tooth”
“monkey”
“ram”
“difficult”
“leg”
“roof”
“love”
“land”
“face”
“Inheritance”
“hard”
“patience”
“dancing”
“happy”
“hand”
“hair”
“cheek”
“tears”
“breast”
“rope”
“cat”
“calf”
“flour”
“a month”
CV:C.CVC
/fa:j.deh/
/za:w.jeh/
/ta:ɡ.reh/
/ba:χ.reh/
/tˤa:w.lah/
/ɡa:m.ʔeh/
/qa:r.jah/
/wa:r.deh/
/ka:t.beh/
/fa:k.hah/
/na:m.seh/
/jo:m.jeh/
“usefulness”
“an angle”
“merchant (f) “
“a ship”
“table”
“university”
“reader (f)”
“incoming”
“writer (f)”
“fruit”
“mosquito”
“daily”
Appendices
309
CV:C.CV
/ħa:s.su/
/ra:ɡ.du/
/ʁa:b.bu/
/ro:m.ru/
/ʁa:l.ju/
/ħa:s.ru/
/ba:j.ku/
/ħa:l.ju/
/ħa:w.ju/
/fa:s.χu/
/ra:t.bu/
/qa:ðˤ.ju/
/sa:b.ru/
/χa:d.mu/
/ħa:ɡ.bu/
/wa:r.Өu/
/qa:r.ju/
/ʔa:q.lu/
/sa:r.qu/
/na:d.ju/
/ka:f.ru/
/na:b.hu/
/za:j.ru/
/sa:k.ru/
/ħa:d.du/
/wa:q.fu/
“feeling”
“sleeping”
“thirsty”
“tomatoes”
“costly”
“thin”
“leaving”
“sweet”
“tired”
“desire”
“salary”
“judge”
“comfortable”
“servant”
“eye brow”
“inheritor”
“reader”
“wise-man”
“thief”
“club”
“unbeliever”
“awaken”
“visitor”
“drunkard”
“sharp”
“standing”
CCVC.CCVC /mkas.sreh/ “having broken”
CV.CV:C
/da.ha:n/
/qa.li:l/
/ta.ma:m/
/ma.li:ħ/
“paint”
“few”
“good”
“tasty”
CVCC.CVC /mu∫k.leh/
/musl.meh/
“problem”
“muslim (f)”
CVC.CVCC
/ʔam.waqt/
/ʔam.Өalɡ/
/ʔam.kalb/
/ʔam.baħr/
/ʔam.∫aʔr/
/ʔam.nafs/
/ʔam.qalb/
/ʔam.naɡm/
/ʔam.∫ams/
“the time”
“the ice”
“the dog”
“the sea”
“the heir”
“the soul”
“the heart”
“the star”
“the sun”
CV.CV: /ʔa.na:/ “I”
CVC.CCV
/fil.flu/
/mus.kru/
/muf.tˤru/
/muχ.lsˤu/
/mutˤ.ʔmu/
/mus.lmu/
“pepper”
“intoxicant”
“not fasting”
“sincere”
“feeder”
“muslim (m)”
Appendices
310
CCV:.CV
/wda:.nu/
/ħza:.mu/
/rχi:.sˤu/
/dha:.nu/
/bju:.tu/
/sˤʁa:.ru/
/kta:.bu/
/wɡa:.ʔu/
/qta:.lu/
/ħma:.ru/
/∫χi:.ru/
/ɡda:.ru/
/ tˤʁi:.zu/
/wsa:.ʔu/
/bχi:.lu/
/∫ɡa:.ʔu/
/kta:.bu/
/bʔi:.du/
/ħsˤa:.nu/
/rsˤa:.sˤu/
/ħsa:.bu/
/ɡdi:.du/
/Өqi:.lu/
“cover”
“belt”
“cheap”
“paint”
“houses”
“small (pl)”
“book”
“pain”
“fighting”
“donkey”
“snoring”
“wall”
“twinge”
“wideness”
“stingy”
“brave”
“book”
“far”
“horse”
“bullets”
“accounting”
“new”
“heavy”
CCVC.CCV
/mzal.ltˤu/
/mkaf.rnu/
/mħaw.wmu/
/mʁaj.jmu/
/mχaðˤ.ðˤru/
