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Effects of Chemicals on Vase Life of Cut Carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus L. ‘Delphi’)

and Microorganisms Population in Solution..................................................................................1

B. Edrisi, A. Sadrpoor, V. R. Saffari.

Optimizing Plant Density, Planting Depth and Postharvest Preservatives for Li lium

longifolium.......................................................................................................................................................13A. Amjad, I. Ahmad

Preliminary Evaluation of Productivity and Fruit Quality for Seven Peach Rootstocks in

C h i l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1

Sotomayor, C., J. Castro, A. Bravo.

Effect of Calotropis procera Leaf Extract on Seed Germination of Some Plants................................27

S. Ghasemi , M. Ghasemi, N. Moradi, A. M. Shamili

Integrated Management of Soybean (Glycine × max L. Merr.) by Essential oil of Citrus × sinensis L

cv.‘ Osbeck’ Epicarp in Postharvest .............................................................................................................33

N. Sharma, M. Prakash Srivastava

Effect of Nitrogen and Plant Spacing on Nutrients Uptake, Yield and Growth of Tuberose

( Polianthes tuberosa L.)...........................................................................................................................45

M.A. Khalaj, B. Edrisi, M. Amiri

Evaluation the Effects of Superabsorbent on Qualitative Characteristics of

Lawn.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

F. Sheikhmoradi, I. Argi, V. Abdosi, A. Esmaeili

Effect of Media and Different Concentrations of IBA on Rooting of ‘Ficus benjamina L.’

Cutting..................................................................................................................61

Maryam Shirzad, Shahram Sedaghathoor, Davood Hashemabadi

Vol 2(1), March 2012


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Journal of

Ornamental and Horticultural Plants

It is approved publication of Journal of Ornamental and Horticultural Plants (JOHP) based on

approbation of 61st session of "Survey and Confirmation Commission for Scientific Journals" at

Islamic Azad University dated on 01/25/2010.

Publisher: Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.

Executive Director: Dr. Ali Mohammadi Torkashvand

Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Davood Hashemabadi

Executive Manager: Dr. Shahram Sedaghat Hoor

Editorial Board:

Professor Ramin, A., Isfahan University of Technology, Iran

Associated Professor Naderi, R., University of Tehran, Iran

Professor Aytekin Polat, Ataturk University, Antakya, Turkey

Professor Honarnejad, R., Islamic Azad University-Varamin Branch, Iran

Professor Peyvast G. University of Guilan, Iran

Professor Nagar, P.K. Institute of Himalayan Bio-Resource Technology, IndiaAssistant Professor YU,W. The Chinese University of Hongkong

Associated Professor Hokmabadi, H. Pistachio Research Institute, IranProfessor Salah El Deen M. Mahmoud, Al Azhr University, Egypt

Assistant Editor: Zahra Bagher Amiri

Abstracting/Indexing

Index Copernicous, Islamic World Science Citation Center (ISC), Open-J-Gate, Magiran, EBSCO

(under process).

Journal of Ornamental and Horticultural Plants (JOHP) is an international journal devoted to the

publication of original papers and reviews in the ornamental and horticultural fields. Articles in the

journal deal with Floriculture, Olericulture, Pomology, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Landscape.

The scope JOHP includes all ornamental and horticultural crops even medicinal plants. All articles

published in JOHP are peer-reviewed. The journal is concerned with ornamental, vegetables and

fruits crops, and covers all aspects of physiology, molecular biology, biotechnology, protected

cultivation, and environmental areas of plants.

Publication schedule: The journal publishes: (i) article on original research in ornamental and

horticultural plants and related fields that contain new information for solving ornamental and

horticultural problems, of world, (ii) invitational papers and review article which concentrate on

particular subject of interest to horticultural science.

Submission of article: Typescripts should be submitted in Journal of Ornamental and Horticultural

Plants (IAU-Rasht Branch, Rasht, Iran) by email: [email protected]. Authors are urged to

refer to “Instruction to Authors” (published in all issues before submission of their typescripts).

Address: Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.

Telfax: 0131- 4224069, email: [email protected]

Web Site: www. jornamental.com


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Effects of Chemicals on Vase Life of Cut Carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus L. ‘Delphi’) and

Microorganisms Population in Solution.............................................................................................1

Optimizing Plant Density, Planting Depth and Postharvest Preservatives for Lilium longifolium..........................13

Preliminary Evaluation of Productivity and Fruit Quality for Seven Peach Rootstocks in

C h i l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1

Effect of Calotropis procera Leaf Extract on Seed Germination of Some Plants................................27

Integrated Management of Soybean (Glycine × max L. Merr.) by Essential oil of Citrus × sinensis L cv.‘

Osbeck’ Epicarp in Postharvest .............................................................................................................33

Effect of Nitrogen and Plant Spacing on Nutrients Uptake, Yield and Growth of Tuberose

( Polianthes tuberosa L.)..................................................................................................................................................45

Evaluation the Effects of Superabsorbent on Qualitative Characteristics of

La wn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .55

Effect of Media and Different Concentrations of IBA on Rooting of ‘ Ficus benjamina L.’

Cutting..................................................................................................................61

Content Page


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www.jornamental.com


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Journal of Ornamental and Horticultural Plants, 2 (1): 1-11, March, 2012 1

Effects of Chemicals on Vase Life of Cut Carnation

( Dianthus caryophyllus L. ‘Delphi’) and Microorganisms

Population in Solution

The vase life of cut flowers and foliage is often shortened by vascular

occlusions that constrict vase solution supply. Reduction in stem conductivity

is typically caused by blockage of cut stem ends and xylem conduits bymicrobes, physiological plugging, and disruption of water columns in xylemvessels by cavitations and air emboli. Cut flower and foliage longevity can begreatly affected by the chemical composition of the vase solution. A broadrange of biocides has been suggested to prevent the proliferation of microorganismsin vase solutions; however, their assumed antimicrobial action may beconfounded by their other physicochemical effects. the effect of some chemicalson postharvest longevity and microorganisms in solution of cut carnation‘Delphi’ evaluated in a randomized complete block design with three replications.Flowers harvested in paint brush stage and recutted to 60 cm stem length. Vaselife evaluated in 20±2 oC temperature, relative humidity 60% and 1800 lux

light intensity. The results showed that flowers longevity has significantdifferent (P≤0.01) and copper sulfate and Halamid® (Sodium N-Chloro-para-

Toluenesulfonamide) were the best treatments. Population (P≤0.001) andrelative water content (P≤0.05) were significantly affected by treatments andHalamid® was the best treatment to microorganisms control and water content.Highly significant negative correlation of relative water content and the

bacterial population in solution indicate that the main effect of bacteria inreducing the water uptake.

Keywords: Carnation ( Dianthus caryophyllus L. ‘Delphi’), Copper sulfate, Halamid, HQC,

Microorganism, Postharvest, STS.

B. Edrisi1, A. Sadrpoor 2, and V. R. Saffari3

1 National Research Center of Ornamental Plants P.box 37815-137 Mahallat- Iran,2Department of Horticulture Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Jiroft Branch,

Jiroft, Iran

3Department of Horticulture Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Jiroft Branch,Jiroft, Iran

*Corresponding author ,s email: [email protected]

A

b s t r a c t


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Journal of Ornamental and Horticultural Plants, 2 (1): 1-11, March, 20122

INTRODUCTION

Carnation is one of the most important cut flower nowadays as well. Therefore it is impor-

tant to ensure the longest vase life of the flowers. Various factors influence the postharvest per-

formance and the vase life of cut flowers (Ichimura et al ., 2002; Mayak et al ., 1974). It is influenced

by genetics, the growing conditions, flower handling (Pizano, 2009), carbohydrate content, block-

age of xylem vessels, ethylene, the composition of the atmosphere, and the chemical solutions of

the preservatives.

