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iscl
ear
inth
eea
rly
stat
emen
tsof
the
appr
oach
(Wal
lers
tein
1974
b).T
his
idea
attr
acte
dot
her
conc
epts
ofsy
stem
san
alys
is—
abo
unda
ry,
inte
rnal
diff
eren
tiatio
nof
func
tions
,sub
syst
ems,
and
soon
.T
his
pow
erfu
lten
denc
yto
reif
icat
ion
led
one
curr
ento
fwor
ld-s
yste
mre
sear
chto
devi
sem
odel
sof
the
puls
atio
nsw
ithi
na
capi
talis
tw
orld
-ec
onom
y,an
dle
dan
othe
rin
toa
traw
lthr
ough
hist
ory
for
wor
ld-s
yste
ms
grea
tan
dsm
all
(Cha
se-D
unn
and
Gri
mes
1995
).It
led
quite
earl
yto
the
idea
that
the
futu
reco
uld
bein
ferr
edfr
omw
orld
-sys
tem
s’la
ws
ofm
otio
n.
Inth
ela
ter
wri
ting
ofW
alle
rste
in(1
999)
and
Cha
se-D
unn
(200
2),
the
once
-fru
itful
rese
arch
para
digm
has
turn
edin
topo
rten
tous
spec
ulat
ion.
The
unde
rlyi
ngpr
oble
mof
the
soci
al-s
cien
tific
appr
oach
esco
nsid
ered
inth
isch
apte
ris
thei
rge
opol
itica
llo
gic.
The
yre
lyex
clus
ivel
yon
the
met
ropo
lefo
rthe
irin
telle
ctua
ltoo
lsan
das
sum
ptio
ns,a
ndth
eref
ore
trea
tth
em
ajor
ityw
orld
asob
ject
.Thi
scl
oses
offt
hepo
ssib
ility
ofso
cial
scie
nce
wor
king
asa
shar
edle
arni
ngpr
oces
s,a
dial
ogue
,att
hele
velo
fthe
ory.
Inha
bita
nts
ofth
em
ajor
ityw
orld
are
notj
ustt
heob
ject
sof
theo
ry,t
heda
tam
ine
for
soci
alsc
ienc
e.T
hey
are
also
the
subj
ects
—th
epr
oduc
ers
ofth
eory
abou
tthe
soci
alw
orld
and
thei
row
npl
ace
init.
Loo
kin g
sou
thW
ese
eth
isin
wor
kssp
ecif
ical
lyab
out
glob
alis
atio
n,su
chas
Nés
tor
Gar
cIa
Can
clin
i’s
Lagl
obal
izac
ion
imag
inad
a(1
999)
,M
ilto
nSa
ntos
’s(2
000)
Por
uma
outr
agl
obal
izaç
ao,
and
Vin
ayLa
l’sE
mpi
reof
Kno
wle
dge
(200
2),t
hree
rece
ntco
ntri
butio
nsth
atm
ove
beyo
ndth
epa
ram
eter
sof
the
met
ropo
lita
nlit
erat
ure.
La!,
for
inst
ance
,giv
esa
cent
ral
role
tosy
stem
icvi
olen
cein
crea
ting
and
mai
ntai
ning
glob
alin
equa
litie
s,an
dar
gues
the
syst
emic
sign
ific
ance
ofno
n-vi
olen
tstr
ateg
ies
ofch
ange
.W
eal
sose
eth
ism
ore
gene
rally
.E
very
colo
nise
dcu
ltur
epr
oduc
esin
terp
reta
tion
sof
impe
rial
ism
.In
telle
ctua
lsin
the
maj
orit
yw
orld
have
been
stud
ying
empi
re,c
olon
isat
ion
and
glob
alis
atio
npr
oces
ses
aslo
ngas
inte
llect
uals
inth
em
etro
pole
have
.Thi
sre
pres
ents
ahu
gere
sour
cefo
rle
arni
ng,w
hich
met
ropo
lita
nso
cial
scie
nce
curr
ently
disc
ards
.Bec
ause
ofth
em
etro
pole
’she
gem
onic
posi
tion
inth
egl
obal
orga
nisa
tion
ofso
cial
scie
nce
(as
Sonn
tag
(199
9)sh
ows
for
soci
olog
y),t
his
was
teis
diff
icul
t to
cont
est.
Just
how
diff
icul
tcan
bese
enin
rich
peri
pher
alco
untr
ies,
whi
chha
veth
eec
onom
icre
sour
ces
topr
oduc
eal
tern
ativ
es,b
utno
tne
cess
arily
the
desi
re.I
nth
ene
xtch
apte
rIt
ake
upth
ispr
oble
min
the
case
Ikn
owbe
st,A
ustr
alia
.
4T
hed
isco
ver
yof
Aus
tral
iaA
ustr
alia
isan
Eng
lish
colo
ny.
Its
cult
ural
pat
tern
isbas
edon
that
fact
ofhi
stor
y—or
,m
ore
prec
isel
y,on
that
pai
rof
fact
s.D
irec
t
Eng
lish
inher
itan
cedet
erm
ines
the
gen
eral
des
ign
ofou
rli
ving
and
itsd
etai
l,ra
ng
ing
from
our
enth
usi
asm
for
cric
ket
toou
r
indi
ffer
ence
toth
ead
mir
able
win
esw
hich
we
pro
duce
.B
utth
e
fact
ofou
rco
loni
alis
mha
sa
perv
asiv
ep
sych
olo
gic
alef
fect
,
sett
ing
upa
rela
tio
nsh
ipas
inti
mat
ean
dun
easy
asth
atbet
wee
n
anad
ole
scen
tan
dhi
spar
ent.
