IMPACT OF SOCIAL CULTURE FACTORS ON SOCIAL COMPARISON, INTERNALIZATION AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI

Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIETtariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk; tariquej2004@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTBackground/Objectives:The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affected the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world over and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationships of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image, social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of religiosity.

Design/methodology/approach: The conceptual framework for this study is based on Social Comparison Theory. Self administered questionnaires with established reliability and validity have been used in this paper. Valid sample size was 192, and was drawn through quota sampling. Various statistical techniques were used for analysis purpose including: (1) Principal Axis Factoring method for reducing the numbers of items from some of the constructs(2) Cronbach’s alpha for measuring the reliabilities(3) Multiple regression for assessing the relationships, and (4) Sobel’s test for ascertaining the mediating effects of religiosity.Major Findings:Social factors (Parents, teachers and Media) moderately influence body image. However, comparatively, stronger relationships were found between exposure to media and social comparison/ internalization. The mediating role of religiosity ,was found to be significantly stronger. LimitationsThe findings are limited to local consumer of Karachi, only, and cannot be generalized across the whole Pakistan or internationally.Implication:The research provides an in-depth understanding of Pakistani consumers in respect to media and social factors which could be used by the marketers to understand their behavior and develop appropriate marketing strategies. From social perspective it would help the governmental agencies to develop strategies to control the aftereffects of body image and media.ContributionBulk of the research on this issue has been carried out in developed countries, and South East Asian countries. No such study in Pakistan has been ever carried out. A new construct religiosity has been incorporated in the framework of Social Comparison Theory to understand how well it assimilate in the theory to explain the consumer behavior. It will, also, validate the Social Comparison Theory and other constructs in Pakistan.Keywords Social Comparison Theory, Body Image, Internalization, Internalization Key Area: Marketing

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IMPACT OF SOCIAL CULTURE FACTORS ON SOCIAL COMPARISON, INTERNALIZATION AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI

Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIETtariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk ; tariquej2004@yahoo.com

1. BackgroundThe growth of television in the developing counties including Pakistan has been remarkable. Up to the year 1997 there were only a few TV channels available for the population of Pakistan. By the year 2009 the media environment changed dramatically and now they have the facility of watching more than 100 foreign and local TV channels (Media Pakistan, 2009). In view of the media exposure conceptual definition of body image has changed considerably over a period of time. Initially, body image was considered as a picture formed by individuals in their mind about their body (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Subsequently, body image definition became multidimensional due to inclusion of “self attitude towards body image” in terms of size, shape and aesthetic. Addition of these constructs has broadened the conceptual definitions of body image (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Similarly, the explosion of televisions networks in Pakistan in last one decade has completely revolutionized the culture. The ideal model being portrayed by the media has significantly changed the local population’s perception of body image, dressing habits, styles of living and purchasing behavior (Kamran, 2009)

1.1 Gaps in Literature and contribution

Researchers in recent years have again started using social comparison theory in their researches specially for explaining the mechanism of interaction between ideal beauty models in media and young women (Martin and Kennedy, 1993; Richin 1991). However, very little empirical researches have been carried out for measuring their behavior phenomena (Parker, 1995). Most of the researches on the impact of role models on body image have been focused on adolescent girls (McCabe, Ricciardelli, 2001), adolescents’ females (Levine.et.al, , 1994), but very few on all age groups and both male and female (Hesse-Biber, 1996;Berg,2001).

No such integrated study on influence socio culture factors on body image has ever been carried out in Pakistan. The contribution of this paper is that it has examined how religiosity assimilates with the social comparison theory in explaining the impact of media on body image and other related constructs. This would, not, only revalidate the constructs in an eastern culture like Pakistan, but would also increase their generalize ability.

1.2 Limitation

The scope of this study is limited to one city only and hence the finding could not be generalized as being overall perception of Pakistan’s consumers. Since Karachi has diversified ethnicity,

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therefore, the sample should have been drawn in such a manner that it would have reflected the perception of all the ethnical population living in Karachi. Future researcher may use a larger sample drawn on all Pakistan bases. They could explore whether the body image perception varies ethnically, by age and gender.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) How socio culture factors (Peers, Media, and Parents are affecting body image in Pakistan (2)What is the Impact of Media on Social Comparison(3) What is the Impact of Media on Internalization (4) Explore the mediating role of Religiosity on Socio Culture Factors and Body Image.

