karns and mingst - international organizations - regional organizations
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Notes from Chapter 5: Regional Organizations in Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst "International organizations: the politics and processes of global governance" (2nd ed)TRANSCRIPT
K & M – Chapter 5: Regional OrganizationsIn: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics and processes of global governance/ 2nd ed. Pp. 145 - 203.
Notes:--- Week 13 ---
Regions – important loci of the new global landscape 146o Historically regional cooperation has long rootso In the modern era, while many IOs are intended to be global in reach, security arrangements
tend to be regionalo ECOSOC – regional economic commissionso Regional development banks
Regional orders vary to a significant extend (Europe – strong institutions, courts with enforcement powers; Asia – loose arrangements based on consensus) 147
The rationale for regional cooperation: states are close to each other – easier economic cooperation, shared values and conditions
o But how important is geography vis-á-vis cultural proximity? Defining a region
o Geographical proximity + interconnectednesso Regionalism: sustained cooperation among governments, the non-gov. and the private
sector in three or more countries aimed at mutual gaino Presumption: there are significant links privileging the cooperation within a certain area
Essentialists: economic, security, religious, cultural links define a region Constructivists: region is a political construction based on shared concepts and
practiceso Regions are not stable, their constitution emerges with socio-political processes; regions
emerge and break into smaller unitso Decisions of what constitutes a region are usually undertaken by in-group states
Often multiple overlapping conceptions Political factors driving regionalism
o Deliberate policy choices are key to increasing economic and political interconnectednesso Power dynamics
Great powers often strive to shape their respective regional arrangements Countries form regional org. to counter influence of another regional power
o Identity and ideology Internal factors: common culture and religion External factors: common security and economic concerns E.g. ASEAN and the ASEAN Way Ideology
the liberal world order anti-colonialist unities in the third world democracy
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o internal and external threats e.g. the Cold War blocks hostility towards Israel is the primary source of unity of the Arab League
o Domestic politics Similar types of political and economic institutions aid organization and enhance
effectiveness of cooperation (That is why the EU achieved much more functional integration than ASEAN)
Strong domestic consensus needed Regional arrangements influence the domestic politics in return
o Leadership matters Economic factors driving regionalism
o High levels of economic interdependenceo Complementarity of economies and policieso Availability of compensatory mechanismso Desire to attract FDI and trade (larger market)o Intimately connected to FTAso Closeness in economic factors is by no means sufficient to create a feeling of a community,
but can facilitate integration and enhance benefitso Economic globalization and regionalism are interrelated
Two waves of regionalism 153o 1) the Cold War – the initial stages of European integrationo 2) starting 1980s
Single Market and the EU NAFTA Impetuses
Global economic changes Uncertainty stemming from global arrangements (e.g. the shortcomings of
the WTO) The end of the Cold War, triumph of the liberal doctrine Increased volume of trade Increasing spill-over of national issues
New models of regional arrangements Freer bonding after the Cold War tensions subsided E.g. NAFTA, APEC, ASEAN+China
Associated with the growth of the importance of the civil society Local resentment of the US global dominance Anti-globalization backslash
Europe’s regional organizationso After the WWII a dense network of economic, political and security arrangements
establishedo The iron curtain divided Europe into two blocks, both internally intertwined
The Soviet bloc the Warsaw pact (mutual defence obligations) COMECON (economic cooperation)
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Western Europe Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC; 1948)
o Administering implementation of the Marshall plan NATO (1949) Council of Europe (CE; 1949)
o Goal: to facilitate economic and social progress OEEC and the CE discontinued shortly, advances made on the grounds of
functional IOso The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC; 1952)o The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom; 1958)o The European Economic Community (ECC; 1958)o The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(CSCE/Helsinki Con.; 1970s)o The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Most highly organized regional security org. in the world Cold war military alliance larger arrangement (but what purpose?) Treaty which bounds members to mutual protection (an attack on one is an attack
on all) Structure
The North Atlantic Councilo Meets twice a year at the ministerial level and weekly at the
ambassadorial level + summitso Decisions accepted on the basis of consensus
NATO secretary-general (chairmen of the Council)o Supervises the activities of the secretariato Represents the org.