—A
.A
.P
hill
ips
(195
3)
72L
ooki
ngso
uth
The
dis
cover
yof
Aust
rali
a73
Two
cent
urie
sag
o,ha
ving
lost
thir
teen
colo
nies
inN
orth
Am
eric
a,th
eB
ritis
hst
ate
plan
ted
ane
won
e,a
pena
lse
ttle
men
t,as
far
away
asit
was
poss
ible
tosa
il.B
oth
the
mem
oirs
ofof
fici
als
and
surv
ivin
gna
rrat
ives
from
the
conv
icts
reve
alho
wst
rang
eth
ene
wen
viro
nmen
t was
felt
tobe
:bi
rds
that
laug
hed
inst
ead
ofsi
ngin
g,an
imal
sth
atho
pped
inst
ead
ofru
nnin
g,C
hris
tmas
insu
mm
er,
and
ana
tive
popu
lati
onfo
rw
hom
nopl
ace
coul
dbe
foun
din
the
Eur
opea
nso
cial
orde
r.A
ruth
less
expa
nsio
nin
toth
isal
ien
wor
ldfo
llow
ed,
and
thro
ugh
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yfo
rtun
esw
ere
mad
ein
past
oral
ism
, min
ing
and
trad
e.W
ool,
gold
,whe
at, m
eat a
ndsi
lver
wer
esh
ippe
dou
t to
Eur
ope
(and
mor
ere
cent
ly,
coal
and
iron
ore
toE
ast
Asi
a).
For
aco
uple
ofge
nera
tion
s,im
port
-sub
stit
utio
nin
dust
rial
isat
ion
plan
ted
fact
orie
sin
the
citie
san
dm
anuf
actu
rers
beca
me
pro
min
ent
inth
elo
cal
ruli
ngcl
ass;
aw
itty
econ
omis
tw
rote
abo
okca
lling
Aus
tral
ia‘a
smal
lri
chin
dust
rial
coun
try’
(Arn
dt19
68).
Ric
hit
rem
ains
, but
itis
now
dein
dust
rial
ised
:th
etw
enty
-fi
rst
cent
ury
econ
omy
cent
res
onse
rvic
esan
dm
inin
g.U
nder
the
‘Whi
teA
ustr
alia
’po
licy,
offi
cial
unti
lth
e19
60s,
aw
orkf
orce
was
impo
rted
from
Eur
ope
whi
leim
mig
rati
onfr
omA
sia
was
forb
idde
n.D
iver
sity
has
grow
nbu
tth
ela
rge
maj
orit
yar
est
illof
Eur
opea
nde
scen
t.P
olit
icia
nsst
ill
proc
laim
Aus
tral
ia’s
affi
liat
ion
wit
hth
em
etro
pole
:fo
rmer
lyw
ith
the
Bri
tish
Em
pire
,no
ww
ith
Wes
tern
civi
lisa
tion
and
the
Am
eric
anA
llian
ce.
Thi
shi
stor
ypr
oduc
edcu
ltur
aldi
lem
mas
that
are
bitte
rly
cont
este
d.A
smal
lE
urop
ean
com
mun
ity
park
edon
the
edge
ofA
sia
harb
ours
raci
alan
xiet
ies
whi
char
est
illca
pabl
eof
turn
ing
elec
tions
. The
rela
tion
betw
een
settl
eran
dIn
dige
nous
peop
leha
sbe
com
ean
infl
amed
,un
reso
lved
issu
e(s
eeC
hapt
er9)
.Id
enti
fica
tion
wit
hth
em
etro
pole
plus
geog
raph
ical
rem
oten
ess
plus
econ
omic
depe
nden
ceha
vele
dto
chro
nic
diff
icul
ties
abou
tid
enti
ty.
The
prev
aili
ngat
titu
de,
whi
chth
eli
tera
rycr
itic
A.A
.Ph
illip
sfa
mou
sly
dubb
ed‘th
ecu
ltur
alcr
inge
isco
ntes
ted
byou
tbur
sts
ofna
tion
alis
man
dse
arch
esfo
rlo
cal
grou
ndin
gth
atha
vein
spir
edso
me
ofth
ebe
stA
ustr
alia
nli
tera
ture
and
art.
But
Aus
tral
ian
natio
nalis
m, o
nce
soci
ally
radi
cal,
has
grad
ually
been
capt
ured
byth
epo
litic
alri
ght—
itse
lfco
mm
itte
dto
depe
nden
ceon
met
ropo
lita
npo
wer
and
inte
rnat
iona
lca
pita
lism
.In
this
cont
radi
ctor
yw
orld
ofse
ttler
colo
nial
ism
, wha
thap
pens
toth
eso
cial
scie
nces
?T
here
latio
nshi
pbe
twee
nco
lony
and
met
ropo
lere
mai
ns
cruc
ial,
and
the
broa
der
cult
ural
prob
lem
sar
ere
flec
ted
wit
hin
soci
al
scie
nce
disc
ipli
nes.
But
the
shap
eof
thes
epr
oble
ms
chan
ges.
