ivms introduction to medical biochemistry guidebook

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Introduction to Medical Biochemistry 1

Introduction to Medical Biochemistry

PowerPoints and Notes

Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

Medical biochemistry is the study of biochemical exchanges that occur within the human body in relation with the

application in the field of medicine. Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body at any give

time, ranging from the balance of the endocrine system to the storage of human memory. By studying and understanding

these highly complex reactions, medical biochemists have found ways to better fight infection and disease on th

molecular level. Progress in the fields of molecular biology, endocrinology, and cellular biology has been rapid in recen

years. Since all of these scientific fields tie in closely with medical biochemistry, it has made keeping up with the lates

advancements in the field extremely challenging. Medical biochemists have to study often to stay on the cutting edge o

this ever-expanding branch of science.

Target audience:

Advance Placement (AP) High School students |IVMS drimhotep Pre-Med. Program

College-level biomedical sciences and health professions majors
http://www.imhotepvirtualmedsch.com/drimhotep-tv.phphttp://www.imhotepvirtualmedsch.com/drimhotep-tv.phphttp://www.imhotepvirtualmedsch.com/drimhotep-tv.phphttp://www.imhotepvirtualmedsch.com/drimhotep-tv.php


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PowerPoint Presentations:

Collection Folder

o IVMS Intro to BiochemistryLecture 10 -Amines and Amides

Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 11 -CarbohydratesMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 12 -LipidsMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 13 -ProteinMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o

IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 14 -EnzymesMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 15 -Nucleic Acids and Protein SynthesisMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 16 -Nutrition and Energy for LifeMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 17 -Carbohydrate MetabolismMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to Biochemistry Lecture 18 -Lipids and Amino Acid MetabolismMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

o IVMS Intro to BiochemistryLecture 19 -Body FluidsMarc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

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Introduction to Medical Biochemistry Notes

Modified from WikipediaAvailable athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry

Accessed November 24, 2013

Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study ofchemicalprocesses within and relating to, livingorganisms.[1]By controlling information flowthrough biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy throughmetabolism,biochemical processes give rise to the complexity oflife.Over the last 40 years,biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almostall areas of thelife sciences frombotany tomedicine are engaged in biochemicalresearch.[2]Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding howbiological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within livingcells,which inturn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Biochemistry is closely related tomolecular biology,the study of the molecularmechanisms by whichgenetic information encoded inDNA is able to result in theprocesses of life. Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biologycan be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which toinvestigate and study molecular biology.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biologicalmacromolecules,such asproteins,nucleic acids,carbohydrates andlipids,whichprovide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. Thechemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smallermolecules andions.

These can beinorganic,for examplewater andmetal ions, ororganic,for example theamino acids which are used to synthesize proteins. The mechanisms by which cellsharness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known asmetabolism.The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition,and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease.In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritionaldeficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try todiscover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

History

Main article:History of biochemistry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromoleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromoleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry


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Gerty Cori andCarl Corijointly won theNobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of theCori cycle at RPMI.

It once was generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property orsubstance distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only livingbeings could produce the molecules of life.[citation needed]Then, in 1828,Friedrich Whler

published a paper onthe synthesis ofurea,proving thatorganic compounds can becreated artificially.[3]

The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme,diastase(today calledamylase), in 1833 byAnselme Payen.[4]Eduard Buchner contributed thefirst demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside a cell in 1896:alcoholicfermentation in cell extracts of yeast.

[5]Although the term "biochemistry" seems to have

been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistryoccurred in 1903 byCarl Neuberg,a Germanchemist.[6]Since then, biochemistry hasadvanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of newtechniques such aschromatography,X-ray diffraction,dual polarisation interferometry,

NMR spectroscopy,radioisotopic labeling,electron microscopy,andmoleculardynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysisof many molecules andmetabolic pathways of thecell,such asglycolysis and theKrebscycle (citric acid cycle).

Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of thegene and its rolein the transfer of information in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often calledmolecular biology.[7]In the 1950s,James D. Watson,Francis Crick,Rosalind Franklin,andMaurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting itsrelationship with genetic transfer of information.

[8]In 1958,George Beadle andEdward

Tatum received theNobel Prize for work in fungi showing thatone gene produces one

enzyme.[9]In 1988,Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder withDNAevidence, which led to growth offorensic science.