NATO parliamentary assemblyo an informal organ designed to facilitate connection with national
governments and citizen NATO Military Committee
o Composed of chiefs of staff, all members representedo Oversees military command
Military command: SACEUR + SHAPEo Supreme Allied Commander of Europe (SACEUR – a post held
traditionally by a US officer, a ‘general’ of the NATO) o Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE –
responsible for operations, located in Belgium)o But forces remain under the direct command of national officers
Innovations NATO is now open to observers and non-members 156
o E.g. numerous non-members cooperating on the operations in Bosnia
Complex structure of military and civilian coordination, consultation and cooperation
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Issues Growing tension between the US and European countries
o US acting unilaterallyo EU members contributing too littleo Russia fiercely opposing NATO even today
Is Warsaw Pact and NATO an anachronism? Post-Cold War Enlargement
Incentive for political change in post-soviet countries To extend or to intensify? 1994: establishment of Partnership for Peace (PFP) associating 25 European
and Central Asian countries with its then 16 members 1997: + Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary 2004: + Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia 2009: + Albania, Croatia But: missing enlargement of capacities or a substantial vision
Relations with Russia 1997: a pact with the Russia concerning mutual relations
o Creation of the Joint Council for consultation and cooperation Russia still has reservations – for understandable reasons
o NATO bolsters western version of democracyo Relatively enhances the standing of the US in Europeo Protested fiercely to the proposed admission of Georgia
New post-Cold War roles Reformed to be able to tackle more contemporary security threats
o intervention in Bosnia + peace-making efforts 1995 – the first military action of NATO ever IFOR SFOR EU
o Kosovo (1999) KFOR until 2008 EU
o Afghanistan and the war on terrorism Military capabilities rethought to fit rapid and flexible
deployments in unpredictable contexts ISAF Controversial among Europeans Lack of success in supressing the insurgents
o Iraq: assisting in training local military to overtake controlo Darfur; Somalia: NATO providing technology to AU forces
o The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Originating from CSCE (1970s) Played major role in organizing post-Cold War changes in Europe With its cooperation with the EU it is the strongest regional org. in Europe Trained forces in Croatia, Serbia, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan Negotiated ceasefire in Moldova, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan Oversaw election processes within Europe
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Concerned not only with military arrangements, but also with democracy, rule of law and human rights
Significantly contributed to solving the Kosovo situation (UNMIK force) Development of civil soc., electoral assistance, human rights protection,
police development, reestablishment of the judicial sys. Lately concerned with organized crime, terrorism and human trafficking Issues
with Russiao Selective focus on problems (east of Vienna)o Uneven standards applied in various places in election monitoringo Not admitted to oversee Russian elections in 2007 and 2008
Central Asian states are suspicious of OSCEo The European Union
A supranational institution – removes considerable part of sovereignty from its members
Impetuses Overcoming competitive nature of the European IR Forming a unity against the threat of Soviets Marshall plan – creating obligation to cooperate on rebuilding of Europe Economic incentives Visions of united Europe
The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, 1950) Motivation: to synchronize French and German production Succeeded in boosting steel and coal production 1951: 6 members (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands) The Treaties of Rome (1958)
The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom, 1958) The European Economic Community (EEC, 1958) Acknowledgement, that these functional issues cannot be tackled in
isolation from other issues (the neofunctionalist spillover) The Common Market
o Abolishment of all inner tariffs and restrictions on tradeo Common tariff policy with regard to the outsideo Free movement of goods and services (+ people)
Remarkably rapid progress on harmonization Common Agricultural Policy (1962) Harmonizing of health and safety standards Principles of economic and monetary union agreed in 1969
Enlargement 1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom ( 9 members) 1981: Greece (10) 1986: Spain and Portugal (12) 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden (15)
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2004: Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia (25)
2007: Bulgaria and Romania (27) The Copenhagen criteria: a benchmark for accession of new members
o Respect for democracy, human rights, rule of law, protection of minorities
o Functioning market economyo The capacity to implement European rules and legislationo Provided incentives for making changes towards consolidation of
the economic model, political and legal changes Enlargement increased disparities and tensions
o Economic benefits for the new members not available until after 7 years (free movement of labour, agricultural subsidies)
Brought about questions: how to govern the enlarged EU? Reforms
Single European Act (SEA, 1987)o Established the goal of assembling a single market by 1992o Removing physical and systemic barriers o Harmonization of standards
Maastricht, Amsterdam, and institutional changeo The Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1987)