The principle antimicrobial compounds that have been used to extend the vase life of cut

flowers are: (i) chlorine and bromine compounds, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) (van

Doorn et al ., 1990); (ii) hydroxyquinoline (HQ) compounds, such as 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate

(HQC) (Knee, 2000; Marousky, 1969; van Doorn et al ., 1990) and 8-hydroxyquinoline sulphate

(HQS) (Hussein, 1994); (iii) quaternary ammonium compounds, such as benzalkonium chloride

(n-alkyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride) (iv) silver compounds, such as silver nitrate (AgNO3)

(Fujino et al ., 1983) and, (v) a range of iscellaneous compounds including aluminium sulphate

(Al2(SO4)3) (Put et al ., 1992; Ruting, 1991); sodium benzoate (Knee, 2000); bromopropanediol

(Knee, 2000); and, thiabendazole or 2-(4-thiazolyl)-benzimidazole (TBZ) (Apelbaum and Katchan-

sky, 1977; Halevy et al ., 1978). Each of these potential biocides has advantages and disadvantages(Faragher et al ., 2002), and many of them have other functions added to antimicrobial.

The microorganisms on stems of cut flowers, foliage and in vase solutions are typically

composed of yeasts, filamentous fungi, and bacteria (van Doorn, 1997). These microorganisms

vary in their response to biocidal agents. For example, mycobacteria are relatively resistant to bio-

cides, and then Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria being most sensitive (Maillard, 2002).

Moreover, the developmental stage of a microorganism may result in a differential response to a

biocidal agent. For instance, fully mature spores of Bacillus subtilis are much less susceptible to

biocides than non-sporulating bacteria or vegetative cells (Turner et al ., 2000). The differential re-

sponse of microorganisms to biocides may be ascribed to variations in morphological structure

(e.g. vegetative cell versus mature spore) and chemical composition (e.g. different types of pepti-doglycans in bacterial spores) of the individual microorganism (Maillard, 2002; Turner et al .,

2000). To be effective, an antimicrobial treatment must function in all conditions, including across

varying vase solution composition (Knee, 2000), and against the prevalent microorganism, such

as a specific bacterial species (Turner et al ., 2000). In some studies were indicated that among 25

microorganisms, which are found in Dianthus caryophyllus L. ‘Improved White Sim’, three of

them reduced vase life of them. Some of these microorganisms reduced vase life of cut rose "Cara

Mia", chrysanthemum × morifloium Ramat. ‘May Shoesmith’ and other carnation cultivars such

as ‘Improved Red Sim’ and ‘Improved Pink Sim’. They also reported that it is possible that genetic

structure of microorganisms that cause to reduce vase life of cut flowers, allow us to introduce a

stimuli which cause to begin reduce vase life process. Understanding of starting stage of this

process can delay senescence and increase vase life of cut flowers (Zagory and Reid, 1986; Ansari

et al ., 2011).

Both DICA and household bleach or sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) are widely used in ex-

perimental flower handling and vase solutions (Faragher et al ., 2002; He et al ., 2006; Knee, 2000;

van Doorn et al ., 1989, 1990). Chlorine action involves the oxidation of cellular components in

microorganisms, including essential enzymes in cell membranes and protoplasm (Bloomfield and

Arthur, 1989, Dychdala, 1983). Five to 10 mg L−1 free available chlorine (FAC) helps control bac-

teria in preservative solutions (Xie et al ., 2007). When chlorine compounds are added to preser-

vative solutions, a portion of the chlorine is consumed by water impurities (chlorine demand),

which include inorganic reducing agents, like Fe2+, Mn2+, NO2−, and H2S, as well as organic com-

pounds, like amino acids. The chlorine atom ceases to maintain oxidising capacity upon reductionto chloride.


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Silver is typically applied as the nitrate salt (Ketsa et al ., 1995; van Doorn et al ., 1991a);

however, Ag+ can act as an antimicrobial agent (van Doorn et al ., 1990), as an inhibitor of aqua-

porins in plants (Niemietz and Tyerman, 2002), and/or as an ethylene-binding inhibitor during eth-

ylene synthesis and action (Beyer, 1976; Serek et al ., 2006; Veen, 1979, 1983). It was not clear

why the effectiveness of AgNO3 as a biocidal agent was highly variable. van Doorn et al . (1990)

noted that AgNO3 cannot be used in water containing chlorine due to immediate precipitation of

AgCl. Moreover, even in DI and distilled water, AgNO3 will slowly undergo photochemical oxi-

dation leading to a black Ag2O deposit. AgNO3 should be present in the vase solution in order to

prolong vase life. Study on the mechanism of inhibitory action of Ag+ on microorganisms revealed

that the expression of cellular proteins and enzymes that is necessary for ATP production, was in-

activated with Ag+ (Yamanaka et al ., 2005); also, DNA loses its replication ability. In contrast,

HQS probably acts principally by its chelating ability with metal ions, and thereby disruption of

bacterial cell enzyme function (Weinberg, 1957).

The ability of STS to inhibiting the ethylene action is utilized to prolong the vase life of

cut carnations and other floricultural products (Cameron and Reid, 1983; Joyce, 1992; Mor et al .,

1984; Premawardena et al ., 2000; Yapa et al ., 2000). Application of Ag+ as STS, substantially re-

duced binding activity by substitution for Cu2+ (Beyer, 1976). Cu2+ is involved in enzymatic reac-tions related to biosynthesis and action of ethylene (Himelblau and Amasino, 2000). The using of

STS on cut flowers is of concern with regard to the disposal of waste silver solutions (Macnish et

al ., 2004). van Doorn et al ., (1991b) found that STS (656, 1312, and 2624 mg L −1 for 4 h) did not

reduce the number of bacteria in petioles of Adiantum raddianum fronds. In contrast, AgNO3 (12.5

and 25.0 mg L−1) reduced the number of bacteria in the petiole to zero. Biocides and other poison-

ous substances, including heavy metal compounds (e.g. Ag+), should not be disposed into the en-

vironment. Such chemicals need to be managed by an accredited/licensed waste contractor or

through a chemical industry disposal program (Damunupola and Joyce, 2008).

Copper ions have been used in flower vase solutions as a biocide (Halevy and Mayak, 1981;

van Doorn, 1997) and a wound reaction enzyme inhibitor (Vaslier and van Doorn, 2003). VanMeeteren et al ., (1999) suggested that an artificial tap water solution containing low concentrations

of CuSO4 (50 µM), CaCl2 (0.7 mM), and NaHCO3 (1.5 mM) is appropriate as a standardised vase

solution. CuSO4 had a pronounced positive effect on the time to wilting in dry-stored Bouvardia

‘Van Zijverden’ (Vaslier and van Doorn, 2003). While a non-specific inhibitor of peroxidase, Cu2+

also inhibits other enzymes, such as phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL) (Kim et al ., 1996).

PAL is also involved in cut stem wound reactions.

This paper examines Halamid® as a new biocide which is used in cut flower and foliage

postharvest handling. Halamid® is a disinfectant based on a chemical substance known as Sodium

N-Chloro-para-Toluenesulfonamide, (C7H7ClNNaO2S , 3H2O) or "Chloramine T". Halamid® ion-

izes when dissolved in water. Because Halamid® attacks microbes through a process of oxidation,

they cannot build up a resistance to it. In addition the chloramine T is highly stable and remains

active over an extended period of time.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cut carnations ‘Delphi’ were harvested from a commercial greenhouse in Mahallat. The

experiment was carried out in the laboratory of National Research Center of Ornamental Plants

during April 2010. The flowering stems were trimmed to a uniform length of 60 cm and putted in

0.5 lit. glass jars (disinfected with sodium hypochlorite 10%) contain 330 ml solution. Treatments

were 10 solutions include:

Water (Control)Ethanol 8%


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Silver thiosulfate (STS) 300 ppm

CuSO4 300 ppm

CuNO3 300 ppm

8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (HQC) 200 ppm

CaNO3 300 ppm

Citric acid 300 ppm

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) 300 ppm

Sodium N-Chloro-para-Toluenesulfonamide (25% active chlorine) (Halamid) 400 ppm

3% sucrose was added to all treatments. Halamid® manufactured by Axcentive company

and other chemicals by Merck company. Each treatment had 3 replications of 5 flowers in a glass

jar. Vase life evaluated in 20±2 oC temperature, relative humidity 60% and 1800 lux fluorescent

light intensity. During the experiment, traits including, vase life, quality, relative water content

and the number of microorganisms in the solution were recorded.

Vase Life

In this experiment, the lifetime days from harvest to aging was measured. Vase life of cutcarnations determined by observing senescence symptoms, i.e., in-rolling of petals or wilting of

one third of petals in each flower.

