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Physical Geography: Climates

Dry Climates

Desert

Steppe

Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean)

Wet Climates (Low Latitudes)

Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical Savanna

Humid Climates (Middle Latitudes)

Humid Subtropical

Humid Continental

Marine West Coast (Humid Marine)Cold Climates

Subarctic (Boreal)

Tundra

Ice Cap

Highland Climates

Physical Geography: Weather

Solar Energy

Air Temperature

Atmospheric Moisture

Atmospheric Pressure

Population Geography

Measurement of Population

Demographic Transition Model

Characteristics of Development

Developing CountriesDeveloped Countries

World Population Distribution Facts

page 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT’D)



Cultural Geography

Terms to Know

Cultural Boundaries

General Types

Cultural Types

Principle Religions

Cultural Demographics

Major Languages of the World

Major Religions of the World

Economic Geography

Types of Economic SystemsEconomic Sectors

Primary Sector

Secondary Sector

Tertiary Sector

Quaternary Sector

Urban Geography

Urban Functions

Types of Urban Settlements

Environmental Geography

Ecosystem

Biosphere

Earth’s Crust

Hydrosphere

Troposphere

Natural Resources Types of Regions

page 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT’D)



Specia l Mer id ian s

• The Prime Meridian is an arbitrary reference line that runs through Greenwich, England

• The International Date Line is a reference line 180º opposite the Prime Meridian

Map Projections

• Cylindrical projection: projection of the earth’s face onto a cylinder (for uses of navigatio

• Conic projection: projection of a globe onto a cone (as parallels are spaced evenly along

meridian)

• Planar (azimuthal) projection: projection of globe grid onto tangent plane (used in atlase

Map Terms

• Cartography: the making of maps• Scale: ratio between measurement on map and corresponding measurement on the eart

• Topographical features: represent details of surface terrain

• Contour Line: line along which all points have same elevation above sea level

• Contour Interval: vertical distance between two contour lines

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: LAND FORMATION

• Geomorphology: study of landform origins, characteristics, and evolutions

Earth Materials

• Igneous rocks: formed from cooling and hardening of molten matter

• Magma: underground molten matter

• Lava: above ground molten matter

• Sedimentary rocks: composed of sediment, older rocks, organic matter (i.e. shale, coal,

sandstone)

• Sediment: earth or stones deposited by water, ice, or wind

• Metamorphic rocks: igneous or sedimentary rocks transformed by heat, pressure, orchemical reaction (i.e. marble, slate)

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Geogra ph y cont in ued…



Plate Tectonic Processes

• Form mountains, and cause volcanoes and earthquakes

• Operate within earth’s crust

• “Plates” of earth’s mantle and crust slowly move in different directions to cause changes

surface

Diastrophism

• Deformation of earth’s surface through bending and buckling of crust

• Warping: gentle bending of earth’s crust

• Folding: tight buckling of earth’s crust; results in accordion-like series of upfolds (anticline

and downfolds (synclines); called “ridge and valley” topography

• Faulting: fracture of earth’s crust, and movement that displaces old fragments• Tensional or normal fault: fracture caused by stretching of crust

• Compressional fault: fracture caused by compression of crust, in which upper crust on on

side rides up over lower crust on other side of fault

• Horst: raised rock mass due to compressional fault

• Graben: lowered rock mass due to compressional fault

• Rift valley: region composed of horsts and grabens

Vulcanism

• Upward movement of molten matter through cracks in the earth’s crust

• Intrusive vulcanism: subterranean movement of molten material that solidifies before it

reaches earth’s surface (i.e. granite)

• Extrusive vulcanism: emissions of molten material that solidifies on the earth’s surface (i

basalt)

• Pacific Ring of Fire: series of volcanoes surrounding Pacific Ocean; compose 80% of world

active volcanoes

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Gradational Processes

• Work against tectonic forces to level earth’s surface

• Gradually wear down high places and fill in low places

• Weathering: breaking down of solid rock mass into smaller particles either by force or

pressure (mechanical weathering) or by reaction between chemicals in rock mass and

water (chemical weathering)