2 Brief Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1 Conceptual framework

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) has been used for developing the theoretical framework for this study. The social comparison theory helps in understanding the causes of media images on people and its affect on their body image. It also examines the individual behavior in response to peer groups and other social categories (Milkie, 1999). The focal point of the theory is that people compare themselves with other on the basis of those dimensions that are similar to them. The comparison could be upward or down ward. In upward comparison individuals compare themselves with someone who is superior to them. Generally, upward comparison leads to depression of mood. In case of downward comparison the target personality would be those who may be inferior to them on several dimensions. Some researchers have emphasized that this comparison helps in the evaluation of mood (Lin & Kulk, 2002, schooler et al, 2004, Tiggeman & Mcgil, 2004, Tiggeman & Starer, 2004). In an another study, it was found that women’s exposure to highly attractive models adversely affect their body image and mood (slater, 2003) as a consequence they resort to buying and shopping for elevating their moods (Gardner & Rook, 1987). An individual can look and compare themselves through various sources but mass media is considered as the one that has the strongest influence.

Television, advertisement magazine are not only source of upward comparison but the images being portrayed in these media are impossible to achieve (Schooler et. At, 2004, Thomson & covert, 1999). Most of the company’s media campaigns are targeted towards women so that they could compare themselves with the ideal thin model and then turn to purchasing the products. If there is a difference in the image being portrayed and of women themselves then their inclination to purchase the advertised product such as diet, makeup and hair grooming will increase substantially (Thompsion on Coovert, 1999).

Originally, the social comparison theory was applied on opinion and ability evaluation, but now it is being used to measure the social comparison effect on self esteem (Richin, 1991). Several studies have demonstrated that there is a link between body image, and self esteem. However, body image is not restricted to visual impact of the body, but is inclusive of collective attitudes, and feeling about the body image (Mayo, 1992).

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Therefore, social comparison theory is used in this study as a framework to explore how social comparison of media, parents and peers affects the body image, and internalization. A construct religiosity has, also, been incorporated in the conceptual frame work (depicted below) to explore how it assimilates with the theory in explaining the consumer behavior.

Figure-1 Conceptual framework

2.1.1 Social factors and body Image

Cash (1995) is of the opinion that some of the common influencers of the body image are family, peers, and society; however Cash, Ancis & Strachan (1997) observed that negative body image has adverse impact on self esteem. Family is generally considered as major factor of socialization to young children. Children perception about their bodies is strongly influenced by parents and other care givers. Parents either explicitly or implicitly convey to their children that they should not deviate from the ideal norms in society (Kelly, 2004) Besides, directly pressuring children to lose weight, parents also indirectly influences the children on their diet, physical attributes and physical appearance (Kelly, 2004).

Besides Parents and Peers Media also influences individual’s behavior. In fact it has completely changed the cultural ideals of the last two decades (Berg, 2001). Tiggeman, et.al (2003) found that one of the reasons females read magazines as they want to keep themselves updated on the issues related to beauty, fitness, and grooming products. Television, advertisement magazine are not only source of upward comparison but the images being portrayed in these media are impossible to achieve (Schooler et. At, 2004, Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999)). Thus the following hypothesis has been formulated:

H1: There is no relationship between Social factors (Mother, father, Teacher, and Peers) and Body Image.

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InternalizationSocio culture Influence

Media

Peers

Parents

SocialComparison

Body Image

Religiosity

2.1.2 Media and Social Comparison

Exposure to media leads to Social comparison. The comparison could be upward or downward. In upward comparison individuals compare themselves with someone who is superior to them. Generally, upward comparison leads to depression of mood. In case of downward comparison the target personality would be those who may be inferior to them on several dimensions (Festinger, 1954). Some researchers have emphasized that this comparison helps in the elevation of mood (Lin & Kulk, 2002, schooler et al, 2004, Tiggeman & mcgil, 2004, Tiggeman & Slater, 2004). The derived hypothesis is presented below:

H3: There is not relationship between exposure to media and social comparison.

2.1.3 Exposure to media and Internalization

Generally, two explanations are given for body image dissatisfaction. One is social comparison theory and the other is the degree of internalization (Stormer & Thompson, 1996). Women generally assess their attractiveness by internalizing the thin ideal models. If the exposure is high, the level of internalization may also be higher and vice versa (Cattarin et. Al., 2002). This discussions lead to the following hypothesis.

H4: There is no relationship between exposure to Media Exposure and Internalization.