[10]More recently,Andrew Z. Fire and

Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role ofRNAinterference (RNAi), in the silencing ofgene expression.[11]

Starting materials: the chemical elements of life

Main articles:Composition of the human body andDietary mineral
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e_human_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Sen_2007-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNAihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_C._Mellohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Z._Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Butler_2009-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Pitchforkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Krebs_2012-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_gene-one_enzyme_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_gene-one_enzyme_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Tatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Tatumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Beadlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Crickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotopic_labelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_polarisation_interferometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Ben-Menahem_2009-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Neuberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Buchnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselme_Payenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amylasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Kauffman_2001-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ureahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B6hler_synthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cori_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Corihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerty_Cori


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Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurringchemical elements are essential tovarious kinds ofbiological life.Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life(exceptions beingselenium andiodine), while a few common ones (aluminum andtitanium) are not used. Most organisms share element needs, but there are a fewdifferences between plants and animals. For example ocean algae usebromine but

land plants and animals seem to need none. All animals requiresodium,but someplants do not. Plants needboron andsilicon,but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).

Just six elementscarbon,hydrogen,nitrogen,oxygen,calcium,andphosphorusmake up almost 99% of the mass of a human body (seecomposition of the human bodyfor a complete list). In addition to the six major elements that compose most of thehuman body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.

[12]

Biomolecules

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry arecarbohydrates,lipids,proteins,andnucleic acids.Manybiological molecules are polymers: in this terminology,monomersare relatively small micro molecules that are linked together to create largemacromolecules,which are known as polymers. When monomers are linked togetherto synthesize abiological polymer,they undergo a process calleddehydrationsynthesis.Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often neededfor biological activity.

Carbohydrates

Main articles:Carbohydrate,Monosaccharide,Disaccharide,andPolysaccharide

A molecule ofsucrose (glucose + fructose), adisaccharide.

Carbohydrates are made from monomers calledmonosaccharides.Some of thesemonosaccharides includeglucose (C6H12O6),fructose (C6H12O6), anddeoxyribose(C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water isproduced, as twohydrogen atoms and oneoxygen atom are lost from the twomonosaccharides'hydroxyl group.

Lipids

Main articles:Lipid,Glycerol,andFatty acid
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A triglyceride with a glycerol molecule on the left and three fatty acids coming off it.

Lipidsare usually made from one molecule ofglycerol combined with other molecules.Intriglycerides,the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and threefatty acids.Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may besaturated(nodouble bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in thecarbon chain).

Lipids, especiallyphospholipids,are also used in various pharmaceutical products,either as co-solubilisers (e.g., inparenteral infusions) or else as drug carriercomponents (e.g., in aliposome ortransfersome).

Proteins

Main articles:Proteins andAmino Acids

The general structure of an -amino acid, with theamino group on the left and thecarboxyl group on the right.

Proteins are very large moleculesmacro-biopolymersmade from monomers calledamino acids. There are 20standard amino acids,each containing acarboxyl group,anamino group,and aside-chain (known as an "R" group). The "R" group is what makeseach amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence theoverallthree-dimensional conformation of a protein. When amino acids combine, theyform a special bond called apeptide bond throughdehydration synthesis, and becomeapolypept ide,orprotein.

In order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decidewhether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods.Methods like Sequence Alignments and Structural Alignments are powerful tools thathelp scientists identify homologies between related molecules.[13]

The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming anevolutionary pattern of protein families. By finding how similar two protein sequencesare, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.

Nucleic acids
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The structure ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers beingput together.Main articles:Nucleic acid,DNA,RNA,andNucleotides

Nucleic acids are the molecules that make upDNA,an extremely important substancethat all cellular organisms use to store their genetic information. The most commonnucleic acids aredeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) andribonucleic acid (RNA). Theirmonomers are callednucleotides.The most common nucleotides areadenine,cytosine,guanine,thymine,anduracil.Adenine binds with thymine and uracil; Thymine bindsonly with adenine; and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another.

Carbohydrates

Main article:Carbohydrate

The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure.Sugarsare carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrateson Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy andgenetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions andcommunications.