• Erosion: wearing away of earth’s surface by moving ice (glaciers), water, or wind

• Transportation: moving of earth material by glaciers, water, or wind

• Deposition: depositing of earth material (i.e. responsible for river deltas)

Glac iat ion

• Movement of large blocks of ice which erodes and deposits rock material• Plucking: transporting of rock particles through molding of ice around them

• Abrasion: smoothing of rock particles through abrasive movement of ice

Land Mass Statistics

Continent % of Earth’s Land Mass

Asia 30.1%

Africa 20.2%

North America 16.2%

South America 11.9%

Europe 6.6%

Australia/Oceania 5.7%

Continent Highest Altitude Lowest Altitude

Asia Mt. Everest (Nepal) 29,028 ft. Dead Sea (Israel) –1,312 ft.

South America Mt. Aconcagua (AR) 22,834 ft. Peninsular Valdes (AR) –131

North America Mt. McKinley (U.S.A.) 20,320 ft. Death Valley (U.S.A.) –282 ftAfrica Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) 19,340 ft. Lake Assal (Djibouti) –512 ft

Europe Mt. Elbrus (USSR) 18,510 ft. Caspian Sea (USSR) –92 ft.

Antarctica Vinson Massif 16,864 ft. unknown

Australia Mt. Kosciusko 7,310 ft. Lake Eyre –52 ft.

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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: WATER

• Water covers 71% of the earth’s surface area

• Water (when it turns to carbonic acid in the atmosphere) can dissolve almost every

component of earth’s crust

• Water’s high surface tension makes it easily held in soil (to feed plants), and contributes

earth’s movements

River Components

• River system composed of A) main stream of river B) tributaries or smaller streams that f

into main river C) distributaries or channels that carry water away from main stream of

river

• Source: origin of river• Mouth: place where river empties into another body of water

• Delta: three-sided alluvial deposit at mouth of river (as river flows into body of water, silt

and sediment (alluvium) it was carrying get dropped along edge of land around mouth)

• River basin: area drained by river system

Major Rivers

River Length Empties Into

Nile 4160 miles Mediterranean Sea

Amazon 4000 miles Atlantic Ocean

Chang Jiang 3964 miles East China Sea

Ob-Irtysh 3362 miles Gulf of Ob

Huang 2903 miles Yellow Sea

Amur 2744 miles Tatar Strait

Lena 2734 miles Laptev Sea

Congo 2718 miles Atlantic Ocean

Mackenzie 2635 miles Arctic OceanMekong 2600 miles South China Sea

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Seas & Oceans

Sea or Ocean Area

Pacific Ocean 64,186,300 sq. miles

Atlantic Ocean 33,420,000 sq. miles

Indian Ocean 28,350,500 sq. miles

Arctic Ocean 5,105,700 sq. miles

South China Sea 1,145,500 sq. miles

Caribbean Sea 971,400 sq. miles

Mediterranean Sea 969,100 sq. miles

Bering Sea 873,000 sq. miles

Gulf of Mexico 582,100 sq. milesSea of Okhotsk 537,500 sq. miles

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: CLIMATE

Dry Climates

• Cover over 25% of earth’s land surface (more than any other type)

• Only 4 to 5% of ocean surface is covered by dry climates

Desert

• Marked by large variation in daily temperature

• Receives less than 10 inches annual precipitation

• Sandy soils; no humus

• Xerophytic vegetation: deep roots, thick leaves and bark

Steppe

• Semi-arid: transitional belt between dry and humid climates• Receives 10-20 inches annual precipitation

• Chernozems soils: thick black earth rich in humus

• Vegetation is short grasses (often used for livestock grazing)

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Dr y-Summer Subt r opica l (M edi t er r an ean )

• Located on tropical margins of middle latitudes, along western edges of continents