Inth
is
chap
ter,
Ifo
cus
agai
non
the
case
ofso
ciol
ogy,
and
anal
yse
colo
ny—
met
ropo
lere
latio
nsin
two
hist
oric
alm
omen
ts:
the
Aus
tral
ian
colo
nies
’
role
inth
em
akin
gof
soci
olog
yin
the
seco
ndha
lfof
the
nine
teen
th
cent
ury;
and
the
form
ing
ofan
acad
emic
disc
ipli
neof
soci
olog
yin
Aus
tral
ian
univ
ersi
ties
from
the
1950
sto
the
1970
s.R
ecen
tye
ars
have
•pr
oduc
edot
her
poss
ibili
ties,
whi
chIc
onsi
der
atth
een
dof
the
chap
ter.
Aus
tral
ia’s
pla
ce
inth
em
akin
gof
soci
olo
gy
Dur
ing
the
seco
ndha
lfof
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
y,m
etro
poli
tan
text
s—
espe
cial
lyth
ew
ritin
gsof
Com
tean
dSp
ence
r—ci
rcul
ated
far
beyo
ndth
e
met
ropo
le.S
penc
erha
da
cons
ider
able
impa
ctin
Japa
nan
dIn
dia;
Com
te
was
read
inIr
anan
dha
da
pow
erfu
lin
flue
nce
inB
razi
l.Su
chan
impa
ct
•de
pend
edon
the
exis
tenc
eof
alo
cal
inte
llige
ntsi
apr
epar
edto
wor
kw
ith
thes
eid
eas.
The
crea
tion
ofa
high
ered
ucat
ion
syst
emin
Aus
tral
iaex
actly
coin
cide
dw
ith
the
inve
ntio
nof
soci
olog
yin
the
met
ropo
le.
Com
te’s
Syst
emof
Posi
tive
Polit
y,su
btit
led
Tre
atis
eof
Soci
olog
y,w
aspu
blis
hed
betw
een
1851
and
1854
inth
eea
rly
days
ofL
ouis
Bon
apar
te’s
regi
me,
the
subj
ect
ofM
arx’
sE
ight
eent
hB
rum
aire
;th
eU
nive
rsity
ofSy
dney
open
ed
for
busi
ness
in18
52an
dth
eU
nive
rsity
ofM
elbo
urne
very
soon
afte
r.
The
colo
nial
univ
ersi
ties’
curr
icul
umw
asor
igin
ally
ast
odgy
amal
gam
ofcl
assi
csan
dte
chni
calt
rain
ing,
buti
tgra
dual
lybr
oade
ned,
and
asit
did
soit
was
poss
ible
for
them
esfr
om‘t
heso
cial
scie
nce’
tobe
incl
uded
.
Col
onia
lne
wsp
aper
s—m
ore
dive
rse
and
inte
llec
tual
lysu
bsta
ntia
lth
en
than
now
—pr
ovid
edan
othe
rar
ena
inw
hich
‘the
soci
alqu
esti
onre
latio
ns
betw
een
race
s,th
est
atus
ofw
omen
and
othe
rso
ciol
ogic
alth
emes
wer
e
deba
ted.
Inth
ese
cond
half
ofth
eni
nete
enth
cent
ury,
thes
ede
bate
sde
velo
ped
activ
ely
inM
elbo
urne
,the
non
eof
the
larg
estc
ities
inth
ew
orld
ofse
ttler
colo
nial
ism
,wit
ha
dive
rse
and
radi
cal
inte
llig
ents
iaan
da
surp
risi
ngly
open
-min
ded
univ
ersi
ty. A
nota
ble
prod
ucto
fthi
sm
ilieu
was
the
wor
kof
W.E
.Hea
rn,a
nIr
ish
clas
sici
stw
hobe
cam
epr
ofes
sor
atth
eU
nive
rsity
of
Mel
bour
nein
the
1850
san
dpr
oduc
edan
impr
essi
vese
ries
ofbo
oks
over
the
next
30ye
ars
(La
Nau
ze19
49).
The
unst
ruct
ured
stat
eof
the
soci
al
scie
nces
atth
eti
me
isil
lust
rate
dby
the
fact
that
Hea
rnw
aspr
ofes
sor
of
hist
ory,
liter
atur
e,lo
gic,
polit
ical
econ
omy
and
law
—m
ost o
fthe
mat
the
74L
ooki
ngso
uth
sam
eti
me.
His
book
Plut
olog
y,pu
blis
hed
inM
elbo
urne
in18
63, w
asar
guab
lyth
efi
rst
impo
rtan
t tex
t of
econ
omic
sto
bew
ritt
enin
Aus
tral
ia,
and
The
Ary
anH
ouse
hold
, pub
lish
edin
1878
, was
the
firs
t im
port
ant
text
ofso
ciol
ogy.
The
Ary
anH
ouse
hold
isre
cogn
isab
lypa
rtof
the
genr
eof
stud
ies
ofso
cial
prog
ress
,in
broa
dco
mpa
rati
vest
yle,
that
wer
eun
dert
aken
inth
e18
70s
and
1880
sby
Tyl
oran
dSp
ence
rin
Bri
tain
, Let
ourn
eau
inFr
ance
,W
ard
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
and
Tön
nies
inG
erm
any.
