khalid qualitative research workshop
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ManagingQualitative Research
Khalid Mahmood, PhD
Professor of Library & Information Science
University of the Punjab
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Acknowledgement
This presentation is based on many books, notes, websites and presentations on the topic.
The presenter pays his sincere gratitude to all authors, professors and experts for their efforts and contributions.
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Agenda
What is qualitative research? Qualitative traditions of inquiry Steps in qualitative study Ethical considerations Sampling Types of data Data collection Data analysis Validity, reliability and generalizability
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What isqualitative research?
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Qualitative research…
Allows the researcher to understand a problem or phenomenon from the perspectives of the people it involves.
Reveals a complete picture of a certain research issue.
Seeks to provide a rich understanding of a certain research issue.
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In qualitative methods…
Researcher collects data in a real environment. Researcher himself/herself is the key research
tool. Focus of research is a process or activity itself,
not just results of that process or activity. Data collected is most often verbal (non-
numerical). Verbal data analysis (rarely numerical).
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Comparison of quantitative and qualitative methodsQUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Multiple realities Single reality
Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective
Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free
Holistic Reductionistic
Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and inductive
Discovery of meaning is the basis of knowledge
Cause-and-effect relationships are the bases of knowledge
Develops theory Tests theory
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Comparison of quantitative and qualitative methods (continued)
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Meaning of concepts Measurement of variables
Process oriented Outcome oriented
Control unimportant Control important
Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables
Basic element of analysis is words Basic element of analysis is numbers
Uniqueness Generalization
Trustworthiness of findings Control of error
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Qualitative traditions of inquiry
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Biography Historical research Phenomenology Grounded theory Ethnography Ethnology Case study Symbolic interaction
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Biography The study of an individual and her or his
experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material.
Life history—The study of an individual’s life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society.
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Biography (continued)
Oral history—The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from an individual or several individuals.
The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography.
The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.
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Historical research
Studies available data to describe, understand, and interpret past events.
Uses primary sources of information. Does external and internal criticism of
documents or artifacts.
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Phenomenology
Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.
Determines what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.
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Grounded theory Intends to generate or discover a theory that
relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory
is especially useful. Because the theory emerges from the data, it is
said to be grounded in the data. Data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached. Data reviewed and coded for categories and
themes.
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Ethnography A description and interpretation of a cultural
or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s
observable patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.
Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation.
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Ethnography (continued)
Field work Key informants Thick description Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic
(researcher’s interpretation of social life). Context important, needs holistic view. Needs grounding in anthropology.
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Ethnography (continued)
Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.
May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.
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Ethnology
Compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.
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Case study An exploration of a “bounded system” or a
case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.
The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic.
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Symbolic interaction
Investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others.
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Steps inqualitative study
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1. General research question
2. Select relevant site(s) and subjects
3. Collection of relevant data
4. Interpretation of data
5. Conceptual and theoretical work
6. Tighter specification of the research question
7. Collection of further data
8. Conceptual and theoretical work
9. Write up findings
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Ethical considerations
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Mutual respect and trust(prolonged interaction)
Respect for social and cultural contexts Voluntary participation Informed consent Beneficence – doing good for others and
preventing harm Confidentiality
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Sampling
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Determining a sample Even if it were possible, it is not necessary to
collect data from everyone in a community. In qualitative research, the researcher needs to
define and select a sample. The study’s research objectives and the
characteristics of the study population determine which and how many people to select.
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Sample size
Usually smaller than quantitative study. Two general guidelines: the number of
participants is sufficient when… the extent to which the selected participants represent
the range of potential participants in the setting the point at which the data gathered begin to be
redundant (data saturation)
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Sampling methods
No probability sampling Three of the most common sampling
methods are:Purposive samplingQuota samplingSnowball sampling
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Purposive sampling Purposive sampling groups participants according to pre-
selected criteria relevant to a particular research question. ex. Vietnamese businessmen in the USA
Sample sizes depend on: Resources and time available The study’s objectives
If the researcher needs a specific number of participants, quota sampling is better.
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Quota sampling Quota sampling begins with two decisions:
What characteristics? How many people?
Characteristics are selected in order to find participants who have experience with or knowledge of the research topic.
The researcher goes into the community and selects the predetermined number of people demonstrating the pre-selected characteristics.
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Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is a form of purposive sampling.
Participants refer the researcher to other potential participants.
Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations” – groups not easily accessible to researchers.