• Warm climate with long growing season

• Marked by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers

• Soils generally lack humus

• Chapperal or maquis vegetation: large root systems and small leaves (to survive summe

drought)

Wet Climates (Low Latitudes)

Tropi cal Rai n For est

• Located on or near equator• Marked by constant rain and warm weather

• No distinct dry season

• Heavy leaching of soils (due to heavy rainfall)

• Canopy vegetation: dense tree growth

Tr opical Savan n a

• Marked by warm wet weather, but less so than rain forest

• Experiences distinct dry season

• Heavy leaching of soils

• Vegetation is a mix of tall grasses and tropical deciduous trees

Humid Climates (Middle Latitudes)

H um id Subt r op ica l

• Located on Southeast sections of large land masses

• Marked by mild winters and hot, humid summers

• Soils often become leached and lateritic• Vegetation composed of mixed forest (deciduous and coniferous)

H umid Con t i nen t a l

• Located in central regions of large land masses in middle latitudes

• Marked by cold winters and hot summers

• Soils vary greatly; abundance of humus; some soils acidic

• Mixed forest vegetation

page 10




Ma r i ne West Coast ( H umi d M ar in e)

• Marked by mild wet winters, cool wet summers; little seasonal change

• Inferior soils; leaching; highly acidic

• Mixed forest vegetation

Cold Climates

Suba r ct ic (Bor eal )

• Located in higher middle latitudes of northern hemisphere, bordering tundra

• Marked by heavy snowfall and temperatures over 50ºF for up to 4 months

• Impoverished soils (podsols) low in humus and highly acidic

• Vegetation is mainly coniferous forests (taiga or boreal forests)

Tund ra

• Located in transitional belt between boreal and ice cap regions

• Marked by long cold winters and short cool summers

• Average temperature is below 50ºF

• Vegetation consists of dwarf trees, mosses, lichen

I ce Cap

• Located in continental ice sheets of Antarctica, Greenland, and frozen ocean around Nor

Pole

• Average temperature never rises above freezing

• Less than 10 inches annual precipitation

Highland Climates

• Climate zone specific to highland regions

• No typical climate type; depends on altitudes and exposure of specific area

• Tropical mountains have different climate zones because of steep vertical temperaturegradients

• Climate zones in highlands of Latin America are traditionally divided into

A) Tierra Caliente (hot lands), up to 2500 ft.

B) Tierra Templada (temperate lands), 2500 to 6000 ft.

C) Tierra Fria (cool lands), 6000 to 12,000 ft.

D) Tierra Helada (lands of frost), over 12,000 ft.

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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: WEATHER

• Weather: total atmospheric conditions in one place over a short period of time

• Climate: cumulative statement of weather conditions in one place

• Four elements contribute to weather conditions: solar energy, air temperature, atmosphe

moisture, and atmospheric pressure

Solar Energy

• Angle of sun’s rays reaching earth determines intensity of solar radiation

• Length of day determines duration of solar radiation

• All points along any parallel receive equal amounts of solar energy (except for difference

in density of atmosphere)

• Annual amount of solar energy decreases along different parallels from equator to poles

Air Temperature

• Controlled by intensity and duration of solar energy

• Also determined by amount of water vapor in the air, degree of cloud cover, elevation ab

sea level, and air movement

• Air temperature generally decreases with increase of elevation

• Isotherms: lines connecting places with same temperature

• Temperature gradient: rate of temperature change (i.e. steep gradient indicated by closel

spaced isotherms)

Atmospheric Moisture

• Water vapor forms only 2% of earth’s atmosphere, but is most important atmospheric

element to weather and climate conditions

• Water is responsible for all condensation and precipitation

• Acts as heat regulator by absorbing solar energy in atmosphere

• Convectional precipitation caused by rising, heated, moisture-rich air (rain or hail result

• Orographic precipitation occurs as warm air is forced to rise due to some obstruction(highlands)

• Cyclonic (frontal) precipitation occurs in mid-altitudes as cool and warm air masses mee

page 12




Atmospheric Pressure

• Air pressure measures weight of atmosphere at a given point on earth’s surface (barome

pressure)