Quality

The quality of cut flowers evaluated and scored by important parameters including all at-

tributes associated with market-friendly such as stem stability and color changes in leaves, sepals

and petals. Score was 10 for the highest quality and no signs of aging at the beginning of the ex-

periment. During the lifetime, symptoms of low quality appeared and the assigned number was

decreased. Scores for each glass jar summed at the end of vase life.

Relative Water Content (RWC)

At sixth day of experiment, one gram petal were isolated from four flowers in each jar

(FWT). Then petals placed 24 hours between two layers of completely wet filter paper inside petri

dish in 20 oC dark place. After that moistured petals weighed (SWT). Petal back into petri dishes,

dried in 80 oC oven and weighed again after 24 hours (DWT). Relative water content was deter-

mined using the following equation:

RWC% = (FWT-DWT) / (SWT-DWT) × 100

Microorganisms Population

Microorganisms in solution incubated on general bacterial medium (NA), and were evalu-

ated by repeated dilution method to 1:10000 (serial dilution). Number of colonies per petri dish

was counted accurately.

Statistical Analysis

The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design(RCBD) with three repli-

cations. A two-way analysis of variances (ANOVA) was done by using statistical method (MSTAT-

C). The difference was quantified by Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) (P ≤ 0.05).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results showed that flower longevity have significant different (P≤0.01)and copper sul-

fate and Halamid® (Sodium N-Chloro-para-Toluenesulfonamide) were the best treatments. Corre-lation between flower longevity and other traits were significant and reasonable. Microorganisms


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that grow in a solution are containing bacteria, yeasts and fungi. The activity of microorganisms

in water can cause (1) vascular occlusion in cut stems (2) release of toxic metabolites (3) ethylene

production and (4) reactions leading to the induction of PCD1 (Edrisi, 2009). Marousky (1969)

called physiological responses to unknown factors as vascular occlusion.

The Chloramine T ion in halamid, reacts with organic material like proteins or enzyms and

destroys cell material or disrupts essential cell processes, quickly. Halamid® can not change pH

preservative solution. Edrisi (2009) found that effects of Halamid® on longevity of gerbera was

about 20% higher than sodium hypochlorite and 200% higher than control (tap water) . halamid

400, 600 ppm also increased about 110% vase life and quality compared to control in carnation.

In rose ‘Moroussia’, Halamid® had toxic effect on leaves and its use is not recommended. Effects

of Halamid® on flower longevity appears similar to the HQC and in some cases may be better be-

cause its cost is lower, easy to use and lack of odor and color of the solution in comparison with

the HQC.

8- HQS promotes stomatal closure in addition to having biocidal activity (Burge et al .,

1996). Stoddard and Miller (1962) demonstrated that 8-HQS closes stomata and thereby reduces

water loss. HQS and HQC may also promote flower longevity by acidifying the vase solution

(Halevy and Mayak, 1981). Acidic quinoline esters in solution (Weinberg, 1957) and 8-HQC mayinhibit stem plugging by reducing solution pH. Since physiological plugging is mediated enzy-

matically (van Doorn, 1997), the presence of 8-HQC may influence the activity of enzymes by al-

tering pH (Marousky, 1969, 1971). Marousky (1972) considered that while 8-HQ compounds could

help prevent microbial occlusion, their ability to reduce vascular blockage can be due to their

ability to inactivate enzyme systems through pH adjustment.

Another mode of action of quinoline esters in inhibiting vascular blockage in rose stems

may be their chelating properties (Weinberg,1957). Of seven isomeric mono-HQs, only 8-HQ can

chelate metallic ions and is thus the only HQ which is antibacterial. Zentmyer (1943) suggested

that with increasing of H+ concentration, chelating and biocidal activity are increased. Interestingly,

a low concentration of Fe2+, Cu2+, or Cd2+ is required for toxicity against Gram-positive bacteriaspecies such as Micrococcus pyogenes, for example, a 2 : 1 ratio of HQ-Fe2+ is more toxic than

HQ-Fe2+ ratios < 2 : 1.

The results showed that the relative water content of the treatments have significant differ-

ence (P≤0.05) and Halamid® was the best treatment for water content. Highly significant negative

correlation of relative water content and the bacterial population in solution indicates that the main

effect of bacteria is reducing of water uptake. The highest and the lowest bacterial population ob-

served in control and Halamid® treatment respectively. Since Halamid® attacks microbes through

a process of oxidation, they cannot build up a resistance to it. In addition, the Chloramine T ion is

highly stable and remains active over an extended period of time. The disinfectant property of Cl−

reduced (Dychdala, 1983). Consequently, effects of chlorine in postharvest vase solutions may de-

crease rapidly. High initial concentrations can be used to meet chlorine demand, but may be phy-

totoxic (van Doorn et al ., 1990). Joyce and Beal (1999) suggested that if symptoms of phytotoxicity

was appeared, addition of 0.5–1.0% (w/v) sucrose plus 25 mg l−1 Cl may be appropriate to reduce

phytotoxic damage as well as to extend vase life.

Based on the hypothesis that CuSO4 can inhibits enzymatic activities related to physiolog-

ical stem occlusion and also inhibits bacterial growth, Loubaud and van Doorn (2004) tested its

effect on rose ‘Red One’, Astilbe × arendsii ‘Glut’ and ‘Erica’, and Viburnum opulus ‘Roseum’

as pulse (2 and 10 mM) and continuous (0.25, 0.50, and 1.0mM). As noted by the authors, 2mM

CuSO4 pulse treatment delayed the time to wilting in all plants. In contrast, 10 mM pulse treatment

had small positive effect. CuSO4 continuous treatments of 0.25 and 0.50 mM for flowers that had

not been stored dry also delayed wilting. At 1mM, CuSO4 in the vase solution was toxic to flowers

1- Programmed Cell Death


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in all treatments. The bacterial count after 3 days of vase life in vase water containing rose ‘Red

One’ was lower with 0.25 mM CuSO4 as compared with the water control (2.7 × 105 and 1.8 × 108

cfu/L, respectively).

Therefore, Cu2+ at 0.25 mM delayed wilting and inhibited the growth of bacteria in the vase

solution in addition to any effects on physiological stem plugging. It was observed that Cu2+ in-

hibited enzymes involved in plant induced occlusion in chrysanthemum (van Doorn and Vaslier,

2002) and Bouvardia (Vaslier and van Doorn, 2003).

Edrisi and Kalaei (2004) found that copper compounds specially copper nitrate have most

and aluminum sulfate least effect on the cut carnation longevity and quality. Economical compar-

ison by benefit–cost ratio method determined that CuNO3 500 mg l-1 was the most profitable treat-

ment. Van Meeteren et al ., (1999) observed that tap water may vary in mineral composition and

contain Cu2+. In all experiments, Cu2+ (> 0.30 mg l−1) reduced bacterial growth in cut open vessels,

thereby leading to an increased relative fresh weight of chrysanthemum cut flowers.

The effect of treatment on flowers opening and its correlation with other traits were not

significant . But some flowers such as rose, carnation, chrysanthemum and gladiolus need a solution

containing sugar (sucrose) for the opening (Edrisi, 2009).

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Loubaud, M. and van Doorn, W. G. 2004. Wound-induced and bacterial-induced xylem blockage in

roses, Astilbe and Viburnum. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 32: 281–288.

Macnish, A. J., Irving, D. E., Joyce, D. C., Wearing, A. H. and Vithanage, V. 2004. Sensitivity of Geraldtonwaxflower to ethylene-induced flower abscission is reduced at low temperature. J. Hort. Sci.

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by pH, 8- hydroxyquinoline citrate and sucrose. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96: 38–41.

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of cut flowers. HortScience 7: 114–116.

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inhibit aquaporins of plant and human origin. FEBS Lett. 531: 443–447.

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Premawardena, P. S., Peiris, B. C. N. and Peiris, S. E.. 2000. Effects of selected post-harvest treatments

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postharvest experiments on cut flowers. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 17: 175–187.

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Table 1. Correlations of traits.

** , *** Significance at 1% , 0.1% respectively and ns means no significant.

Tables

Vase life (days) QualityMicroorganism

(colony.cm-3)RWC%

Vase life (days)Quality

Microorganism(colony.cm-3)

RWC%

1 0.835***1

-0.722***-0.541**

1

0.472**ns 0.328

-0.585***

1


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Figures

Fig.1. Vase life in treatments. Different letters indicate significant differences (P ≤ 0.05)

Fig. 2. Quality of flowers during the life time. Different letters indicate significant

differences (P ≤ 0.05).