2.1.4 Religiosity and body image

Religiosity refers to level of commitment to a religious group, and it plays a significant role in influencing consumer behavior. Since consumer buying behavior is governed by religion, therefore, it could also be used for segmenting consumers markets (Delener, 1990b). Another study also supported the premise that consumer attitude and behavior are governed by religiosity, whereas the attitude is based on consumer’s belief or religion (Esso and Dibb, 2004;Nitton and Sally 2004). The religious philosophy provides frame of reference on how to live, and behave in a society (Weaver & Agle, 2002), therefore, the impact of media exposure on body image vary with the level of religiosity. Thus the following hypothesis has been generated.

H6: Religiosity would mediate the relationship between exposure to Media and Body Image.

3 Methodology

3.1 Instrument

Questionnaires as an instrument are commonly used in descriptive and exploratory researches.The constructs in this study has been previously used in the similar context by the other researchers, and have proven reliabilities and validities as depicted below:

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Table No.1 Summary of constructs used

Mea

sure

Aut

hor

No.

of

Item

s

Sca

le R

atin

g

No

o F

acto

rs

Rel

iabi

lity

Body Image (BIG3) Cash and Syzmanski,1995 22 1-4 2 .76 to .81

Self Esteem Rosenberg, 1965 10 1-4 1 .82 to .88

Internalization (SATAQ-3) Thompson et.al, 2004 16 1-5 2 .90 to .97

Social Comparison Fujita, 1996 13 1-10 2 .95

Socio Cultural Feedback McCabe & Ricciardelli,2001 9 1-5 2 .72

Religiosity Orientation Worthing et.al, 2003 10 1-5 2 .93 to .96

The questionnaires used for this study originally had different scale, and types. In order to have consistency, the entire construct were transformed to Likert seven rating scale. One is representing lowest level of disagreement and seven representing highest level of agreement.

3.2 Population and Sample Size

An appropriate sample size is a critical factor for any research. Tull & Hakins(1998) after reviewing several hundred researches reported that sample size on consumer researches on national basis were ranged between 1000 to 2500. Comparatively, sample sizes for regional based consumers’ studies were found to be 200 to 1000. Hair Jr. et al, (2007) advocates 30 samples per cell for factorial design. This study has not used factorial design, therefore Sekran (2003) view of minimum 30 samples per variables have been used which comes out to be 180 (6 variables X 30 samples).The sample size for this 225 and valid samples were 193.

3.3 Subject

The questionnaire was administered to 225 respondents, valid questionnaires were 193. In terms of gender 42% of the subjects were single, and the rest 44% were married. In terms of Marital Status, 56% were single, and the rest 44% were married. The respondent had significant representation in all the categories of income, education, and ethnicity.

3.4 Sampling Technique

Sampling drawing techniques comes in two broad categories. One is probability sampling and other is non-probability sampling. Generally, the probability sampling is preferred when overall generalize ability is critical for the study. However, for probability sampling, a pre-requisite is defining sampling frame, which is not possible if the research is consumer oriented and national based (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2008). This in essence means that all the probability sampling techniques such as simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster, and multi- cluster technique would not be possible in a research of this quantum. Thus, the researcher has used quota sampling by allocating 200 samples to five areas of Karachi which are: (1) Defense (2) Clifton (3) PECHS (4) Bhadrabad (5) North Nazimabad.

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3.5 Normality

Normality of data is a pre-requisite for Regression and t and Z, tests. Normality of data was carried out in several stages. Initially, Box, Whisker, and Steam Leaf were plotted for identifying outliers. Outliers are those observations which are significantly different than the entire sample data (Harir, Jr. et.al, 2007). Myers et al., (2006) suggest that if the quantum of the outliers is within 1% it would be more appropriate to leave them alone. Outliers of 5% or greater than the sample data should be recoded to the nearest upward or downward values (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The outliers in this study were within 1% range and hence were left alone. Some of the researchers suggest converting each variable to Z-score and removing those which exceeds ± 2.5. However, in this study normality were based on simple rule of checking whether the skewness and Kurtosis is lesser than ±1.0 (Leech et.al, 2009). The skewness and Kurtosis of all constructs were within this range of ±1 (Results are discussed in Section 4.3).

3.6 Research Technique

The Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied for reducing the number of items from the constructs, and Cronbach’s alpha was used for ascertaining the reliabilities. Multiple regression technique was used for measuring the relationships, and Sobel Test was used for measuring the mediating affect.