• Areas of high pressure are called highs or anticyclones

• Areas of low pressure are called lows, cyclones, or depressions

• High and low pressure systems caused by frictional effects, centrifugal forces, highland

obstructions, and air temperature

• Isobars: lines connecting places with same atmospheric pressure at given elevation

• Pressure gradient: the rate and direction of pressure change across isobars

• Direction of pressure gradient slopes down from high to low pressures (indicated by line

drawn at right angles to isobars)

• Magnitude of pressure gradient is inversely proportional to isobar spacing (i.e. highmagnitude indicated by closely spaced isobars)

• Convection is caused by warm, rising air being rapidly replaced by vertical flow of colde

• Wind belts: prevailing surface wind movements caused by pressure gradients (i.e. jetstrea

monsoon)

page 13




POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Measurement of Population

• Crude birth rate (CBR): annual number of live births per 1000 population (not taking

account of sex or age)

• Total fertility rate (TFR): average number of children that would be born to each woman

during her child-bearing years she bore children at the current year’s rate for women her

age (more accurate than CBR)

• Crude death rate (CDR) or mortality rate: annual number of deaths per 1000 population

• Crude population density: number of people per unit area of land (usually measured wi

political boundaries)

• Rate of natural increase: result of subtracting crude death rate from crude birth rate(excluding effects of emigration or immigration)

Demographic Transition Model

• Traces relationship between birthrate and deathrate in given population over time

• Four stages of population development have been generally experienced by different

countries over the past two centuries:

• Stage 1: High birth and death rates; low average age and life expectancy; minimal

population growth

• Stage 2: High birth rate; reduced death rate; prolonged life expectancy; greatly increased

population growth

• Stage 3: Birth rate drops in response to high birth rate in Stage 2; moderate population

growth

• Stage 4: Birth and death rates decline and converge; stable population (developed count

like Canada and U.S.A. are in this stage)

• Epidemiological transition model: same model, measuring causes of death

page 14




Characteristics of Development

Developin g Coun t r ies

• High rate of population growth

• High % of population in dependency range (under 15 years old)

• Lower life expectancy

• Lower literacy rate

• Lower GNP/Capita figures

• Limited urban and industrial sectors

• Agriculture/primary activities dominate economy

Developed Coun t r ies • Declining rate of population growth

• Higher life expectancy

• Higher quality/quantity of food

• Higher GNP/Capita figures

• Service sector gains strength

• Higher rate of resource consumption

World Population Distribution Facts

• 90% of world population dwells north of equator

• 66% of world population lives in northern middle latitudes (20-60 degrees north)

• Over 50% of people live on 5% of the land; 66% of people live on 10% land; 90% of peo

live on less than 20%

• World population has increased threefold between 1925 and 1995 (i.e. during the averag

lifetime of a person from a developed country!)

page 15




CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY

Terms to Know

• Assimilation: process of merging different cultures to form culturally homogeneous

population

• Cultural hearth: first source cultural innovation; cultural features spread from this area t

other places in the world

• Cultural landscape: cultural situation in a given area

• Cultural pluralism: when two or more cultures occupy the same physical region

• Culture: values, habits, institutions, and other activities shared among a society of peopl

• Environmental determinism: belief that humans and their culture are shaped only by

physical environment• Ethnicity: social status given to cultural minority living within a different political unit

• Ethnocentrism: belief that one’s own culture sets the proper standard for all other culture

• Irredenta: area controlled by one political power while it is culturally and historically tied

another

• Possibilism: belief that humans shape cultural development

• Shatter belt: area with fragmented pattern of cultures, nationalities, and political units