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Fig. 3. Relative water content (RWC) in sixth day after harvest. Different letters

indicate significant differences (P ≤ 0.05).

Fig. 4. Microorganisms population in solution. Different letters indicate significant

differences (P ≤ 0.05).


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www.jornamental.com


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Optimizing Plant Density, Planting Depth and Postharvest

Preservatives for Lilium longifolium

A study was conducted to standardize production and postharvesthandling of lily ( Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star). In production trial,three plant densities viz. 10, 20 and 30 cm between plants in 60 cm spaced

rows and two planting depths viz. 7.5 and 15 cm were compared. Increased plant growth, yield and quality was recorded when plants were grown at aclose spacing of 10 cm with 15 cm planting depth. In postharvest experiment,holding preservative solutions revealed significant superiority of cobaltchloride @ 5 × 10-4 M with longer vase life (9.0 Days), higher relative fresh

weight (98.0%) and higher vase solution uptake rate (0.25 g g -1 IFW).However, for pulsing solutions, longer vase life (8.0 days) and higher relative fresh weight (93.0%) was recorded with 500 mg L-1 8-hydroquinolinesulphate (8-HQS) while higher vase solution uptake rate (0.28 g g-1 IFW)for 200 mg L-1 8-HQS. For lilium production, higher plant density withdeeper bulb planting proved better and pulsing with 8-HQS followed by

placement in cobalt chloride solution improved postharvest performanceand extended longevity rather than sucrose. Moreover, lilium did not likesucrose during postharvest handing. These results would help growers andstakeholders to increase lilium yield and improve flower quality and longevity.

Keywords: Cut flowers, Depth, Holding, Lily, Plant spacing, Pulsing, Vase life.

A

b s t r a c t

A. Amjad and I. Ahmad1*

Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan.



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INTRODUCTION

The lily ( Lilium longifolium L.), a member of family Liliaceae, is one of the most fascinating bulbous flowering plant grown all over the world for its use as cut flower and potted plant. Lilies arenative of the northern hemisphere up to south Canada and Siberia and their southern limit is Floridaand India. Majority of lily cultivars are either hybrids or have developed through selection. At present,maximum cultivation of lilies is in Netherlands (3,699 ha) followed by France (438 ha) and Chile (240ha) with total area of 5,172 ha in the world (Anonymous, 2009).

Plants require proper space to grow and to take other available essentials like water, air andlight. Plants have to get these from the limited space in which they grow. Therefore, they are morevulnerable to deprivation of essentials, if they are not provided enough living space (Anonymous,2011). Correct planting depth influences the available space for development of plant and, therefore,

bulbs, corms and seeds should be planted according to their requirement. Additionally, the plantingdepth influences time to emergence and subsequently the flowering time and total crop duration.Hence, planting at a uniform depth is necessary for a uniform crop time (Padhye and Cameron, 2007).

Vase-life, a yardstick for evaluation of postharvest quality, is an important attribute for improv-ing flower characteristics (Yamada et al ., 2003). For many years, floral preservatives have been acid-

ified and biocides are added to inhibit bacterial proliferation. Use of preservatives is stronglyrecommended to extend vase life of cut flowers which is true at all stages of distribution. Preservativesare required as some are used as biocides and others contain carbohydrates which maintain the fresh-ness and increase the vase life. These preservatives often double the vase life as well as improve generalkeeping qualities (Nowak and Rudnicki, 1990).

Short postharvest life is one of the most important problems of cut flowers (Kader, 2003). Ad-dition of chemical preservatives to the holding solution is recommended to extend the vase life. Dif-ferent concentration of sucrose viz. 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 g L -1 combined with 200 mg L-1

8-HQS were used as pulse for 10 h and observed that pulsing with less than 80 g L-1 sucrose increasedvase life by 4 days; more than 80 g L-1 extended the vase life for 6-7 days, wile 120 g L-1 sucrose in-

creased 9-10 days vase life of cut roses (Liao et al ., 2000). Sucrose combined with 8-HQS were tested

on six lisianthus cultivars, which revealed that application of 200 mg L-1 8- HQS and 200 g L-1 sucroseas pulse extended the vase life and promoted floret opening in all cultivars (Ichimura and Korenaga,1998). Vase life and floret opening in cut snapdragon ( Antirrhinum majus cv. Yellow Butterfly) havealso been reported to be improved with 50 g L-1 sucrose in combination of 200 mg L-1 8-HQS (Ichimuraand Hisamatsu, 1999). Higher carbohydrate levels in vase solution also improve petal color, bud open-ing and extend the flower longevity of lisianthus up to 8 days (Soo Cho et al ., 2001). Therefore, theoptimizing techniques of extending vase life of cut flowers will be of great importance to the growersand stake-holders (Nermeen et al ., 2010).

As lilium cultivation is gaining popularity in Pakistan on account of its beautiful colors andlonger vase life, higher market demand has been noticed in local markets during recent years. To fulfillthis demand, lilium is being imported which is quite expansive, therefore, the growers have startedgrowing their own on small scale. However, very limited information is available for its successfulcultivation and postharvest handling in the country. Keeping in view this situation, this study was con-

ducted to optimize the planting density, depth and postharvest preservatives for extending vase life.The specific objectives of the study were to evaluate the performance of Lilium longifolium L. cv.Mero Star at different plant densities, planting depths and to study the effect of holding and pulsing

preservatives for extending vase life.


A study was conducted at Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisal-abad, during 2009-2010 for evaluation of lily ( Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star) to determine its

suitability for growing as cut flower in Punjab (Pakistan). Soil was thoroughly tilled and blocks werelaid out according to the RCBD with factorial arrangements.


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Expt. 1: Effect of plant densities and planting depths on lilium production.

Oriental lilium cv. Mero Star bulbs were placed in laboratory at 25 ± 2оC for 48 h before planting. After layout, bulbs were planted during 3th week of October, 2009 at two planting depthsviz. 7.5 and 15 cm and three plant densities viz. 10, 20 and 30 cm between plants in 60 cm spacedrows. There were six treatments replicated thrice. Treatments included 10, 20 and 30 cm spacing at7.5 and 15 cm planting depth. Five bulbs were planted in each row and each treatment had two rows

planted at ridges. Other cultural practices like weeding, plant protection measures, nutrition, earthingup, staking, etc. were similar for all the treatments during entire study period.

Expt. 2: Effect of pulsing and holding solutions on vase life of lilium.

2.1. Plant Material. Cut stems of lilium were harvested, when one flower bud was open on

the stem, from field plantings at Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisal-abad. Cut stems were transferred to laboratory within 1 h of harvest. Harvests were conducted be-tween 0700 – 0900 h with clean sharp secateurs, placed into buckets of clean tap water and shifted.

2.2. Treatments and Experimental Design. In pulsing trial, stem ends were dipped in 10 and20% sucrose and 100, 200 and 500 mg L-1 8- HQS for 24 h after which individual stems were shifted

in glass jars containing 400 ml of distilled water. The control stems were placed in distilled water during pulsing period.In holding trial, stems were directly placed in glass jars containing 400 ml of distilled water

(control), 1, 2, 3, 4% sucrose solution and cobalt chloride at 5×10-4 M containing 200 mgL-1 8-HQSeach. In both experiments, five replicates were used in each treatment.

2.3. Data Collection. Data were collected on relative fresh weight (RFW) using followingformula:

Relative fresh wt. (%) = (FWt /FWt-0) × 100Where, FWt is weight of stem (g) at t = day 0, 1, 2, 3, …..FWt-0 is the fresh weight of same stem (g) at t = day 0 (Ahmad et al ., 2011).

Vase solution uptake rate (g g-1 initial fresh weight (IFW) = (St-1-St)/IFW of stem

Where,St is the wt. of vase solution (g) at t = day 1, 2, 3,….St-1 is wt. of vase solution (g) on previous dayInitial fresh weight is the fresh weight on day 0 (Ahmad et al ., 2011).Vase life was recorded in days and stems were considered dead when more than 50% petals

were wilted or faded.Data were analyzed statistically according to Fisher’s analysis of variance technique and treat-

ment means were compared using Tukey’s test at 5% level of probability (Steel et al ., 1997).