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Reliability

The instrument used for this pretest comprised of constructs which were earlier used by the researchers and therefore have established validities and reliabilities. However, the reliabilities of the used constructs were again reestablished, and the summarized results are presented below:

Table No.2.Reestablishing Reliabilities for PretestConstruct Cronbach’s

AlphaCronbach,s Alpha on

Standarized Items

No OfItems

Mean S.D

Body Image .592 .592 11 4.915 0.795

Internalization .826 .827 8 5.12 0.987

Social Comparison .810 .789 9 5.106 1.238

Religiosity .768 .768 10 5.041 0.576

Socio culture Feedback .702 .704 5 5.001 0.541

The above table shows that the reliably of internalization is the highest (α=.827, M=4.915, SD=0.795). Reliabilities of the all the constructs were greater than 0.7 except Body Image (α=.592, M=4.915, SD=.795) are within the acceptable range indicating that the respective items have reasonable internal consistency and reliability. Although, the alpha for Body Image perception is on the lower side, but several research journals still accept this if one or two constructs have the alpha in the range of 0.60 to 0.70 (Leech, et.al, 2007).

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4.2 Factor loading for reducing the items

Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied on the three constructs, for reducing the number of items. The assumption of independent sampling, linear relationships, and moderate correlation ships were met. The criteria used were: (1) The Barley Test of Speheriicity was significant P <.05) (2) Kaiser-Meyer Olikin Measure of Sampling was greater than required 0.60 (3)The criteria used was to select top 4-6 items with factorial loading of at least 0.60.The summarized results are presented below:

Table number 3 Varimax Factor Loading Construct Original items Kaiser-Meyer

OlkinBarley Test of Sphercity

Cumulative Factor loading

Items Retained

Body Image Ideal 11 .910 0 78% 4

Social Comparison 11 .8290 0 90% 5

Religiosity 10 .767 0 85% 5

4.3 Normality of constructs

In order to ascertain the normality of the data, the descriptive statistics were generated, which is summarized below:

Table Number 4 Descriptive StatisticsMean St. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis

Peers Feedback 4.915 0.795 0.180 -0.481

Parents Feedback 5.089 0.814 0.033 -0.614

Media Feedback 5.016 1.070 -0.349 -0.974

Socio culture Feedback 5.001 0.541 -0.246 -0.211

Internalization 5.12 0.987 -0.485 0.348

Social Comparison 5.106 1.238 -0.336 -1.078

Religiosity 5.041 0.576 -0.101 -0.356

Body Image 5.133 0.856 -0.199 -0.348

The above table shows that Parents Feedback (Mean=5.089, SD= .814) has the lowest skewness (0.033), and Internalization (Mean = 5.120, SD=0.987) has the highest skewness (-0.485). On the other hand except Internalization (Mean =5.12, SD=.987) has the positive kurtosis, and the rest of the constructs have negative kurtosis. However, since all the constructs in terms of skewness and kurtosis are within the range of ±1.5, therefore it could be safely assumed that the data has normal tendency.

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4.4 Hypotheses

4.4.1 Hypothesis-1

Multiple regression analysis was used to test if Social Culture Feedback such as (1) Peers (2) Parents, and Media would significantly predict participants' ratings of Body Image. The summarized results are presented below:Table Number 4 Regression Summary

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) .329 .486 .677 .499

Peers Feedback .242 .066 .225 3.658 .000

Parents Feedback .489 .064 .466 7.602 .000

Media Feedback .224 .050 .280 4.480 .000

Dependent Variable Body \Image: Note: R2 = 0.347; Adjusted R2= .336, P<.05

The results of the regression indicates that the three predictors (1) Peers Feedback (M=4.915, SD=.795) (2) Parents Feedback (M=5.089, SD=.814, and (3) Media Feedback (M=5.016,SD=1.07) have significant relationship with Dependent Variable Body Image (M=5.133,SD=0.856) On aggregate basis the three predictors explained 34.7% of the variance (R2=.347, F (3,189) =33.45 p<.05). It was found that Parents Feedback, (ß =0.489, p<.05), Peers Feedback (ß = 0.242, p<.05), and Media Feedback (ß = 0.224, p<.05), significantly predicted Body Image (M=5.133, SD=0.856).

As compared to above finding some researchers has found inverse relationship between social culture factors and body image or body satisfaction (Stice and Shaw, 1994). While other researchers found positive relationship between exposures to Socio Culture factors especially media respondent and body image, which was termed as thin fantasy (Poliy &Herman, 2004). Comparatively, some authors like Varnado (2000) found no significant relationship between exposure to media and body dissatisfaction.