Monosaccharides

Glucose

The simplest type of carbohydrate is amonosaccharide,which between other propertiescontains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formulaCnH2nOn, where nis at least 3). Glucose, one of the most important carbohydrates, is an
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example of a monosaccharide. So is fructose, the sugar commonly associated with thesweet taste offruits.

[14][a]Some carbohydrates (especially aftercondensation to oligo-

and polysaccharides) contain less carbon relative to H and O, which still are present in2:1 (H:O) ratio. Monosaccharides can be grouped intoaldoses (having analdehydegroup at the end of the chain, e.g. glucose) andketoses (having aketo group in their

chain; e.g. fructose). Both aldoses and ketoses occur in anequilibrium (starting withchain lengths of C4) cyclic forms. These are generated by bond formation between oneof the hydroxyl groups of the sugar chain with the carbon of the aldehyde or keto groupto form ahemiacetal bond. This leads to saturated five-membered (in furanoses) or six-membered (in pyranoses)heterocyclic rings containing one O as heteroatom.

Disaccharides

Sucrose:ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.

Two monosaccharides can be joined usingdehydration synthesis,in which a hydrogenatom is removed from the end of one molecule and ahydroxyl group (OH) is removedfrom the other; the remaining residues are then attached at the sites from which theatoms were removed. The HOH or H2O is then released as a molecule ofwater,hence the term dehydration. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, iscalled adisaccharideand is conjoined together by a glycosidic orether bond.The

reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharideand break the glycosidic bond; this is termedhydrolysis.The most well-knowndisaccharide is sucrose, ordinarysugar (in scientific contexts, called table sugarorcanesugarto differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of aglucose molecule andafructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide islactose,consisting of a glucose molecule and agalactose molecule. As most humans age, theproduction oflactase,the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose andgalactose,typically decreases. This results inlactase deficiency,also called lactoseintolerance.

Sugar polymers are characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends. Areducingend of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chainaldehyde or keto form. If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom,the free hydroxy group of thepyranose orfuranose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a fullacetal.This prevents opening of the chain to thealdehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose containsa reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetalwith the C4-OH group of glucose.Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of
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full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbonof fructose (C2).

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

Cellulose as polymer of -D-glucose

When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called anoligosaccharide(oligo-meaning "few"). These molecules tend to be used as markersand signals, as well as having some other uses. Many monosaccharides joined togethermake apolysaccharide.They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they

may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides arecellulose andglycogen,both consisting of repeating glucosemonomers.

Celluloseis made byplants and is an important structural component of theircellwalls.Humans can neither manufacture nor digest it.

Glycogen, on the other hand, is ananimal carbohydrate; humans and otheranimals use it as a form of energy storage.

Use of carbohydrates as an energy source

Main article:Carbohydrate metabolism

Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharidesare broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucoseresidues from glycogen). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into theirtwo component monosaccharides.

Glycolysis (anaerobic)

Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis,the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules ofpyruvate;this also produces a net two molecules ofATP,the energy currency of cells,

along with two reducing equivalents as convertingNAD+

to NADH. This does not requireoxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored byconverting the pyruvate tolactate (lactic acid) (e.g., in humans) or toethanol pluscarbon dioxide (e.g., inyeast). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose canbe converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.[15]

Aerobic
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A schematic ofhemoglobin.The red and blue ribbons represent the proteinglobin;thegreen structures are theheme groups.

Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance,movements of the proteinsactin andmyosin ultimately are responsible for thecontraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specificallybind to a certain molecule or class of moleculesthey may be extremelyselective inwhat they bind.Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of

molecule. In fact, theenzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which usesantibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect variousbiomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. Thesemolecules recognize specific reactant molecules calledsubstrates;they thencatalyzethe reaction between them. By lowering theactivation energy,the enzyme speeds upthat reaction by a rate of 1011or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. Theenzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reactionwith a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can beregulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

In essence, proteins are chains ofamino acids.An amino acid consists of a carbonatom bound to four groups. One is anamino group, NH2, and one is acarboxylic acidgroup, COOH (although these exist as NH3

+and COOunder physiologic

conditions). The third is a simple hydrogen atom. The fourth is commonly denoted "R"and is different for each amino acid. There are 20 standard amino acids. Some of thesehave functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions asan importantneurotransmitter.

Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joinedtogether as a dipeptide.

Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a watermolecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's
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amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule iscalled adipeptide,and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) arecalledpeptidesor polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the titleproteins. As anexample, the important bloodserum proteinalbumin contains 585 amino acidresidues.[17]

The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. Theprimary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; forinstance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-".Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study ofstructure). Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an-helix or into a sheet called a-sheet;some -helixes can be seen in the hemoglobinschematic above.Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein.This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change canchange the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acidresidues; substitution of theglutamate residue at position 6 with avaline residue

changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results insickle-cell disease.Finally,quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiplepeptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more thanone subunit.[18]

Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in thesmall intestine,and then absorbed. They can then be joined to make new proteins.Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and thepentose phosphatepathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plantspossess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals,however, can synthesize only half of them. They cannot synthesizeisoleucine,leucine,

lysine,methionine,phenylalanine,threonine,tryptophan,and valine. These are theessential amino acids,since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess theenzymes to synthesizealanine,asparagine,aspartate,cysteine,glutamate,glutamine,glycine,proline,serine,andtyrosine,the nonessential amino acids. While they cansynthesizearginine andhistidine,they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young,growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.

If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeletoncalled an -keto acid.Enzymes calledtransaminases can easily transfer the aminogroup from one amino acid (making it an -keto acid) to another -keto acid (making itan amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of thepathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the -ketoacid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often viatransamination.The aminoacids may then be linked together to make a protein.[19]

A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its componentamino acids. Freeammonia (NH3), existing as theammonium ion (NH4

+) in blood, istoxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Differenttactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs.Unicellular
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipeptidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipeptidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipeptidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_serum_albuminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Metzler_2001-17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Metzler_2001-17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Metzler_2001-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoleucinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methioninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalaninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threoninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparaginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argininehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histidinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keto_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicellularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicellularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keto_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histidinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argininehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutaminehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparaginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threoninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalaninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methioninehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoleucinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Metzler_2001-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_serum_albuminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipeptide


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organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Likewise,bonyfish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general,mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via theurea cycle.

[20]

Lipids

Main article:Lipid

The term lipid composes a diverse range ofmolecules and to some extent is a catchallfor relatively water-insoluble ornonpolar compounds of biological origin, includingwaxes,fatty acids,fatty-acid derivedphospholipids,sphingolipids,glycolipids,andterpenoids (e.g.,retinoids andsteroids). Some lipids are linearaliphatic molecules,while others have ring structures. Some arearomatic,while others are not. Some areflexible, while others are rigid.

[21]

Most lipids have somepolar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. In general,

the bulk of their structure is nonpolar orhydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that itdoes not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure ispolar orhydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents likewater. This makes themamphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic andhydrophilic portions). In the case ofcholesterol,the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxylor alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger andmore polar, as described below.

Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Mostoils andmilk products that we use forcooking and eating likebutter,cheese,ghee etc., are composed offats.Vegetable oilsare rich in variouspolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo

digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the finaldegradation products of fats and lipids.

Nucleic acids

Main article:Nucleic acid

A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromoleculecomposed of nucleotide chains that conveygenetic information.[22]The most commonnucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acidsare found in all living cells and viruses. Aside from the genetic material of the cell,

nucleic acids often play a role assecond messengers,as well as forming the basemolecule for adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy-carrier molecule found in allliving organisms.

Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellularnuclei,is the generic nameof the family of biopolymers. The monomers are callednucleotides,and each consistsof three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclicbase (either apurine or apyrimidine),a pentose sugar, and aphosphate group. Different nucleic acid types differ in the
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specific sugar found in their chain (e.g., DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-deoxyriboses). Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids aredifferent: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymineoccurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.[23]

Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences

Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology

Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, butincreasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields ofgenetics,molecular biology andbiophysics.There has never been a hard-line amongthese disciplines in terms of content and technique. Today, the terms molecular biologyand biochemistryare nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that

depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

Biochemistryis the study of the chemical substances and vital processesoccurring in livingorganisms.Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, andstructure ofbiomolecules.The study of the chemistry behind biological processesand the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.