Hea
rnex
plai
ned
his
purp
ose
clea
rly
inth
ein
trod
ucti
on:
Ipr
opos
eto
desc
ribe
the
rise
and
the
prog
ress
ofth
epr
inci
pal
inst
itutio
nsth
atar
eco
mm
onto
the
natio
nsof
the
Ary
anra
ce. I
shal
len
deav
our t
oill
ustr
ate
the
soci
alor
gani
zatio
nun
der w
hich
our r
emot
efo
refa
ther
sliv
ed. I
shal
l,so
far a
sIa
mab
le, t
race
the
mod
esof
thou
ght
and
offe
elin
gw
hich
,in
thei
r mut
ual r
elat
ions
, inf
luen
ced
thei
r con
duct
.Is
hall
indi
cate
the
germ
sof
thos
ein
stitu
tions
whi
chha
veno
wat
tain
edso
high
ade
velo
pmen
t;an
dI s
hall
atte
mpt
tosh
owth
eci
rcum
stan
ces
inw
hich
polit
ical
soci
ety
took
itsri
se,
and
the
step
sby
whi
ch,
inW
este
rnE
urop
e,it
supp
lant
edits
anci
ent r
ival
. (H
earn
1878
: 2)
Seve
ral t
hing
sar
ein
tere
stin
gab
out t
his
pass
age.
The
tone
isso
ber—
this
isin
tend
edas
ate
chni
cal
cont
ribu
tion
tosc
ienc
e,no
ta
popu
lari
sati
on.
Hea
rnm
akes
asi
mpl
eid
enti
fica
tion
wit
hE
urop
eans
(‘ou
rre
mot
efo
refa
ther
s’),
refl
ectin
gth
eid
eaof
Aus
tral
ian
colo
nist
sas
tran
spla
nted
Bri
tons
. The
reis
acl
ear
pres
uppo
sitio
nof
prog
ress
(‘so
high
ade
velo
pm
ent’
).N
otab
leal
sois
Hea
rn’s
open
ing
ofa
cont
rast
betw
een
two
type
sof
soci
ety.
Thi
sis
anea
rly
exam
ple
ofth
ete
chni
que
ofgr
and
ethn
ogra
phy
(Cha
pter
1),
whi
chso
onbe
cam
ece
ntra
lto
met
ropo
lita
nso
ciol
ogis
ts’
repr
esen
tatio
nsof
time
and
prog
ress
. Afe
wpa
ges
late
r,H
earn
give
sa
very
clea
rsu
mm
ary
ofth
isw
ayof
repr
esen
ting
chan
ge:
Inal
l its
lead
ing
char
acte
rist
ics—
polit
ical
, leg
al, r
elig
ious
, eco
nom
ic—
arch
aic
soci
ety
pres
ents
aco
mpl
ete
cont
rast
toth
atin
whi
chw
eliv
e.
..no
cent
ral
gove
rnm
ent
-.
.no
nati
onal
chur
ch.
..fe
wco
ntr
acts
..
.M
enliv
edac
cord
ing
toth
eir
cust
oms
..
.T
hey
wer
epr
otec
ted,
or,
ifne
edw
ere,
aven
ged,
byth
ehe
lpof
thei
rki
nsm
en.
The
rew
as,i
nsh
ort,
neit
her
indi
vidu
alno
rSt
ate.
The
clan
, or
som
e
asso
ciat
ion
foun
ded
upon
the
mod
elof
the
clan
, and
itssu
bdiv
isio
ns,
fille
dth
ew
hole
ofou
rfo
refa
ther
s’so
cial
life
(Hea
rn18
78:4
—5)
.
The
rest
ofth
ebo
okfi
llsou
tth
isco
ntra
st.
Ittr
aver
ses
ara
nge
ofso
ciol
ogic
alth
emes
:th
ena
ture
ofcu
stom
,th
epo
siti
onof
wom
en,
the
soci
alor
gani
sati
onof
the
hous
ehol
d,ty
pes
ofas
soci
atio
n,ty
pes
ofpo
wer
,an
dth
ere
lati
onsh
ipbe
twee
nth
est
ate
and
civi
lso
ciet
y.B
utth
ere
ison
eod
dity
.Hea
rn,a
lthou
ghhe
lived
ina
colo
ny,f
ound
his
exam
ples
rigo
rous
lyin
the
earl
yhi
stor
yof
the
‘Ary
an’
nati
ons
ofE
urop
ean
dth
eir
supp
osed
ance
stor
s.It
may
part
lybe
for
that
reas
onth
atH
earn
’sbr
illi
antb
egin
ning
foun
dfe
wA
ustr
alia
nfo
llow
ers;
hecr
eate
dno
loca
lsch
oolo
fsoc
iolo
gica
l res
earc
h.H
iste
xtw
as,r
athe
r,a
cont
ribu
tion
from
the
colo
nies
toth
em
etro
polit
anli
tera
ture
ofsp
ecul
atio
nab
out
soci
alpr
ogre
ss.
The
rew
asno
inst
itu
tion
alis
atio
nof
‘soc
iolo
gy’
inth
eco
loni
alun
iver
sitie
s,an
ym
ore
than
ther
ew
asat
Oxf
ord
orC
ambr
idge
.Whe
nin
the
1880
sth
eU
nive
rsity
ofSy
dney
bega
nto
mod
erni
seit
sba
dly
outd
ated
Art
scu
rric
ulum
,it
deve
lope
dm
oder
nhi
stor
y,ph
iloso
phy
and
polit
ical
econ
omy,
butd
idno
ttr
yto
deve
lop
soci
olog
y(T
urne
y,B
ygot
t and
Chi
ppen
dale
1991
:271
if.).