/mħaj.jru/
“rich (m)”
“angry (m)”
“feeling hot (m)”
“cloudy”
“greenish”
“confusing”
CCVC.CV:C /mzal.ltˤi:n/
/mdar.rsi:n/
/msˤaw.wri:n/
“rich (pl)”
“teachers”
“photographer”
CCV:.CVC /sʔa:.deh/
/fðˤi:.ħah/
/sˤʔu:.bah/
/zra:.ʔah/
/tħa:.weʔ/
/dqi:.qah/
/ħku:.meh/
/tsa:.maħ/
/qʔa:.deh/
/rsˤa:.sˤah/
/fqi:.hah/
/χtˤu:.bah/
/wdˤi:.fah/
/mra:.jeh/
“happiness”
“scandal”
“difficulty”
“cultivation”
“wait”
“minute”
“government”
“she forgives”
“bed”
“bullet”
“quranic teacher (f)”
“engagement”
“job”
“mirror”
CCVC.CV /m∫utˤ.tˤu/
/ʔadw.wi/
“comb”
“my enemy”
CVC.CCV:C /ʔam.dwa:b/ “livestock”
Appendices
311
CCCV:.CV /∫tro:.ħu/
/∫tmu:.tu/
/∫tʔe:.tu/
/∫tba:.nu/
/∫tsu:.qu/
you (pl) will go
you (pl) will die
you (pl) will come
you (pl) will appear
you (pl) will drive
CCCV:.CVC /∫tsa:.jil/
/∫tla:.ʔib/
/∫tba:.rik/
/∫tħa:.rib/
/∫tsˤa:.riʔ/
/∫tχa:.∫if/
/∫tsa:.miħ/
“she will ask”
“she will play with
someone”
“she will congratulate”
“she will fight”
“she will wrestle”
“she will confuse”
“she will forgive”
Trisyallabic words in ZYA
CV.CV.CV
/ka.ra.mu/
/ða.na.bu/
/la.ba.nu/
/ʔa.ma.lu/
/ʔa.sa.du/
/sˤa.la.bu/
/ɡa.ma.lu/
/χa.sa.ʔu/
/ma.li.ku/
/qa.la.mu/
/ʔa.sa.lu/
/χa.∫a.bu/
/ħa.na.∫u/
/∫a.na.bu/
/ku.tu.bu/
/ħa.ɡa.ru/
“generosity”
“tail”
“milk”
“work”
“lion”
“dry/ harsh”
“camel”
“mud”
“king”
“pen”
“honey”
“wood”
“snake (m)”
“moustache”
“books”
“stones”
CV.CV:.CV
/qa.ri:.bu/
/ʔi.ðˤa:.mu/
/ka.Өi:.ru/
/ħa.ma:.mu/
/ʔa.gu:.zu/
/ɡa.wa:.bu/
/ħa.di:.du/
/ħa.zi:.nu/
/ba.ru:.du/
/ʁa.ri:.bu/
/ʁa.li:.ðˤu/
/sa.wa:.du/
/χa.tˤi:.bu/
/ħa.ri:.mu/
/qa.di:.mu/
/ma.la:.nu/
/ʔa.Өa:.Өu/
“near”
“bones”
“many/ much”
“doves”
“old woman”
“answer”
“iron”
“sad”
“coldness”
“stranger”
“thick”
“blackness”
“fiancé”
“women”
“old”
“full”
“furniture”
Appendices
312
/ʔa.mi:.qu/
/tˤa.bi:.bu/
/ba.li:.du/
/qa.ri:.bu/
/ka.bi:.ru/
/ba.na:.tu/
/qa.li:.lu/
/tˤa.ri:.qu/
“deep”
“doctor”
“dull”
“relative”
“big”
“girls”
“little”
“road”
CVC.CV:.CV
/ma∫.ʁu:.lu/
/kam.mu:.nu/
/maw.hu:.bu/
/χab ba:.zu/
/mis.ma:.ru/
/mis.wa:.ku/
/bis.ba:.su/
/kab.ri:.tu/
/ħatˤ.tˤa:.bu/
/ʔasˤ.fu:.ru/
/maɡ.nu:.nu/
/mif.ta:.ħu/
/bar.mi:.lu/