Cultural Boundaries

Genera l Types

• Physical boundaries: follow topographical features of land such as rivers, mountains,

valleys

• Geometric boundaries: follow some measurement regardless of topographical features,

resulting in precisely straight or curved borders

• Anthropogeographic boundaries: follow lines of change in cultural landscape

Cul t ur a l Types

• Antecedent: established before cultural landscape developed

• Subsequent: decided after cultural landscape developed

• Superimposed: placed as a result of wars or colonization

• Relict: defunct political boundary that still has effect on cultural landscape (i.e. border

between former East/West Germany)

page 16

Eng l i sh Gr amma r cont in ued…



Principle Religions

• Judaism: belief in single God of Old Testament, and in teachings of Moses and other

prophets

• Christianity: belief in both Old and New Testaments, primarily teachings of Christ as son

God

• Islam: religion of Moslems, who believe in Allah as the one God and follow teachings of

Mohammed as prophet of Allah, set down in the Koran

• Hinduism: worship of one God as manifested in many gods, belief in reincarnation, and

(formerly) involving set of social and economic castes

• Buddhism: derived from Hinduism, involving more philosophical than religious belief th

meditation can free one from worldly desires and lead to a state of nirvana

Cultural Demographics

Ma jor Lan guages of th e Wor ld

Language Number of Speakers (Native & Non-native)

Mandarin 885 million

English 450 million

Hindi 367 million

Spanish 352 million

Russian 294 million

Arabic 202 million

Bengali 187 million

Portuguese 175 million

Malay-Indonesian 145 million

Japanese 126 million

page 17




Ma jor Rel ig i ons of th e Wor ld

Religion % of World Adherents

Roman Catholic 18.8%

Islam 17.7%

Agnostic 16.4%

Hindu 13.3%

Protestant 8.4%

Buddhism 5.7%

Atheist 4.4%

Chinese Folk Religions 3.4%

Orthodox 3.2% Jewish 3.0%

page 18




ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Types of Economic Systems

• Subsistence economy: producers create enough goods and services for themselves to subs

on; little exchange or marketing of goods

• Commercial economy: producers create goods and services for consumers; price and

quantity of produce is determined by laws of supply and demand; marketing of goods is

central to system as it guides both production decisions and consumer interest

• Planned economy: government guides production of goods and services, and controls pr

and supply

Economic Sectors• Four sectors which, when applied to a society and viewed in proportion to each other, yie

the society’s occupational structure

Pr im ar y Sect or

• Activities that yield unmanufactured products (i.e. agriculture, mining, fishing)

• Primary sector still forms main source of employment and export earnings in developing

countries

Secon da r y Sector

• Manufacturing and processing of primary products

• Explosion of secondary sector was responsible for Industrial Revolution

• Now, secondary sector is shrinking in developed countries as industry seeks lower cost of

wages in developing countries

Ter t ia r y Sect or

• Retail and other service industries (often called the “service sector”)

• In developed countries, most of the labor force falls into this category• Countries whose labor force falls chiefly into the tertiary sector are called “post-industria

Quat er n ar y Sect or

• Research and information-related services

page 19




URBAN GEOGRAPHY

Urban Functions

• Manufacturing: production of goods or services

• Commerce: exchange of goods or services

• Administration: economical and/or political management of urban activities

• Defense: protection of citizens from internal and external threats

• Culture: development of artistic life of community

• Recreation: development of sports and other amusement facilities

Types of Urban Settlements

• Town: urban area dominated by one urban function• City: urban area where a second important function develops from or adds to the first

• Metropolis: a city that is nationally or internationally important as a center of many urb

functions

• Metropolitan area: the economic merging of several historically separate urban settleme

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY

• Studies how economic and urban geography (and other non-physical geographies) affec

physical geography

Ecosystem

• System of interaction between all organisms in a given area and the habitat they share

• Organisms and their habitat depend on each other for survival

• Food chain: the order in which one organism depends on another for survival

Biosphere

• Parts of earth inhabited by living things• Composed of earth, water, and thin film of air (earth’s crust, hydrosphere, and troposphe

Ear t h ’s Cru st

• Uppermost layer of earth’s surface

• Includes soils, minerals, ores, and fossil fuels

page 20


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