Tha
tde
velo
pmen
toc
curr
edsh
ortl
yaf
terw
ards
inN
orth
Am
eric
anun
iver
sitie
s.T
heex
plos
ion
ofun
derg
radu
ate
soci
olog
yco
urse
s,te
xtbo
oks,
prof
essi
onal
orga
nisa
tion
san
dre
sear
chou
tput
inA
mer
ican
colle
ges
met
with
anup
surg
eof
inte
rest
inso
ciol
ogy
acro
ssth
eN
orth
Atla
ntic
, inc
ludi
ng
the
firs
tch
air
ofso
ciol
ogy
inB
rita
inin
1907
.It
was
thes
eev
ents
that
Fra
ncis
And
erso
n,ap
poin
ted
toa
chai
rof
phil
osop
hydu
ring
the
Uni
vers
ity
ofSy
dney
reno
vati
onof
Art
s,ha
din
min
dw
hen
hede
liver
edth
e19
11le
ctur
eth
atis
ofte
nta
ken
asth
est
arti
ng
poin
tofA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogy.
Soci
olog
yin
Aus
tral
ia: A
Plea
fori
tsTe
achi
ng,
publ
ishe
dth
ene
xtye
aras
anel
even
-pag
epa
mph
let,
was
not
aw
ork
of
soci
olog
y,no
rwas
And
erso
nin
any
sens
ea
soci
olog
ist.
He
was
apro
fess
iona
lph
ilos
ophe
rw
hohe
lda
Com
tean
view
ofth
est
ruct
ure
ofsc
ienc
e.In
this
view
,soc
iolo
gyw
asth
e‘m
othe
rsc
ienc
e’th
atst
ated
the
broa
dpr
inci
ples
ofw
hich
spec
ific
scie
nces
such
asec
onom
ics
wer
eex
ampl
es.
Soci
olog
y’s
task
was
‘to
asce
rtai
nth
ena
tura
lla
ws
whi
char
em
anif
este
din
soci
algr
owth
’(A
nder
son
1912
:10
).A
nder
son
seiz
edup
onth
ere
cent
expa
nsio
n
ofec
onom
ics
and
com
mer
cete
achi
ngat
the
Uni
vers
ityof
Sydn
eyto
argu
eth
atth
em
othe
rsc
ienc
esh
ould
also
beta
ught
.
The
dis
cover
yof
Aust
rali
a75
76L
oo
kin
gso
uth
And
erso
n’s
view
ofso
ciol
ogy
was
,in
1912
,alr
eady
alit
tleda
ted.
With
in
ten
year
s,th
ew
hole
syst
emof
evol
utio
nary
soci
alsc
ienc
ean
dits
law
sof
prog
ress
wou
ldbe
plun
ged
into
term
inal
cris
is.N
othi
nglik
eA
nder
son’
s
prog
ram
coul
dpo
ssib
lybe
impl
emen
ted.
His
lect
ure
mar
ksth
een
dof
an
era
rath
erth
anth
ebe
ginn
ing:
Com
tean
theo
ryne
verg
otes
tabl
ishe
dhe
re.
But
ther
ew
asan
othe
rfe
atur
eof
colo
nial
real
ityth
atdi
dm
ake
Aus
tral
ia
impo
rtan
tfo
rso
ciol
ogy
inth
eni
nete
enth
cent
ury.
As
Ish
owed
inC
hapt
er1,
repo
rts
from
the
colo
nise
dw
orld
beca
me
a
maj
orda
taso
urce
for
evol
utio
nary
soci
alsc
ienc
e.In
the
pref
ace
tohi
s
grea
tw
ork
Pri
mit
ive
Cul
ture
,E
dwar
dT
ylor
(187
3)m
ade
a‘g
ener
al
ackn
owle
dgm
ent
ofob
liga
tion
sto
wri
ters
onet
hnog
raph
yan
dki
ndre
d
scie
nces
,as
wel
las
tohi
stor
ians
,tra
velle
rs,a
ndm
issi
onar
ies’
(187
3:I,
vi).
Such
obse
rver
spr
ovid
edso
ciol
ogis
tsw
ith
rich
docu
men
tati
onof
the
prim
itiv
ew
hich
thei
rgr
and
ethn
ogra
phy
soug
htto
cont
rast
wit
hth
e
adva
nced
soci
ety
ofth
em
etro
pole
.
The
Bri
tish
conq
uest
ofA
ustr
alia
was
noex
cept
ion.
The
firs
tcol
onia
l
gove
rnor
was
inst
ruct
edto
mak
eco
ntac
tw
ithth
ena
tives
and
take
them
unde
rhi
spr
otec
tion
,w
hich
hedu
tifu
lly
atte
mpt
edto
do.
His
repo
rts
laun
ched
Bri
tish
colo
nial
adm
inis
trat
ion
ona
see-
saw
ofco
ncil
iati
on,
coer
cion
and
hand
-wri
ngin
gov
erth
egr
owin
gfr
onti
ervi
olen
cebe
twee
n
settl
ers
and
Abo
rigi
nes.