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Types of data
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Written field notes Audio recordings of conversations Video recordings of activities Diary recordings of activities / thoughts Documents Depth information on:
thoughts, views, interpretations priorities, importance processes, practices intended effects of actions feelings and experiences
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Data collection
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Three data collection strategies:1. Participant observation
2. In-depth interviews
3. Focus group interviews
Qualitative researchers may combine more than one method
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Participant observation Intensive, usually long term, examination of a
social group, an organization, etc. Researcher becomes a participant in the lives of
group members Observes their behavior and learns meaning systems
(which are tied to language)
Most closely associated with Ethnography, as developed in Classical Anthropology
Now done in a variety of disciplines
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Participant observation (continued)
Today most ethnographers take an overt role i.e., their identity as a researcher is known
to the people being studied Covert participation (i.e., identity
concealed from participants) is fraught with ethical issues
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Steps involved in participant observation researchA. Gaining entry into the group
B. Developing and maintaining rapport
C. Developing a method for taking field notes
D. Integrating data collection and data analysis
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Steps in participant observation:
Gaining entry into the group
Take into consideration the type of group formal organizations require formal entry; involves
letter writing, permission requests, etc. Informal groups – different strategy needed
Access may be gained through a gatekeeper (an individual with special status)
Want to involve key informants (those who are most knowledgeable about the group)
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Steps in participant observation: Developing/maintaining rapport
Researcher must work hard to develop and maintain good relationships in the fielde.g., be sure not to become associated
with one faction in a group or organization Researcher could be blamed for
problems that arise in the setting
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Steps in participant observation: Strategies for taking field notes
Include descriptions and interpretations of individuals, interactions, and events Distinguish descriptions from interpretations
Record time and location of observations, as well as key information (weather, events happening and their significance)
Keep theoretical memos – which are the tentative interpretations emerging and being assessed through further data collection
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Field notes (continued)
May not be possible or advisable to take notes while in the field Important that they be done as soon after field
observation as possible
Note-taking is time-consuming because it is integral to guiding the data collection and continuing the analysis e.g., field notes for When Prophecy Failed were
well over 1,000 typed pages
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Steps in participant observation: Integrating data collection and analysis Organizing field notes into different types of files
facilitates data analysis Master field file – complete journal of field notes;
number pages and include entry dates Background, history file – subfile organizing
background material Key character files – subfiles on key players in
the group or organization Analytic files – subfiles for different types of
observations or relationships
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In-depth interviews
Some studies cannot employ the participant observation method
In-depth interviews allow participants to describe their experiences and the meaning of events taking place in their lives Verbatim quotes capture the language and meaning
expressed by participants Interviews are flexible and allow for probing
Interview method is quite diverse, adaptive
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In-depth interviews (continued)
Three key elements for the interview method to be successful:
1. Explicit purpose – researcher and informant are aware that the discussion has a purpose
2. Ethnographic explanations – researcher tries out explanations on the participants to see if they make sense
Encourage the informants to use colloquial language, and teach the researcher its meaning
3. Ethnographic questions include:i. Descriptive questions – ask participants to describe their experiences
(e.g., their ideas, circumstances, viewpoints, dilemmas, etc)
ii. Structural questions – ask participants how they organize their world (e.g., activities)
iii. Contrast questions – ask participants what is meant by specific terminology
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Interview do’s and don’ts Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into
what is revealed Don’t use leading questions; do use open-ended questions
(“probes”) Don’t interrupt; do wait Do keep interviewee(s) focused Don’t be judgmental about or react to an interviewee’s
opinions, views, or beliefs Don’t engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note
impressions of interviewee’s nonverbal behavior
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Focus group interviews Interview format, but in a group setting
6-12 participants with common experience Dates back to the 1940s – used to assess
effectiveness of morale-boosting radio shows 1970s onward – used by market researchers 1980s onward – used by academics
Transcript of discussion is the data Plus accompanying notes Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to
analyze the data
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Focus group interviews (continued)
Strengths: Open-ended question
Spontaneously deal with issues as they arise Cost-effective method of collecting data Less time-consuming
Weaknesses: One or two participants may dominate Not done in a natural setting, so little “observation” to
help understand the experience of the participants
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Data analysis
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Open coding
Systematic coding
Affinity diagramming
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Open coding
Treat data as answers to open-ended questions
ask data specific questionsassign codes for answersrecord theoretical notes
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Example: Calendar routines
Families were interviewed about their calendar routines What calendars they had Where they kept their calendars What types of events they recorded …
Written notes Audio recordings
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Example: Calendar routines Step 1: translate field notes (optional)
paper digital 55
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Example: Calendar routines
Step 2: list questions / focal points
Where do families keep their calendars?What uses do they have for their calendars?Who adds to the calendars?When do people check the calendars?…
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Example: Calendar routines Step 3: go through data and ask questions
Where do families keep their calendars?57
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Example: Calendar routines Step 3: go through data and ask questions
Where do families keep their calendars?