Traditionally, in eastern culture like Pakistan, Parents Feedback has stronger influencer on body image, as compared to feedback of Peers, and Media. The above findings are also similar to the cultural values of Pakistan. In the similar context Martia, McCabe, Ricciarrdelli(2001) found that mothers, and media continuously give feedback on body image, while the content of father’s body image feedback to children varies by gender (Martia, McCabe, Ricciarrdelli, 2001).

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4.4.2 Hypothesis-2

The hypothesis two postulates that there is no relationship between Media Feedback, and Internalization. Simple regression analysis was used to test if (1) Media Feedback predicted Internalization. The summarized results are presented below:

Table Number 6 Regression Summary

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 2.092 .259 8.081 .000

Media Feedback .603 .050 .654 11.947 .000

Dependent Variable: Internalization Note: R2 = 0.428; Adjusted R2= .425, P<.05

The results of the regression indicated Predictor Media Feedback (M=5.016, SD=1.016) explained 42.8% of the variance of the dependent variable Internalization (R2= .428, F (1,191) =142.73 p<.05). It was found that influence of Media feedback (B=.429, p<.05) on Internalization (M=5.12, SD=.987) was significant.

Finding of the earlier researches matches with the above findings. For example, it has been found that media not only promotes internalization but has been a source for changing the body image perception (Stice, Splanger, Agras, 2001).

4.4.3 Hypothesis-3

The hypothesis three postulates that there is no relationship between Media Feedback and Social Comparison. Simply Regression analysis was used to test if there is relationship between Media Feedback, and Internalization. The summarized results are presented below:

Table Number 7 Regression Summary

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) .542 .266 2.042 .042

Media Feedback .910 .052 .786 17.571 .000

Dependent Variable Social Comparison, Note: R2 = 0.618; Adjusted R2= .616, P<.05

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The results of the regression show Independent Variable Media Feedback explain 61.8% of the variance of the dependent variable Social Comparison (R2= 0.618, F (1,191) =308.741p<.05). Predictor Media Feedback (B=.919 p<.05) significantly explained Social Comparison (M=5.106, SD=1.238).

The above findings are in similar to the findings of other researchers. For example, Stice and Shaw (1994) found that media exposure not only lead to social comparison, but also adversely affects body image feelings. In an another study it was found that media exposure is linked to social comparison, which leads to lower self esteem, and negative mood (Bassenoff, 2006). Another study in this context found that if a person is looking to someone who is not similar to him/her in appearance then he /she would derive valuable information from that person irrespective of the impact on the body image feeling (Kruglanski, and Mayseless, 1990).

4.4.4 Hypothesis-4

The hypothesis Four postulates that religiosity would mediate the relationship between Social Culture Influence and Body Image. In order to test meditation effect through Sobel’s test multiple regressions was carried out twice. First exposure to media (independent) and Religiosity (mediating variable) were regressed. Subsequently, Mediating variable (Religiosity) and body Image (Dependent variable) were regressed. The summarized results are discussed below:

a) Relationship between Independent Variable, Socio-culture (M= 5.001, SD=0. 541 ) and Mediating Variable, Religiosity(M= 5.041, SD=0.576) was found to be significant (R2= 0.887, F (1,191) =1505.015p<.05).

b) Relationship between Moderating Variable, Religiosity (M=5.041 SD=0.576) and Dependent Variable Body Image (M= 5.133, SD= 0.866) was found to be significant (R2= .0.618, F (1,191) =308.741p<.05).

c) Relationship between Independent Variable, Socio Culture (M= 5.001, SD=1.238) and Dependent Variable, Body Image (M= 5.133, SD=0.856) was found to be significant (R2= 0.339, F (1,191) =99.398p<.05).

d) Subsequently, Sobel’s equation/and/calculator, presented below was used for ascertaining the Sobel Z value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa2 + a2*sb2)

Where, a = raw (un standardized) regression coefficient for the association between IV and mediator = 1.002 Sa = standard error = 0.026; b = raw coefficient for the association between the mediator and the DV (when the IV is also a predictor of the DV)= 0.870;S b = standard error of=.087. The summarized results generated through Sobel’s calculator are presented below:

Sobel Test statistics = 9.679 Standard Error=0.090

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P value (two tail)= 0

The above P value at 95% confidence level falls at the non-critical region; therefore, hypothesis that the mediation effect is zero has been rejected. Thus it has been concluded that Religiosity would mediate the relationship between Social Exposure and Body Image. Previously, the public in Pakistan used to get feedback on socio cultural values through Parents, and schooling, but now there are several religious channels in Pakistan that are providing continuous feedback to the local population and hence its mediating affect is not surprising.

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