Thi
sla
sted
unti
lthe
whi
teco
loni
sts
had
seiz
edth
e
rich
estl
and
inea
ster
nA
ustr
alia
and
pers
uade
dW
hite
hall
togr
ant
them
cont
rol
ofth
ere
st,
inth
efo
rmof
resp
onsi
ble
gove
rnm
ent—
inot
her
wor
ds,q
uasi
-ind
epen
denc
e.A
ccou
nts
ofth
ispr
oces
s,w
ithde
scri
ptio
nsof
the
Abo
rigi
nal
com
mun
itie
sto
who
mit
was
appl
ied,
flow
edba
ckto
Bri
tain
.A
nota
ble
exam
ple
com
esfr
omon
eof
the
grea
tsc
ient
ific
docu
men
ts
ofth
eag
e.C
harl
esD
arw
in’s
Jour
nal
ofR
esea
rche
s(b
ette
rkn
own
asT
he
Voy
age
ofth
eB
eagl
e)co
ntai
nsa
chap
ter
abou
this
visi
tto
Sydn
eyan
dtr
ip
over
the
Blu
eM
ount
ains
,an
dth
ensh
ort
visi
tsto
Van
Die
men
’sL
and
(now
Tas
man
ia)
and
Kin
gG
eorg
e’s
Sou
nd(n
owW
este
rnA
ustr
alia
).
Her
ehe
wit
ness
eda
‘cor
robe
ry’
ofth
eW
hite
Coc
kato
ope
ople
.His
des
crip
tion
ends
:
Whe
nbo
thtr
ibes
min
gled
inth
eda
nce,
the
grou
ndtr
embl
edw
ith
the
heav
ines
sof
thei
rst
eps,
and
the
air
reso
unde
dw
ith
thei
rw
ild
crie
s.E
very
one
appe
ared
inhi
ghsp
irit
s,an
dth
egr
oup
ofne
arly
The
dis
covery
of
Aust
rali
a77
nake
dfi
gure
s,vi
ewed
byth
elig
htof
the
blaz
ing
fire
s,al
l mov
ing
inhi
deou
sha
rmon
y,fo
rmed
ape
rfec
tdi
spla
yof
afe
stiv
alam
ongs
t the
low
est b
arba
rian
s(D
arw
in18
39: 4
26).
Des
pite
the
pejo
rati
ves,
Dar
win
was
not
host
ile
toth
eA
ustr
alia
nA
bori
gina
l gro
ups
hem
et. H
ead
mir
edth
eir
bush
craf
t and
hunt
ing
skill
s,sy
mpa
this
edw
ith
thei
rvu
lner
abil
ity
toim
port
eddi
seas
es,
and
did
not
blam
eth
emfo
rth
efr
onti
ervi
olen
ce.
But
hedi
dre
gard
the
Aus
tral
ian
Abo
rigi
nes
asa
mor
epr
imiti
vepe
ople
than
the
Bri
tish;
heex
pect
edth
eir
extin
ctio
n,an
dhe
saw
this
asan
unav
oida
ble
cons
eque
nce
ofa
stro
nger
vari
ety
ofm
anm
eeti
nga
wea
ker:
‘Whe
reve
rth
eE
urop
ean
has
trod
, dea
thse
ems
topu
rsue
the
abor
igin
al’
(Dar
win
1839
: 411
).H
undr
eds
ofsu
chac
coun
tsof
nativ
elif
ein
Aus
tral
ia—
som
em
uch
mor
esu
bsta
ntia
l tha
nD
arw
in’s
—ca
me
back
toth
em
etro
pole
and
beca
me
part
ofth
era
wm
ater
ial f
rom
whi
chev
olut
iona
ryso
cial
scie
nce
was
built
.I
coul
dgi
veex
ampl
esfr
omve
ryw
ell-
know
nw
rite
rsin
clud
ing
Tyl
orhi
mse
lfan
dW
illi
amG
raha
mS
umne
r,bu
tw
ill
quot
eju
ston
e,th
epr
ogre
ssiv
eli
bera
lL
este
rW
ard.
Surv
eyin
gth
era
ces
ofm
anki
ndin
his
Dyn
amic
Soci
olog
y,W
ard
(189
7)de
clar
ed:
Am
ong
othe
rve
rylo
wsa
vage
race
sm
aybe
men
tion
edth
eFu
egia
ns,
who
,th
ough
ofra
ther
larg
est
atur
e,ar
em
enta
lly
little
supe
rior
toan
imal
s;th
eab
orig
inal
Aus
tral
ians
ofth
ein
teri
or, w
ho, a
long
wit
hot
her
sim
ian
char
acte
rist
ics,
are
near
lyde
stitu
teof
the
fles
hym
uscl
esco
nsti
tuti
ngth
eca
lfof
the
leg
(gas
troc
nem
ius
and
sole
us)
..
.M
any
ofth
ese
trib
esan
dra
ces
live
alm
ost
entir
ely
afte
rth
em
anne
rof
wild
beas
ts,
havi
ngno
thin
gth
atca
nbe
calle
dgo
vern
men
t,re
ligio
n,or
soci
ety
(189
7:II
,418
).
Non
eof
thes
eth
eori
sts
had
visi
ted
Aus
tral
iaor
met
anA
ustr
alia
nA
bori
gina
lpe
rson
,an
dno
nem
ade
any
atte
mpt
tove
rify
thei
rst
artl
ing
(and
,in
War
d’s
and
Sum
ner’
sca
ses,
undo
ubte
dly
fals
e)cl
aim
s.A
ustr
alia
nA
bori
gine
sha
dno
hum
anre
ality
for
them
.T
hey
wer
esi
mpl
yto
kens
inth
eco
nstr
ucti
onof
asc
ient
ific
fant
asy
ofth
epr
imit
ive,
whi
chin
turn
valid
ated
ado
ctri
neof
soci
alev
olut
ion.