Greater sprouting (88.3%) was recorded when plants were spaced at 10 cm between plantswith 15 cm depth while plants spaced at 20 and 30 cm had less sprouting(76.6% and 83.3%, re-spectively; data not presented). It may be due to the proper planting procedures or moisture and

temperature availability which helped in higher sprouting of the bulbs. Increasing planting depthand density produced taller plants (Table 1). These results are in accordance with the findings of Sharma and Talukdar (2002) who reported wider spacing (45×20 and 60×25 cm) better than closer spacing for gladiolus corm sprouting. Plants were taller (38.6 cm) when bulbs were planted deep

because of better soil temperature for growth and soil holding around the bulbs which helped inmaximum nutrients uptake from the soil. These results are in line with the findings of Singh andSangama (2001) who reported larger plant height with deeper planting and closer spacing of glad-iolus. Results revealed that at higher planting density and planting depth, the number of leaves per

plant were greater (28.7). This may be due to the early emergence of the plants from soil or due tothe less internodal distance which increased the number of leaves. Plants closely spaced (10 cm)with deeper planting had larger leaf area (15.6 and 16.7 cm2, respectively; Table 1). Leaf area was


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greater when plants were closely spaced and deeply planting which might be due to more soil anchorageas well as more nutrients available from wider area around the bulbs. Plant foliage had higher chloro-

phyll contents when grown at higher density (48.2 SPAD) and deeper planting (49.3 SPAD) than shallow planting (Table 1). Close planting developed competition among plants which caused growth towardslight which increased photosynthesis in plants and thereby leaf chlorophyll contents.

Analysis revealed that at wider plant spacing, higher number of flowering buds were recorded

(3.3) while planting depth had no effect on flowering buds as shown in Table 1. These findings are incontrast to the findings of Mishra et al ., (2002) who recorded higher number of flowering buds at higher density. This may be due to more light availability and less nutrient competition among plants. Plantingdensity and depth had no effect on stem diameter and averaged 0.76 cm for all planting depths and den-

sities (Table 2). Higher fresh weight of a stem was recorded at deep planting (64.2 g) and higher plantdensity (60.4 g; Table 2). Larger plant population increased competition between plants which increased

photosynthetic rate and thereby assimilation of more carbohydrates. Dry weight of stem was also higher at higher planting density (8.6 g) and deeper plantings (8.9 g) as shown in Table 2. This may be due tocompetition between plants which resulted in higher nutrient uptake and higher photosynthetic assim-ilation rates.

For postharvest handling of lilium, in pulsing trial, longer vase life (8.0 days)was recorded when

stems were pulsed with 500 mg L-1 8-HQS for 24 h while in holding trial, cobalt chloride at 5 x 10-4Mhad longer vase life of 9.0 days (Table 3). Interestingly, in both experiments, lilium did not like sucroseand had shorter vase life than control. In holding experiment, with increase in sucrose concentration,vase life gradually reduced. Results revealed that stems have sufficient stored carbohydrates and donot like additional ones; however, addition of a biocide to kill microbes in vase solution as well as tolower the pH of solution proved beneficial and extended vase life. In holding solutions, stems placedin cobalt chloride maintained their relative fresh weight (RFW) and had higher RFW at end of vase pe-riod (Fig. 1). While, RFW of stems placed in 4 and 3% sucrose containing treatments started to de-

crease from day 1 and was minimum at end of vase life. For uptake rate, cobalt chloride followed bydistilled water (control) had higher uptake rate than those sucrose containing treatments which de-creased sharply till day 2 and was minimum at end of vase life (Fig. 2). Reduction in relative freshweight of stems with sucrose solutions may be due to the blockage of the stem vessels due to bacterial

populations in the solutions on account of sugars present in vase solution. The stems with cobalt chlo-ride and distilled water maintained relative fresh weight for first 2 days of vase life period. Reductionin vase solution uptake rate by the stems placed in sucrose treatments may also be due to stem end

blockage by microbes. These findings are in accordance with the findings of Williamson et al ., (2002)and Ahmad (2009) who reported that microbes can secrete toxic compounds like pectins which canreduce the postharvest life of cut stem by senescence or by blockage of the stem end and excessivesugars in vase solution may also increase bacterial proliferation ultimately causing stem end blockageand death of stems.

In pulsing solutions, stems placed in 500 mg L-1 8-HQS followed by 200 mg L-1 8-HQS had

higher relative fresh weight at end of vase life (Fig. 3). While those pulsed with 10 and 20% sucrosehad rapid reduction in RFW and had minimum fresh weight at end of vase life. Results revealed that

sucrose concentrations proved toxic for the lilium stems and should be avoided in commercial handling.Regarding uptake rate, initially 500 mg L-1 8-HQS had higher uptake rate which decreased than 200mg L-1 8-HQS towards the end of vase period (Fig. 4). Toxic effects of higher sucrose concentrations

blocked stem ends and inhibited water uptake which ultimately lead to stems senescence. Results havesuggested that 8-HQS pulsing is better as it helps control microbial growth in the solution, while sucroseincreased bacterial population which caused stem end blockage and death of stems.

In summary, plants with closer spacing (10 cm between plants) with 15 cm deep planting pro-duced good quality and higher yield. For postharvest handling, cobalt chloride proved best holding so-lution while 500 mg L-1 8-HQS pulsing for 24 h helped better to extend vase life and maintain higher

relative fresh weight while vase solution uptake rate was higher with 200 mg L-1 8-HQS. However, useof sucrose did not prove effective and should be avoided during commercial handling of lilium stems.


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Literature Cited

Ahmad, I. 2009. Production potential and postharvest management of cut rose flowers in Punjab (Pakistan).Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. of Agric., Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Ahmad, I., Joyce, D.C. and Faragher, J.D. 2011. Physical stem-end treatment effect on cut roses andacacia vase life and water relations. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 59:258-264.

Anonymous. 2009. Hydroponic forcing. www.bulbsonline.org.

Anonymous. 2011. www.hydroasis.com/growingtips/plantspacing.html.Ichimura, K. and Hisamatsu, T. 1999. Effect of continuous treatment with sucrose on the vase life,soluble carbohydrate concentrations and ethylene production of cut Snapdragon flowers. J.Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 68:61-66.

Ichimura, K. and Korenaga, M. 1998. Improvement of vase life and petal color expression in severalcultivars of cut Eustoma flowers by sucrose with 8- HQS. Bull. Natl. Res. Inst. Veg., Ornam.Plants and Tea. 13:31-39.

Kader, A.A. 2003. A perspective on postharvest horticulture. J. Hort. Sci. 38:1004-1008.Liao, L., Lin, Y. Huang, K. Chen, W. and Cheng, Y. 2000. Postharvest life of cut rose flowers as affected

by silver thiosulfate and sucrose. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 41:299-303.Mishra, M., A. Mohapatra and Mohanty, C.R. 2002. Effect of N, P and spacing on tuberose. Floriculture

research trend in India. Proceedings of the national symposium on Indian floriculture in thenew millennium, Lal-Bagh, Bangalore. pp. 338-339.

Nermeen, S.T. Emara, S.K. and Barakat, S.O. 2010. Prolonging vase life of Carnation flowers usingnatural essential oils and its impact on microbial profile of vase solutions. Australian Journalof Basic and Applied Sciences. 4:3559-3574.

Nowak, J. and Rudnicki, R. 1990. Postharvest Handling and Storage of Cut Flowers, Florist Greensand Potted Plants. Timber Press, Inc., Oregon, USA.

Sharma, S. and Talukdar, M.C. 2002. Effect of time, spacing and depth of planting on gladiolus. Floricultureresearch trend in India. Proceedings of the national symposium on Indian floriculture in thenew millennium, Lal-Bagh, Bangalore. pp. 243-245.

Singh, K. and Sangama, P. 2001. Effect of planting densities on growth, flowering and postharvestquality of cut spike in tuberose ( Polianthes tuberosa) cv. 'Single'. J. Appl. Hort. 2:54-55.

Soo Cho, M. Celikel, F.G.. Dodge, L. and Reid, M.S. 2001. Sucrose enhances the postharvest qualityof cut flowers of Eustoma grandiflorum (raf.) shinn. Acta Hort. 543:305-315.

Steel, R.G.D. Torrie, J.H. and Dicky, D.A. 1997. Principles and Procedures of Statistics: A BiometricApproach. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., New York.