/miħ.ra:.Өu/
/ðˤab.ħa:.nu/
/ʔaf.ri:.tu/
/ħa.ma:.lu/
/ɡam.ma:.lu/
/naɡ.ɡa:.ru/
“busy”
“cumin”
“talented”
“baker”
“a nail”
“toothpick”
“chili”
“(box of) matches”
“wood cutter”
“sparrow”
“crazy”
“a key”
“barrel”
“plow”
“angry”
“ghost”
“porter”
“camel driver”
“carpenter”
CVC.CV.CV
/daf.ta.ru/
/maχ.za.nu/
/matˤ.ʔa.mu/
/suk.ka.ru/
“copy-book”
“store”
“restaurant”
“sugar”
CVC.CVC.CVC /ʔam.mas.ɡid/
/ʔam.daf.tar/
“the mosque”
“the copy book”
CV.CV.CVC
/da.ra.ɡeh/
/∫i.ɡa.rah/
/ɡa.ma.neh/
/∫a.fa.qah/
“degree”
“tree”
“local ghee”
“mercy”
CV.CV:.CCV ma.ra:.wħu “fans”
CV.CVC.CV
/ħa.mij.ju/
/wa.lij.ju/
/na.bij.ju/
/wa.fij.ju/
“brother-in law”
“saint”
“prophet”
“loyal”
CV.CV:.CVC
/sˤa.di:.qah/
/wa.Өi:.qah/
/tˤa.bi:.bah/
/ɡa.ri:.meh/
/χa.tˤi:.ʔah/
“friend (f)”
“document”
“doctor (f)”
“crime”
“sin”
CVC.CV:.CV /taʔ.ba:.nu/
/duk.ka:.nu/
“tired (m)”
“shops”
Appendices
313
/tˤal.la:.bu/ “beggar (m)”
CV:.CV:.CV
/sa:.ni:.nu/
/do:.la:.bu/
/fi:.ra:.nu/
/ɡa:.ni:.ħu/
/mi:.ra:.Өu/
/∫i:.tˤ a:.nu/
/tˤa:.wa:.su/
“teeth”
“cupboard”
“rats”
“wing”
“inheritance”
“devil”
“peacock”
CVC.CV.CVC
/ʔar.qa.bah/
/qab.ja.lah/
/mad.ra.sah
/mil.ʔa.qah/
/miz.ra.ʔah/
/sam.ma.ʔeh/
/ʔar.na.bah/
/maħ.ka.meh/
/min.∫a.feh/
“scorpion”
“terribleness”
“school”
“spoon”
“farm”
“ear phone”
“rabbit (f)”
“court”
“towel”
CV.CVC.CVC /ha.dij.jeh/
/ʔa.ħib.bak/
“gift”
“I love you”
CVC.CVC.CV: /mis.ta∫.fa:/ “hospital”
CCV:.CV:.CV /msa:.mi:.ru/ “nails”
CCVC.CV.CV
/mwasˤ.sˤa.lu/
/mzaw.wa.ɡu/
/mχaj.ja.tˤu/
/mχaj.ja.mu/
/mjas.sa.ru/
/mtar.ɡa.mu/
“connected”
“married”
“stitched”
“camp”
“facilitated”
“translated”
CVC.CVC.CCV /mit.kab.bru/ “arrogant”
CV.CV:C.CV /ħa.wa:ɡ.bu/ “eyebrows”
Tetrasyllabic words in ZYA
CVC.CV.CV:.CVC
/ʔan.ka.bu:.teh/
/ʔam.ħa.ma:.meh/
/bur.tu.qa:.lah/
/ʔam.ɡa.ri:.meh/
/ʔam.sˤa.di:.qah/
“spider”
“the dove”
“orange”
“the crime”
“the friend (f)”
CV.CVC.CV.CV /sa.far.ɡa.lu/ “quince (pl)”
CV.CVC.CV.CVC /sa.far.ɡa.lah/ “quince (sing.)”
CV:.CVC.CV:.CV /ba:.ðin.ɡa:.nu/ “eggplant”
CV.CV.CV:.CV /ka.na.ba:.tu/ “sofas”
CVC.CVC.CV.CVC /ʔam.mad.ra.sah/ “school”
CVC.CV.CV.CVC /mak.ta.ba.tuh/ “his library”