Aus
tral
ia’s
role
inth
em
akin
gof
soci
olog
y,lik
eth
atof
the
rest
ofth
eco
loni
sed
wor
ld, w
asto
bea
data
min
e,a
sour
ceof
ethn
ogra
phic
exam
ples
ofth
epr
imiti
ve. W
ithin
the
colo
nise
dw
orld
,Aus
tral
iaha
dth
edi
stin
ctio
n
78L
ooki
ngso
uth
The
dis
cover
yof
Aust
rali
a79
ofbe
ing
the
mos
tpri
miti
veof
all,
illu
stra
ting
the
extr
emity
ofde
grad
atio
n
orba
ckw
ardn
ess.
Thi
sw
asce
rtai
nly
the
assu
mpt
ion
behi
ndth
em
ostf
amou
sap
pear
ance
ofA
ustr
alia
inth
ete
xts
of‘c
lass
ical
’so
ciol
ogy.
Inth
ela
stde
cade
sof
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
y,de
libe
rate
ethn
ogra
phic
obse
rvat
ion
was
repl
acin
g
‘his
tori
ans,
trav
elle
rsan
dm
issi
onar
ies’
asth
eke
yso
urce
ofin
form
atio
n
abou
tno
n-E
urop
ean
peop
les
inth
ein
tell
ectu
alsh
ift
that
prod
uced
mod
ern
soci
alan
thro
polo
gy.
Som
eof
this
pion
eeri
ngw
ork
was
done
in
Aus
tral
ia,a
ndam
ong
the
mos
tin
flue
ntia
lwas
rese
arch
cond
ucte
din
the
1890
s,in
the
cent
rald
eser
taro
und
Alic
eSp
ring
s,by
Bal
dwin
Spen
cer
and
F.J.
Gil
en.
Bac
kin
Pari
s,Sp
ence
ran
dG
illen
’sw
ell-
illu
stra
ted
repo
rtTh
eN
ativ
e
Trib
esof
Cen
tral
Aus
tral
iaw
asre
adw
ithen
thus
iasm
byD
urkh
eim
and
his
colle
ague
s.It
was
war
mly
revi
ewed
inL’
anné
eso
ciol
ogiq
ue,a
nda
deca
de
late
rbe
cam
eth
em
ain
empi
rica
lba
sis
for
Dur
khei
m’s
last
book
,T
he
Ele
men
tary
Form
sof
Rel
igio
usLi
fe,p
ubli
shed
in19
12.
Inth
isbo
ok,t
hecu
stom
san
dm
ytho
logy
ofth
eA
rrer
nte
peop
leas
they
stoo
din
the
late
nine
teen
thce
ntur
ybe
cam
eth
eba
sis
for
age
nera
l
soci
olog
yof
relig
ion.
Dur
khei
m,
like
mos
tso
ciol
ogis
tsw
how
rote
abou
t
‘Aus
tra1
ians
unde
rsto
odlit
tleof
the
dive
rsity
ordy
nam
ism
ofIn
dige
nous
cultu
res
inA
ustr
alia
.Dur
khei
mkn
ewth
ere
wer
edi
ffer
ent
com
mun
itie
s,
butb
elie
ved
they
wer
e‘p
erfe
ctly
hom
ogen
eous
’bec
ause
thei
rso
ciet
ies
‘all
belo
ngto
one
com
mon
type
’(D
urkh
eim
1912
:95
).T
heA
rrer
nte
wer
e
used
for
one
reas
on.
Dur
khei
mth
ough
the
had
foun
d,in
Spen
cer
and
Gill
en’s
ethn
ogra
phy,
ade
taile
dde
scri
ptio
nof
the
mos
tpri
mit
ive
form
of
reli
gion
,an
dhe
thou
ght
that
byst
udyi
ngth
em
ost
prim
itiv
efo
rm,
he
coul
dre
veal
the
mos
tfu
ndam
enta
ltr
uths
abou
tre
ligi
on.
The
reis
no
ambi
guity
abou
tthi
s.D
urkh
eim
says
exac
tly:
Inth
isbo
okw
epr
opos
eto
stud
yth
em
ost
prim
itiv
ean
dsi
mpl
e
relig
ion
whi
chis
actu
ally
know
n.
..A
relig
ious
syst
emm
aybe
said
to
beth
em
ostp
rim
itiv
e..
.in
the
firs
tpla
cew
hen
itis
foun
din
aso
ciet
y
who
seor
gani
zati
onis
surp
asse
dby
noot
hers
insi
mpl
icit
y;an
d
seco
ndly
whe
nit
ispo
ssib
leto
expl
ain
itw
itho
utm
akin
gus
eof
any
elem
entb
orro
wed
from
apr
evio
usre
ligio
n(D
urkh
eim
1912
:1)
.
‘Aus
tral
ian
tote
mis
m’
fitte
dth
ebi
ll,be
caus
eA
ustr
alia
nA
bori
gine
sha
d
the
mos
tpr
imiti
vedo
cum
ente
dso
ciet
y.H
ere
the
crud
era
cism
ofa
War
d
orS
umne
ris
tran
scen
ded—
upto
apo
int.
Dur
khei
m’s
prej
udic
eta
kes
ave
ryso
phis
tica
ted
form
;hi
sso
ciol
ogy
embe
dsa
deep
lyet
hnoc
entr
icvi
ewpo
int
none
thel
ess.