The EC the EU 3 pillars:
The EC Common foreign and security policy Justice and home affairs
A commitment to: develop a single currency by 1999 develop EU citizenship (EU passports)
The Maastricht treaty rejected by Danes, concessions had to be made
sparkled a debate about the democratic deficito The Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
Dealt with social policy, immigration, the environment, consumer protection, …
Number of seats in the European parliament increased, modified weights underlying the voting system
o The EU constitution EU constitution drafted 2002-2003, addressing structural
problems brought about by the enlargement Later rejected in referendums 2007 Lisbon Treaty
Improved efficiency of institutions Unitary legal status with regard to the outside
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Structure of the EU Bicameral legislature The European Council
o Composed of ministers and presidentso Meets 4 times a yearo Gives political direction, doesn’t go into detailso Chaired by the EU president (reforms of the institution are on the
way) The European Commission
o Supranational executive bureaucratic bodyo It has exclusive responsibility for advancing the goals of the treaties
and for initiating new community lawso Designed to oversee the good of the community as a whole (‘the
conscience of Europe’)o Draws up the budget and spends the fundso Oversees implementation of legislation by members
Monitors compliance Has right to warn members if they fail to abide May impose sanctions (cooperating with the ECJ)
o Promulgates regulations binding on stateso 27 members representing states
Nominated by national governments, but not accountable to them for their actions (accountable to Europe, rather than their home countries)
5 year renewable termso Supervises work of some 30 000 civil servantso Directorates on particular issue areaso Resembles a cabinet of a national governmento The president of the commission
Functions as the chief executive of the EU Assigns portfolios, can veto executive candidates 5 year renewable terms (usually former prime ministers)
The Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union)o Made up of national ministerso Represents intergovernmentalismo Shares responsibility with the Parliament
Approves law proposals of the Commission Approves the EU budget Defence policy, security, common foreign policy,
coordination and judicial cooperation Concludes treaties on behalf of the EU
o Presidency rotates every six months
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o COREPER – a supporting body composed of ambassadors which prepares agendas and support ministers in negotiations
o Voting system depends on the area of negotiation The European Parliament
o The only EU body directly elected by citizens 5 years renewable terms
o A very unwieldy body 785 members Equal status of 22 languages Three venues: Strasbourg, Luxembourg, Brussels
o Complex system of distribution of seats Mainly based on population
o MEPs are seated according to their ideological adherence, not by geographical distribution
The parliament encourages transnational unity formationo Parliament cannot:
Initiate legislation, enact laws Raise revenues
o Lately the EP’s importance increased From a weak supervisory body to the main organ of the EU
assuring democratic legitimacyo Has the power to approve and to threaten to dissolve the
Commission In 1999 close to doing so
The European Court of Justice (ECJ)o Has responsibility for interpreting and enforcing the EU law
(binding!)o It has power to vote on constitutionality of all EU law-makingo Settles disputes involving states, other EU institutions, corporations
and citizeno 27 judges appointed by member states
6 years renewable terms + 8 advocate-generals (providing preliminary opinions,
easing the court’s burden)o The Court of First Instance (1989)
Deals with cases brought by individuals and companieso EU Civil Service Tribunal (2005)
Disputes among the EU institutions and their civil servantso ECJ cases: two categories
Preliminary rulings in which the court is advising governments on interrelatedness of national and EU law
Direct actions brought by individuals and corps, or by the EC against member governments
o Essential role in promoting regional integration and governance
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EU common policies Social policy
o Seeks to address inequalities within and among member stateso The European Social Charter: guarantees social and economic
human rights (Adopted in 1961, revised in 1996)o Efforts to make European higher education more comparable; to
encourage exchanges Common foreign, security and defence policy
o EU is the largest contributor to the UN, through which it administers much of its military matters
o Strong support for the ICC and for the Kyoto protocolo 1999: EU peace-making corps
EU rapid reaction force of 60 000 troops Enhanced EU’s role in global conflicts
o CFSP and ESDP are intergovernmental areas of common policy: countries retain their agency in these issues
But there are pressures to unify the policy making processes to be able to assert European interests against the lead of the US
Justice and home affairso 1985 the Schengen Agreement: free movement of personso For the large part intergovernmental
Future directions of the European integration: Candidate countries: Croatia, Macedonia, Turkey, Iceland Negotiations with: Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina The controversy of Turkey
o The Commonwealth of Independent States and the Collective Security Treaty Organization The CIS (1991) unites the post-Soviet republics:
Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan (+ Turkmenistan, Ukraine)