Geneticsis the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often thiscan be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g., onegene). Thestudy of "mutants"organisms with a changed gene that leads to the organismbeing different with respect to the so-called "wild type"or normalphenotype.Genetic interactions (epistasis)can often confound simple interpretations of such

"knock-out" or "knock-in" studies. Molecular biologyis the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of

replication, transcription and translation of thegenetic material.Thecentraldogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA andthen translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecularbiology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. Thispicture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles forRNA.

[24]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_interactionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Ulveling_2011-24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Ulveling_2011-24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Ulveling_2011-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry,_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Ulveling_2011-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_interactionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-23


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Chemical Biologyseeks to develop new tools based onsmall molecules thatallow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailedinformation about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biologicalsystems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and syntheticdevices (for example emptiedviral capsids that can delivergene therapy or drug

molecules).

See also

Main article:Outline of biochemistry

Schematic relationship between biochemistry,genetics andmolecular biology.

Lists

Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry) List of biochemistry topics List of biochemists List of biomolecules

See also

Chemical ecology Computational biomodeling EC number Hypothetical types of biochemistry International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Metabolome Metabolomics

Molecular medicine Plant biochemistry Proteolysis Small molecule Structural biology

Notes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_capsidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biomodelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_Commission_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_Biochemistry_and_Molecular_Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolomicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology#Biochemistry_of_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry,_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology#Biochemistry_of_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolomicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_Biochemistry_and_Molecular_Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_Commission_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biomodelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_capsidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_molecule


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a.^Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits. Glucose and sucrose are also found in varyingquantities in various fruits, and indeed sometimes exceed the fructose present. For example,32% of the edible portion of date is glucose, compared with 23.70% fructose and 8.20%sucrose. However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) orglucose (1.47%).[25]

References

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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#ref_anonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#ref_anonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#ref_anonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Whiting1970p5-25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Whiting1970p5-25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biochemistry&printable=yes#cite_note-Whiting1970p5-25http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93ehttp://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93ehttp://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93ehttp://www.biochemistry.org/Education/Careers/Schoolsandcolleges/Whatisbiochemistry.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00897010444ahttp://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&pg=PA2982http://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&pg=PA2982http://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&pg=PA2982http://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&pg=PA2982http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68831-0http://books.google.com/books?id=FzBs_QgihRIC&pg=PA32http://books.google.com/books?id=FzBs_QgihRIC&pg=PA32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1265-8http://books.google.com/books?id=-OZeEmqzE4oC&pg=PA5http://books.google.com/books?id=-OZeEmqzE4oC&pg=PA5http://books.google.com/books?id=-OZeEmqzE4oC&pg=PA5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-096176-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2Fdna.2006.0567http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17465885http://hdl.handle.net/10113/46493http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbib%2Fbbl032http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17003074http://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-492540-3http://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8400-6865-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2010.11.004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21111023http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_accesshttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21111023http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2010.11.004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8400-6865-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://books.google.com/books?id=I6X8G8YPdv4C&pg=PA558http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-492540-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://books.google.com/books?id=1R_a_D6SSJEC&pg=PA58http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17003074http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbib%2Fbbl032http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://hdl.handle.net/10113/46493http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17465885http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2Fdna.2006.0567http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-096176-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=-OZeEmqzE4oC&pg=PA5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1265-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=FzBs_QgihRIC&pg=PA32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68831-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internati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25. Whiting, G.C. (1970), p.5

Cited literature

Fromm, Herbert J.; Hargrove, Mark (2012). Essentials of Biochemistry. Springer.ISBN978-3-642-19623-2.

Hunter, Graeme K. (2000). Vital Forces: The Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Life .Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-361811-5.

Tropp, Burton E. (2012). Molecular Biology(4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.ISBN978-1-4496-0091-4.

External links

The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy ofNCBI. Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Full text of Garrett and Grisham. Biochemistry Animation (Narrated Flash animations.) SystemsX.ch - The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology Biochemistry Online ResourcesLists of Biochemistry departments, websites, journals,

books and reviews, employment opportunities and events. [2]-Full text of Biochemistry by Kevin and Indira, an introductory biochemistry textbook.

Biochemicalfamilies:carbohydrateso alcoholso glycoproteinso glycosides

lipidso eicosanoidso fatty acids /intermediateso phospholipidso sphingolipidso steroids

nucleic acidso constituents /intermediates

proteinso Amino acids /intermediates

tetrapyrroles /intermediates

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