Williamson, V.G., Faragher, J.D., Parsons, S. and Franz, P. 2002. Inhibiting the post-harvest woundresponse in wildflowers. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC),Publication No. 02/114.

Yamada, T. Takatsu, Y., Manabe, T., Kasumi, M and Marubashi, W. 2003. Suppressive effect of trehaloseon apoptotic cell death leading to petal senescence in ethylene-insensitive flowes of gladiolus.

Pl. Sci. 164:213-221.


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Table 1. Plant height, leaf area, leaf chlorophyll contents and number of flowering buds per plant of Lilium

longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced by various plant densities and depth.

Tables

Treatments Plant height

(cm)

Leaf area

(cm2)

Leaf chlorophyll

contents (SPAD)Number of flower buds

per plant

Planting depth7.5 cm

15 cm

Plant spacing

10 cm

20 cm

30 cm

Significance

Plant depth (D)

Plant spacing (S)

D×S

32.2b

38.6a

38.5

33.2

34.5

*

ns

ns

12.1b

16.7a

15.6

13.5

14.1

**

ns

ns

45.3 b

49.3a

48.2

47.2

46.5

*

ns

ns

3.1a

3.1a

2.9

3.1

3.3

*

ns

ns

Table 2. Stem diameter, fresh weight of stem and dry weight of stem of Lilium

longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced by various plant densities and depth.

* Significant at p ≤ 0.05.

ns Non-significant at p ≤0.05

** Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

* Significant at p ≤ 0.05.

ns Non-significant at p ≤ 0.05.

Treatments Stem diameter

(cm)

Fresh weight

of stem (g)

Dry weight of stem

(g)

Planting depth

7.5 cm

15 cmPlant spacing

10 cm

20 cm

30 cm

Significance

Plant depth (D)

Plant spacing (S)

D×S

0.76

0.76

0.76

0.76

0.76

*

ns

ns

50.5 b

64.2a

60.4

53.4

58.1

*

ns

ns

6.9 b

8.9a

8.6

7.4

7.8

*

ns

ns

Means sharing same letter in a column are statistically similar at p ≤ 0.05.

Holding solution Pulsing solution

Treatments

Distilled water (control)

1% sucrose

2% sucrose

3% sucrose

4% sucrose

Cobalt Chloride (5×10-4

M)

Vase life (days)

7.0 b

5.0 b

5.0 b

3.0 c

2.0 c

9.0 a

Treatments

Distilled water (control)

10% sucrose

20% sucrose

100 mg L-1 8-HQS

200 mg L-1 8-HQS

500 mg L-1

8-HQS

Vase life (days)

7.0 ab

1.0 c

1.0 c

5.0 b

6.0 ab

8.0 a

Table 3. Vase life of Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced by various holding and pulsing pre-

servative soultions.


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Figures

Fig. 1. Relative fresh weight of Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced

by different holding solutions. All treatments had 200 mg L-1 8-HQS as biocide.

Fig. 2. Vase solution uptake of Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced

by different holding solutions. All treatments had 200 mg L-1 8-HQS as biocide.


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Fig. 3. Relative fresh weight of Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced

by different pulsing solutions.

Fig. 4. Vase solution uptake of Lilium longifolium L. cv. Mero Star as influenced

by different pulsing solutions.


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Preliminary Evaluation of Productivity and Fruit

Quality for Seven Peach Rootstocks in Chile

Fruit productivity and quality of eight years peach and nectarinecultivars (Rich Lady, Ryan Sun, Ruby Diamond and Venus) grafted onto

Cadaman-Avimag, Viking, Atlas, GxN 15, GF 677, MRS 2/5 and Nemaguard(control) rootstocks were evaluated. A Split Plot experimental design wasused, with each rootstock/scion combination as an experimental unit. Totalyield, fruit size distribution, number of fruit, and fruit weight were recorded.Fruit quality parameters including soluble solids concentration (SSC), blushcolor development, and flesh firmness were also measured. On average,Cadaman yielded the greatest fruit weight and number of fruit, compared

with the control, followed by GxN 15, Atlas and GF 677 to a lesser degree,while Viking was similar to the Nemaguard control, and MRS 2/5 yieldedless than the control. There were no great differences between the rootstocksand the control with respect to fruit size and weight, although the mostvigorous, Cadaman and GxN 15, were significantly higher (190.1 and 197.2g, versus 179.5, respectively). For fruit quality parameters, Viking had thehighest accumulation of SSC with respect to Nemaguard and MRS 2/5 hadthe highest percentage of blush color compared with the control. For fleshfirmness at harvest, GF 677 was the firmest and MRS 2/5 was the softest.

Keywords: Flesh firmness, Fruit quality, Fruit size, Peach rootstocks.

A b s t r a c t

Sotomayor, C., J. Castro1 and A. Bravo1

1 Faculty of Agronomy and Forestry Engineering Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Santiago,

Chile



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INTRODUCTION

Peach and nectarine cultivation holds a traditional place within Chilean agricultural pro-

duction. In 2010 there were a total of 14,951 ha of peach trees and 6,038 of nectarines, reaching

export production volumes of nearly 47,000 and 60,000 tons, respectively.

In spite peaches and nectarines species are very important in Chile, the export volume and

the area planted have gradually decreased in the last few years. This is primarily due to the inad-

equate postharvest life of the cultivars and to the out of date combinations of scion and rootstock

varieties which, in addition to inappropriate training and orchard management, have negative ef-

fects on orchard productivity and fruit quality. The principal manifestation of these errors is in

problematic final fruit quality, expressed in physiological disorders of the fruit at the time of con-

sumption, causing disappointment and rejection by consumers (Sotomayor and Castro, 2004).

Vigour is one of the main characteristics transferred from the rootstock to the scion, and

the rootstocks can be from very vigorous to dwarfs (Caruso et al ., 2001; Loreti and Massai, 2006).

In general, peach/almond hybrid rootstocks give the higher vigour to the grafted cultivars

and in the contrary, peach/plum hybrids confer some dwarfing characteristics to the peach or nec-

tarine orchards.(Iglesias et al ., 2004; Massaiy Loreti, 2004). In this respect, Reighard established

in 2008 that Cadaman Avimag rootstock showed a high vigour in field conditions with peaches,increasing yield as well. On the other hand the same author pointed out that dwarfing rootstocks

were a new and interesting alternative in modern peach growing, emphasized the MRS 2/5 as a

rootstock having the ability of reducing vigour as far as 70%.

Usually the rootstocks that give a high vigour to the peach trees also improve fruit produc-

tion and individual fruit weight, due to the production of long shoots and well formed flower buds.

In peach trees, the rootstocks Cadaman, GF 677, GxN 15 and Nemaguard are examples of this

(Guidoni et al ., 1998; Albás et al ., 2004; Loreti and Massai, 2006).

Fruit quality is a basic factor inside the fruit production and there is considerable influence

of the rootstock in this aspect. (Corelli-Grappadelli and Coston, 1991; Remorini et al ., 2006). On

the other hand Guidoni et al ., (1998), make know that peach/plum hybrids, being capable as root-stocks of dwarfing trees, assign to the fruits a higher amount of photosynthates, advancing so their

maturity. Loreti and Massai (2006) indicated that the low vigour rootstock MRS 2/5 improves

color, size, firmness and soluble solids in their fruits.

Thus, the present study seeks to improve one of the factors contributing to this problem,

which is the correct choice of rootstock for the selected cultivar and its adaptability to different

edaphoclimatic conditions, in order to decrease the problems associated with the quality and het-

erogeneity of Chilean peaches and nectarines. The objective of this project was to evaluate the

productivity and quality aspects of peaches and nectarines grafted onto seven rootstocks under

study, during the 2008/2009 season.


The experimental orchard with different combinations of scion and rootstock was planted

in Paine at the Univiveros Experimental Nursery (Latitude: 33°48.728´S, Longitude:

70°43.351´W), Metropolitan Region. Two peach cultivars (Rich Lady and Ryan Sun) and two nec-

tarine cultivars (Ruby Diamond and Venus) were grafted onto the six rootstocks under evaluation:

Atlas, Cadaman-Avimag, GF 677, GxN 15, Mrs 2/5 and Viking, with Nemaguard as the control.