Lacked and lacks a clear vision Considerable amount of friction among the member states; concerns, that Russia
will dominate Later converted into Collective Security Treaty Organization. Motivated by the NATO
operations in the area Collective Security Treaty Organization
A common rapid deployment force Modernized to address contemporary security issues: environmental
security, drug trade, trafficking, organized crime
--- Week 14 ---
Regional organizations in the Americaso The character of American regionalism
There has been activity in the field since the 19th century:
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International Conferences of American States creation of the International Union of American Republics (Pan American
Union since 1910) creation of the Organization of American States (OAS; 1948)
The Rio Treaty Conflicting visions: Hemispheric regionalism or sub-regional (Latin American)
regionalism? Intergovernmental character rather than EU style supranationalism
Many talk shops, lack of effective integration Various rationales:
Unity of the continent Balancing against the US Functional relations
Dynamics of American regionalism always affected by the power and development disparity of the region
o Hemispheric Regionalism Often flowing from the US towards the Americas Periods of interest taking turns with periods of neglect US and its anti-communist agenda
Interventions in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala US hegemony strongest in the 1950s and 1960s
H. Regionalism revived with the shift of most of LA countries to democracy New hemispheric initiatives in the 1990s Lost momentum after the Guantanamo and Abu Ghraib controversies
o The Organization of American States (OAS; 1948) More active since the Cold War’s end Features Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
A human rights document Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the Rio Treaty; 1947)
Mobilized by the US to counter communist insurgencies in Latin America o Cuban Gov. excluded from the OAS in the 1962, readmitted in 2009
Structure The General Assembly
o Meets annually, or on request, composed of high ranking national officials (ministers)
The Permanent Councilo Analogous to the UN SC
The Inter-American Council for Integral Development The Inter-American Court of Human Rights The Inter-American Development Bank The OAS secretariat (located in Washington DC) The Secretary-General (traditionally a Latin American) Specialized agencies
o The Pan American Health Org.o The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission
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o The Inter-American Commission on Womeno …
dimensions Defence: Strengthening regional peace; common action against aggression;
limiting conventional weapons Economic: promoting cooperation Political: Promotion of representative democracy Social: human rights, eradication of extreme poverty
Activity Struggle against the evil communists Border disputes settlement (but often superseded by ad-hoc groups) Promotion of democracy:
o 1991: a resolution adopted binding members to respond to a sudden interruption of the democratic process in other countries
o Suspension of memberships for governments originating from a coup
o 2001: Inter-American Democratic Charter – right of peoples for democracy
o Nine interventions against coups, three times acted in the case of democracy failure
But often failed to take action Accused of shoring up low-quality democracies
Economic development (weak)o The Summit of the Americas process (revigorated in 1993)
Broad agenda Resulted (among other things) in negotiation of an FTA Aimed at promotion and strengthening of democracy Failure to produce tangible results since the Bush administration
o Subregional integration Motivation:
Response to gaping disparities between the North and the South Checking against the US hegemony a means of creating larger and therefore more self-sufficient markets
(tackling underdevelopment) 2 waves:
1950s, 1960s – an outright failure 1990s – resulted in establishment of several regimes such as Mercosur,
NAFTA, CARICOM, CAMC, Andean Community North America
NAFTA (1994)o A major agreement removing barriers to trade between the US,
Mexico and Canadao Accelerated flow of people, cultures, goods and wealth
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o A unique integration process: propelled cooperation while omitting governance structures to manage it
Minimalist organizational structure involving several functional organs and a development bank
South America Mercosur
o Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay + associate memberso Response to NAFTA and EU integrationo Overcoming of rivalries to reach a larger benefito Light legal framework, largely dependent on the will of presidents of
the member stateso Common market (customs union and common external tariffs
policy)o Support of political stability of the member states o Ambiguous success: boosted economies, but failed to negotiate
clear and strong rules The Andean Community (1969)
o Founding members: Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Venezuelao The Andean Integration System of Institutions
Andean Presidential Council Council of Foreign Ministers Court of Justice Commission, Parliament Social conventions, business and labour advisory councils
o Common external tariffs, common policy guidelines (1994/5)o Common security policy (2002)o Charter for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights
UNASURo An attempt to bridge the South American divisiono The EU as a blueprinto Championed by Chávezo Aims to create a single market by 2019o So far a dream
Thwarted by conflicting policies (nationalization of industries) and animosities (Colombia x Venezuela)
Asia’s regional organizationso No pan Asian organization is in sight