[KI]
Calendar Locations:
[KI] – the kitchen[KI][KI]
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Example: Calendar routines Step 3: go through data and ask questions
Where do families keep their calendars?
[KI]
Calendar Locations:
[KI] – the kitchen[CR] – child’s room
[CR]
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Example: Calendar routines Step 3: go through data and ask questions
Continue for the remaining questions….
[KI]
Calendar Locations:
[KI] – the kitchen[CR] – child’s room
[CR]
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Example: Calendar routines
The result: list of codes frequency of each codea sense of the importance of each code
frequency != importance
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Example 2: Calendar contents Pictures were taken of family calendars
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Example: Calendar contents Step 1: list questions / focal points
What type of events are on the calendar?Who are the events for?What other markings are made on the calendar?…
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Example: Calendar contents
Step 2: go through data and ask questions
What types of events are on the calendar?64
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Example: Calendar contents Step 2: go through data and ask questions
What types of events are on the calendar?
Types of Events:
[FO] – family outing
[FO]
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Example: Calendar contents Step 2: go through data and ask questions
What types of events are on the calendar?
Types of Events:
[FO] – family outing[AN] - anniversary
[FO]
[AN]
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Example: Calendar contents Step 2: go through data and ask questions
Continue for the remaining questions….
Types of Events:
[FO] – family outing[AN] - anniversary
[FO]
[AN]
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Reporting results
Find the main themes Use quotes / scenarios to represent them Include counts for codes (optional)
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Software: Microsoft Word
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Software: Microsoft Excel
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Software: ATLAS.ti
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Software: NVivo
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Systematic coding
Categories are created ahead of time from existing literature from previous open coding
Code the data just like open coding
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Affinity diagramming
Goal: what are the main themes?
Write ideas on sticky notes Place notes on a large wall /
surface Group notes hierarchically to
see main themes
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Example: Calendar field study
Families were given a digital calendar to use in their homes
Thoughts / reactions recorded: Weekly interview notes Audio recordings from interviews
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Example: Calendar field study Step 1: Affinity notes
go through data and write observations down on post-it notes
each note contains one idea
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Example: Calendar field study Step 2: Diagram building
place all notes on a wall / surface
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 3: Diagram building
move notes into related columns / piles
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Example: Calendar field study Step 4: Affinity labels
write labels describing each group
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Example: Calendar field study Step 4: Affinity labels
write labels describing each group
Calendar placement is a challenge
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Example: Calendar field study Step 4: Affinity labels
write labels describing each group
Calendar placement is a challenge
Interface visuals affect usage
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Example: Calendar field study Step 4: Affinity labels
write labels describing each group
Calendar placement is a challenge
Interface visuals affect usage
People check the calendar when not at home
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Example: Calendar field study
Step 5: Further refine groupings
Calendar placement is a challenge
Interface visuals affect usage
People check the calendar when not at home
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Validity, reliability and generalizability
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Threats to validity
Observer bias Invalid information resulting from the perspective the
researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it e.g., studying one’s own culture
Observer effects The impact of the observer’s participation on the
setting or the participants being studied e.g., people may do things differently
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Strategies to enhance validity Intensive, long term involvement
more data, repeated observation and interviews Rich data
full and detailed descriptions Respondent validation
ask them if the reporting is correct Intervention
interact with them and see how behavior changes Searching for negative cases and alternative explanations Triangulation
collect data from a variety of settings and methods Quasi-statistics
e.g., frequency counts of the argument Comparison
multicase, multisite studies
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Reliability
It is a quantitative measure. This concept is irrelevant in qualitative
research. However, to test a qualitative study for
reliability, you need to convert data into relevant numbers and determine efficacy based on the results.
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Generalization
A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or situation.
The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have expectations about the future.
A limitation of qualitative research is that there is seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a particular study.
Due to this problem, replication of qualitative studies becomes more important than for quantitative studies.
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Thanks to all participants
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