The planting distance was 4.5 x 3.0 m, with a density of 741 trees/ha. The orchard was

conducted with an open vase training system and had drip irrigation. The experimental design used

was Split Plot, divided into blocks with a 7 x 4 factorial distribution, using each rootstock/scion

combination as an experimental unit. Seven years after plantation of the orchard, the total yield

per tree (kg), fruit size and number of fruit per tree were evaluated at harvest. In addition, using arandom selection of 20 fruit from each tree, fruit quality was measured with: polar and equatorial


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diameter (mm), soluble solids concentration (ºBrix), blush color (%), and flesh firmness (lb). Data

was analyzed using an Analysis of Variance and a Tukey-Kramer means separation test with a p-

value of 0.05. Data in percentage (blush color) were arcsin transformed prior to statistical analysis.


The use of different rootstocks with peach and nectarine trees affected production and fruit

quality. For the total yield per tree, the Table 1 shows that vigorous rootstocks such as Cadaman

and GxN 15, followed by Atlas and GF 677, have the highest average yields in this study, surpass-

ing those of less vigor, such as Viking and Nemaguard (control), relegating Mrs 2/5 to the lowest

production category, being this results in coincidence with Albás et al ., (2004) and Loreti and Mas-

sai (2006). The trend is similar for total fruit number as well, with Cadaman having the greatest

average number, and Mrs 2/5 the least. For individual fruit weight, no significant differences were

seen between treatments.

In spite that there should be a direct connection between fruit weight, number of fruit per

trees and yield in the experiment, there were some natural fruitlet drops and climatic events be-

tween fruit set and harvest that should altering partially this probable relation.

Table 2 shows that in fact the less vigorous rootstocks had higher fruit quality according tothe parameters analyzed in this study. Viking (11.0º Brix), along with Mrs 2/5 (10.9º Brix) and

Nemaguard (10.8ºBrix), GF 677 (10.8ºBrix) and Cadaman (10.5ºBrix) , had the greatest accumu-

lation of soluble solids. On the contrary, GxN 15 (9.8ºBrix) and Atlas (10.1ºBrix) showed lowest

values. A very close performance was mentioned by Reighard (2000) for some of the rootstocks

in the USA. For blush color, Mrs 2/5 yielded the most highly colored fruit (78.3%), together with

Atlas, Nemaguard and GF 677; the less coloured fruit were for GxN 15 and Cadaman, vigorous

rootstocks for peaches. This agree with Reinghard et al ., (1997) in respect to Nemaguard and GF

677 behaviour for colour development. For flesh firmness, the rootstocks with lower vigor had

the lowest values at harvest, as they matured before fruit harvested from the more vigorous trees.

GF 677 was the rootstock with the firmest fruit at harvest (9.3 lb) , but similar to Cadaman andAtlas; Mrs 2/5 showed the softest (7.3 lb). Together with Nemaguard (7.5lb), Viking (7.9 lb) and

being Atlas (8.1 lb) similar to all rootstocks studied. These results closely agree with the studies

of Guidoni et al ., (1998,) that found rootstocks enhancing vegetative development induced a delay

in maturity.

CONCLUSIONS

Peaches and nectarines on vigorous rootstocks (Cadaman, GF 677, Atlas, GN 15) had

greater productivity (kg) and number of fruit than Nemaguard and that the other rootstocks (Viking,

MRS 2/5). On the contrary, less vigorous rootstocks (MRS 2/5, Viking) had similar or better results

for fruit quality parameters than Nemaguard and the more vigorous rootstocks. Evidence from this

trial indicated that some of the new rootstocks can effectively overcome Nemaguard performance.

Literature Cited

Albás, E., Jiménez, S., Aparicio, J., Bertrán, J. and Moreno, M. 2004. Effect of several peach x almond

hybrid rootstocks on fruit quality of peaches. Acta Horticulturae 1(658): 321-326.

Caruso,T. , Barone1, E. and Di Vaio, C. 2001. Factors affecting tree crop efficiency in young peach trees:

rootstock vigour and training system. Acta Hort. 557:193-197.

Corelli-Grappadelli, L. and Coston, D. 1991. Thinning patterns and environment in peach tree canopies

influence fruit quality. Hort. Sci. 26:1464-66.

Guidoni, S., Ferrandino, A., Lovisolo, C., Mondo, M., Santovito, A., Bounous, G., Pellegrino, S. and Berra,L. 1998. modifications of the relationships between fruit quality and vegetative behaviour induced


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by different rootstocks in the peach cv. Suncrest. . Acta Horticulture 1(465): 491-496.

Iglesias, I., Montserrat, R., Carbó, J., Bonany, J. and Casals M. 2004. evaluation of agronomical performance

of several peach rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae 658: 341-348.

Loreti, F. and Massai, R. 2006. State of the art on peach rootstocks and orchard systems. Acta Horticulture.

713: 253-268.

Massai, R. and Loreti, F. 2004. Preliminary observations on nine peach rootstocks grown in a replant

Soil. Acta Horticulturae 658: 185-192.

Massai, R., Gucci, R. and Tattini, M. 1998. Salinity tolerance in four different rootstocks for peach. Acta

Horticulture 1(465): 363-369.

Reighard, G. 2008. New and Emerging Rootstocks. www.njaes.rutgers.edu/peach/orchard

Reighard, G. 2000. Peach rootstocks for the United States: Are foreign rootstocks the answer?. Hort. Technology

10(4): 714-718.

Reighard, G., Newall, W., Beckman, T., Okie, W., Zehr, E. and Nyczepir, A. 1997. Field performance of

Prunus rootstock cultivars and selections on replant soils in South Carolina. Acta Hort. 451: 243-250.

Remorini, D., Loreti, F. and Massai, R. 2006. Determination of maturity stage and fruit quality in peach

by skin´s optical properties. Acta Horticulture 731: 471-476.

Sotomayor, C. and Castro, J. 2004. Rootstocks used for fruit crops in Chile: an overview.Acta.Hort.658:287-291


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Table 1. Yield weight, fruit number and fruit weight depending on rootstock.

*Means followed by the same letter are not different according Tukey-Kramer test at

p.0.05

Rootstock Yield weight(kg) Nº of fruits Fruit weight(g)

Atlas

Cadaman

GF 677

GxN 15

MRS 2/5

Nemaguard (control)

Viking

69.abc

84.8 a

63.5 abc

78.0 ab

41.5 c

52.9 bc

55.6 bc

462.0 ab

511.6 a

384.3 ab

452.0 ab

258.9 b

361.5 ab

352.5 ab

182.0 a

190.1 a

190.3 a

197.2 a

180.5 a

179.5 a

178.5 a

Table 2. Soluble solids, flesh firmness and blush color depending on rootstock.

*Means followed by the same letter are not different according Tukey-Kramer test at p.0.05.

Data in percentage were arcsin transformed prior to statistical analysis.

Rootstock Soluble solid (ºBrix) Blush color (%) Flesh firmness (lb)

Atlas

Cadaman

GF 677

GxN 15

MRS 2/5

Nemaguard (control)

Viking

10.1 bc

10.5 abc

10.8 ab

9.8 c

10.9 ab

10.8 ab

11.0 a

72.5 ab

62.2 b

67.3 ab

66.4 b

78.3 a

71.9 ab

68.5 ab

8.1 abc

8.9 ab

9.3 a

8.4 abc

7.3 c

7.5 bc

7.9 bc

Tables


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www.jornamental.com


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Effect of Calotropis procera Leaf Extract on Seed Germination

of Some Plants

Calotropis procera (Asclepidaceae) is an evergreen plant and widelydistributed in Hormozgan province. This plant has the allelopathic properties

including germination inhibition, plumule and radicle growth reduction. In

this study the effect of different concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60%) of

dry leaf water extraction of this plant on the germination of cucumber

(Cucumis sativus), tomato ( Lycopersicon esculenthum), and eggplant (Solanum

melongena) were investigated. The results showed that water extract

significantly decreased the germination percentage especially at high con-

centrations. The radicle and plumule length also were affected by the extract

concentrations.

Keywords: Allelopathic, Calotropis procera, Germination, Plumule, Radicle.