Diversity, ideological polarization, competing national and subregional identities Historical issues: gaining to independence late, Japan’s conquest, divided by the Cold
War Rivalry between Japan, the US, China Shifts to be expected – growing China and India
o ASEAN, APEC, ARF, SCOo Specifics:
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Asian regionalism tends to be loose, informal, without binding commitments, with small secretariats
The initiative for regional organization comes more from the weak and insecure states seeking mutual protection, than from the inward looking Asian giants
Complicated IR landscape Emerging Chinese leadership The US engagement Asian IGOs often seen by establishments as a tool to mutual guarantee of support to
stay in power – many (semi)authoritarian regimes concentrated in Asia Regionalism driven by professional groups, business leaders, government bodies Regionalism propelled by the ‘triple shocks’ (e.g. the 1997 crisis)
o ASEAN (the Association of South East
Asian Nations; 1967) Impetuses: concern about the
outcome of war in Vietnam, the role of the US, communist insurgencies (external threats)
Core norms: non-intervention, peaceful settlement of disputes, avoidance of military alliances, consultation and consensus building (+ avoiding of disagreement, focusing on things where they agree, laying aside things where agreement is not easy to come by) = The ASEAN Way
No binding commitments guiding accession, two-tiered functioning, possibility to opt-out from common activities
Structure Dense pattern of informal and formal meetings of leading officials Increasingly institutionalized following various crises Secretary-General – weak, in charge of a small secretariat
Membership expansion Originally: Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand + Brunei (1984) India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Papua New Guinea rejected + Vietnam (1995) + Laos, Myanmar (1997) + Cambodia (1999)
Evolution First 20 years focused on stability, peace, security 1971: Zone of Peace and Neutrality – attempt to avoid getting implicated in
the Cold War 1978: Vietnam invades Cambodia – the norm of non-intervention
threatened 1990s: responding to globalization
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o Establishment of ARF (1994)o ASEAN Free Trade Areao Membership in APECo 4 new memberso South East Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Zone (1995)
New roleso Facilitating solution to territorial disputeso Emergency preparedness schemes (epidemics, catastrophes, …)o Capacity to address non-traditional threats
Economic cooperation Regulation and reinforcement of outward aiming growth strategy Need to unite more: loss of FDI to China Economic coop. thwarted by reluctance to integrate, economic disparity 1997 crisis exposed shortcomings Surveillance Process established: negotiation and commenting on domestic
policies of each other ASEAN+3 Creation of AFTA (2002)
ASEAN, ASEAN+3, ASEAN+6 ASEAN+3: China, ROK, Japan ASEAN+6: China, ROK, Japan, Australia, NZ, India Also cooperation with the EU, Canada, US, Pakistan, Russia,… A+3 institutionalized (1999)
o Covers range of issueso Initiated East Asian Summit (+6)
Developing ASEAN’s institutions 2007: ASEAN Charter
o ASEAN Community (2015) Economic, security and socio-cultural comm.
o Legal personalityo Commitment to human rights and democracy
o The ASEAN Regional Forum First Asia’s multilateral security institution – Cooperative security Problem: securing cooperation of China
China concerned that neighbours would team up and advance against Chinese interests in the case of Taiwan and territorial disputes
China reluctant to share information about its doctrine and deployment ASEAN members originally reluctant too, then changed their position
Spearheaded by small and middle powers 26 participants: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada,
China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam
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Decisionmaking based on consensus Small secretariat founded in 2004 2 bodies: ARF-ISIS and CSCAP
ARF-ISIS – a research body composed of scholars and policymakers CSCAP – a comprehensive security research forum
Activity: Confidence building, information sharing, regional surveillance regimes Settlement of disputes, denuclearization, maritime security, … Not active in the NK issue (ad-hoc Six-Party Talks instead)
o The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC; 1989) Incubating since the 1960s, hindered by the Cold War situation Initially supported by Japanese and Australian policymakers ‘open regionalism’ – advancing regional cooperation while not ostracizing outsiders Structure
Ministerial meetings Annual summits Specialized meetings, committees and working groups A small secretariat (based in Singapore)
Goals: ambiguous Liberalization of trade and investment Facilitation of trade Economic and technical cooperation Lacks efficiency, failed to produce tangible results
Envisioned as an economic forum, but the agenda dominated by security issues (mirroring ARF)
Primary achievement: building trust and a sense of a region in Asiao The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; since 1996)
Tackling security situation in Central Asia Addressing reduction of arms, extremism, separatism, terrorism Reaction to US presence in Uzb., Taji., Kyrgyz. Also functional issues: pipelines, hydropower, transportation
Annual summit meetings between: China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan (+ India, Pakistan, Iran, Mongolia)
Marked shift from unilateralism to multilat. In China Different from other multilat. arrangements in Asia: driven by great powers 2002: formal charter and an anti-terrorist body located in Uzbekistan
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