A b s t r a c t

S. Ghasemi1 , M. Ghasemi2, N. Moradi3 and A. M. Shamili4

1 Department of Horticulture, Hormozgan University, Iran2 The PhD. Student of Horticulture, Tarbiat Modares University and member of Karaj Young

Researchers Club, Iran3 Department of Natural Resources, Hormozgan University, Iran4 Department of Horticulture, Hormozgan University, Iran



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INTRODUCTION

Milkweed (Calotropis procera) a member of Asclepiadaceae family is a evergreen plant

that grows in tropical regions(Grace, 2006). This plant is native of Asia (India, Pakistan,

Afghanistan, Iran, Arabia and Jordan) and Africa (Somalia, Egypt, Libya, South Algeria, Morocco,

Mauritania and Senegal) (Mascolo et al., 1988; Rahman and Wilcock, 1991). Its height is 2 to 4

meters but it may sometimes reach up 6 meter (Grace, 2006). It has reported that all the parts of

this plant are poisonous(Staples and Herbst, 2005). C. procera can be a useful plant for control of

soil pollution(Altaf, 2006). Milkweed is adapted to hot and dry climates and it can tolerate drought

but preferes locations that have 150-1000 mm autumn rainfall(CAB International, 2005). C. procera

is able to grow in a wide range of soils such as alkaline and saline soils, but it prefers sandy soils.

Parts of this plant, especially the root bark, are applied for treatment of variety range of illness in-

cluding, fever, malaria, and snake bite (Parrotta, 2001). It has reported leave extracts of this plant

have great promising effects as nematocides, in vitro and in vivo (Anver and Alam, 1992). It has

demonstrated that this plant has allelopathic properties and it can inhibit seed germination and

growth of other plants (Johnston, 1961; Bokhari, 1978). Therefore the goal of this study was eval-

uate of effect of leaf extract of giant milkweed on germination and growth of cucumber, tomato

and eggplant seeds.


Giant milkweed leaves were collected from Bandar Abbas city in Hormozgan province,

Iran. All leaves were initially washed with distillated water to remove dust and other residues,

then they located at 65°C for 48 h in the Oven to dry. Dried samples were crushed to powder

using a mortar. After that, leaf powder soaked in distilled water (1:10 w/v) for 24 hours at room

temperature. Extracts filtered by Whatman filter paper No.1 ( Al-Zahrani and Al-Robai, 2007).

Finally extract diluted by distilled water to obtained concentrations of 5, 10, 20, 40, 60%. The

distilled water was as the control treatment. Seeds of cucumber, tomato and eggplant selected

for this research. The experiment was carried out in factorial experiment with complete random-ize block design in four replications. Each replication was 15 seeds in one petridish. For each

treatment 15 ml of the leaves extracts (water distilled for control) was added to petridishes. Du-

ration of experiment was 14 days. Statistical analysis of data was carried out by using SPSS and

Excel software. Comparison of means was carried out by with the Duncan’s multiple range tests

using SPSS.


Percentage of Germination

Mean comparison showed that there was not significant difference among control with

other treatments (5, 10 and 20%) in cucumber, but 40 and 60 % showed significant difference with

control (P≤0.05). Also it was found significant difference between 40 and 60 % (P≤0.05). In seeds

of tomato was not found significant difference in percentage of seed germination among control

and other treatments ( 5, 10, 20 and 40%). It only was found significant difference among treatment

of 60% with others (P≤0.05). In eggplant, concentration of 60% showed significant difference with

control but the difference among other treatments was not significant (P≤0.05). The results showed

that leaf extract of milkweed reduced germination percentage in studied plants. In treatment of

60%, germination percentages of seeds of cucumber, tomato and eggplant were 17.77, 84.44 and

93.33, respectively, while seed germination of these plants in control treatment (distilled water),

were 100, 97.77 and 100 %, respectively. Therefore, the greatest and the least inhibitory effects of

leaf extract on percentage of seed germination were belonged to cucumber and eggplant, respec-

tively. Effect of different levels of leaf extraction on seed germination of cucumber, tomato andeggplant were shown in fig. 1.


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Growth of Radicle and Plumule

The results showed that the differences among treatments were significant in each plant

(table 1), and the highest length of radicle and plumule observed in control seeds.

1. Growth of Radicle.

With increasing of extract concentration, inhibitory effects of extracts on radicle growth

increased, therefore highest reduction in radicle length observed in treatment of 60%. In cucumber

the differences in radicle growth between 0 and 5 % was not significant, but there was significant

differences among treatments 10, 20, 40 and 60% with control (P≤0.05). There was not significant

difference among treatments 10 and 20%. Also it was found significant difference between treat-

ments 40 and 60 %. In tomato, significant difference observed between control and other treatments

(P≤0.05). The highest reduction in radicle length was observed in 60%. It was not found significant

difference among treatments of 5, 10 and 20 % (P≤0.05). Treatments 40 and 60% had significant

differences with other concentrations (0, 5, 10 and 20%). Also it was found significant difference

between treatments 40 and 60 % (P≤0.05). In eggplant, there was not any significant differences

among control treatment with 5 and 10 % , but treatments 20, 40 and 60% showed significant dif-

ferences with control(P≤0.05). The difference obtained among treatments of 20, 40 and 60 were

significant (P≤0.05). The highest reduction of root length was showed in highest concentration(60%).

2. Growth of Plumule

Application of leaf extract of milkweed reduced plumule length in cucumber, tomato and

eggplant (table 1). In all plants, the highest reduction in plumule length observed in treatment of

60%. In cucumber were not found significant differences among treatments 0, 5, and 10 % , but

the differences among 20, 40 and 60% were significant with other treatments (0, 5 and 10 %) at

P≤0.05. The differences among treatments 20, 40 and 60% also were significant at P≤0.05. In

tomato and eggplant, treatment of 5% increased plumule growth in comparison with control. Other

treatments reduced plumule growth. It was not found significant differences among treatments 0,

5, 10 and 20%, while the difference among 0, 40 and 60% was significant. The difference between40 and 60% was significant (P≤0.05).

The results showed that water extract of dried leaves had inhibitory effects on seed germi-

nation and growth of seedlings of cucumber, tomato and eggplant. The results also showed that

radicle was more sensitive than plumule. Our results were similar to report of Al-Zahrani and Al-

Robai (2007). More sensitivity in radicle can attributed to earlier suction of allelopathic material

compared with plumule (Turk and Tawaha, 2002). Results of this study also showed plumule

growth in tomato and eggplant increased at treatment of 5%. In all studied plants, the greatest in-

hibitory was found in the highest concentration (60%). Similar evaluations have been reported

from allelopathic effect of extract in other plants. Extracts of different parts of this plant affect

germination and seedling vigor of many crops (Oudhia and Tripathi, 1999). Al-Zahrani and Al-

Robai (2007) also showed extract of C. procera had inhibitory effects on seed germination of

Senna occidentalis. Kayode and Ayeni(2009) showed aqueous extracts of sorghum stem and rice

husks had allelopathic effects on the germination and growth of maize and the degree of inhibition

depends on extract concentration. Lydon et al ., (1997) reported that extract of Artemisia annua

inhibited germination of corn and grass seeds. But, extracts of Calatropis can not control weeds

such as Chenopodium album, Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica, Sphaeranthus indicus, and Phalaris

minor (Oudhia and Tripathi, 1997). It has reported that presence of some elements in C. procera

can result in inhibition of germination and growth of seeds (Abbasi et al ., 1992). Cheema (1988)

stated that mature sorghum contain allelopathic compounds such as benzoic acid, p-hydroxyben-

zoic acid, vanillic acid, m-comadic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid,

and chlorogenic acid, but Chou and Lin (1976) reported that rice husks contain phenolic compounds such as p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, ferrulic, p-coumaric, and o-hydrophenylacetic acid.


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In general, it was concluded that milkweed, with allelopathic properties, has negative effects on

germination and growth of seeds of cucumber, tomato and eggplant. Therefore leaf extract of milk-

weed has inhibitory and allelopathic effects on growth and germination of cucumber, tomato and

eggplant.

Literature Cited

Abbasi, S.A., Kunhahamed,T., Madhavan, K., Nipaney, P.C. and Soni, R. 1992. Environmental

management of chromium, copper and zinc with respect to impact on growth and germination of

gram (Cicear ariatinium). J. Inst. Public. Hlth. Engrs, India.12 (1) : 12-23.

Altaf, W.J. 2006. Response of Calotropis procera for Urban, Suburban and Sewage Pollution. Umm

Al-Qura Univ. J. Sci. Med. Eng. 18 (1): 3

journal of ornamental and horticultural plants.pdf

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