And
itco
ncea
lsa
radi
cal
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
Aus
tral
ian
Indi
geno
uscu
lture
s.T
his
was
alre
ady
know
able
inD
urkh
eim
’sda
y.In
abi
ting
revi
ewof
The
Ele
men
tary
Form
spu
blis
hed
the
follo
win
gye
ar, t
hean
thro
polo
gist
van
Gen
nep
(cel
ebra
ted
for
his
wor
kon
‘rite
sof
pass
age’
)po
inte
dou
ttha
t the
book
was
ridd
led
with
doub
tful
fact
ual
clai
ms.
But
, mor
eim
port
antl
y,it
was
base
don
am
onum
enta
l con
cept
ual e
rror
—an
erro
r,Iw
ould
say,
that
infe
cted
the
who
leen
terp
rise
ofev
olut
iona
ryso
ciol
ogy:
The
idea
he[D
urkh
eim
]ha
sde
rive
dfr
omth
em[t
heet
hnog
raph
icdo
cum
ents
]of
apr
imiti
vem
an..
.an
dof
‘sim
ple’
soci
etie
sis
entir
ely
erro
neou
s.T
hem
ore
one
know
sof
the
Aus
tral
ians
and
the
less
one
iden
tifie
sth
est
age
ofth
eir
mat
eria
lci
vili
zati
onw
ith
that
ofth
eir
soci
alor
gani
zati
on,
one
disc
over
sth
atth
eA
ustr
alia
nso
ciet
ies
are
very
com
plex
,ver
yfa
rfro
mth
esi
mpl
ean
dth
epr
imiti
ve,b
utve
ryfa
rad
vanc
edal
ong
thei
row
npa
ths
ofde
velo
pmen
t(V
anG
enne
pin
1913
, quo
ted
inL
ukes
1985
:52
5).
The
crea
tio
nof
Aus
tral
ian
academ
icso
ciolo
gy
Inth
efo
urde
cade
sth
atfo
llow
edA
nder
son’
sap
peal
and
Dur
khei
m’s
grea
tfa
ntas
y,w
hile
met
ropo
lita
nso
ciol
ogy
chan
ged
prof
ound
ly(s
eeC
hapt
er1)
,litt
leha
ppen
edor
gani
sati
onal
lyin
Aus
tral
ia.B
itsof
the
new
wel
fare
-sta
teso
ciol
ogy
popp
edup
inod
dco
ntex
ts—
the
Wor
kers
’E
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion
,univ
ersi
typhil
oso
phy
cour
ses,
poli
tica
lsp
ecul
atio
nby
prog
ress
ive
liber
als,
orsu
rvey
sof
educ
atio
nal i
nequ
aliti
es.
But
ther
ew
asno
thin
glik
eth
eC
hica
goSc
hool
,let
alon
ean
Aus
tral
ian
Pars
ons,
topu
llth
emto
geth
er.
Aus
tral
ia’s
mos
tbri
llia
ntso
cial
scie
ntis
t,V
ere
Gor
don
Chi
lde,
left
the
coun
try
in19
21,d
ism
ayed
atth
eL
abor
Party
’sbe
tray
alof
the
wor
kers
, and
wen
tof
fto
Eur
ope
toin
vent
scie
ntif
icpr
ehis
tory
.Fo
rth
ene
xtge
nera
tion
his
asto
nish
ing
crea
tivity
was
prac
tical
lyig
nore
din
Aus
tral
ia, w
here
itw
askn
own
that
hew
asa
com
mun
ist (
Gat
herc
ole,
Irvi
ngan
dM
elle
uish
1995
).O
ther
tale
nted
soci
alre
sear
cher
sal
sole
ftth
eco
untr
y,su
chas
Elto
nM
ayo
who
beca
me
afo
unde
rof
indu
stri
also
ciol
ogy
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
.
80L
ooki
ngso
uth
Whe
nre
sear
chpr
ogra
ms
wit
hin
the
new
soci
olog
ical
epis
tem
efi
nally
appe
ared
inA
ustr
alia
,the
yw
ere
outg
row
ths
from
soci
alan
thro
polo
gyan
d
soci
alps
ycho
logy
.T
hepr
ofes
sor
ofan
thro
polo
gyat
the
Uni
vers
ity
of
Sydn
ey,A
.P.E
lkin
,fa
mou
sfo
rhi
sw
ork
onA
bori
gina
lcu
lture
s,be
gan
in
the
earl
y19
40s
todi
rect
som
eof
his
stud
ents
tow
ards
ethn
ogra
phic
stud
ies
of‘o
urow
nso
ciet
y’—
that
is,w
hite
settl
erso
ciet
y.H
eal
soun
dert
ook
a
stud
yof
war
tim
eso
cial
inte
grat
ion
base
don
surv
eyda
ta.
The
nota
ble
prod
ucts
ofth
isin
itiat
ive
wer
ea
wel
l-ob
serv
ed,t
houg
hm
odes
tlypr
esen
ted,
ethn
ogra
phy
ofa
min
ing
tow
nby
Ala
nW
alke
r(1
945)
,and
anev
enbe
tter
ethn
ogra
phy
ofru
ral
kins
hip
and
fam
ilylif
eby
Jean
Cra
ig(1
957)
,lat
er
know
nto
ever
yso
ciol
ogis
tin
Aus
tral
iaas
Jean
Mar
tin.
Inth
ela
te19
40s,
the
new
prof
esso
rof
psyc
holo
gyat
the
Uni
vers
ityof
Mel
bour
ne,O
scar
Oes
er,l
aunc
hed
are
sear
chpr
ogra
mon
‘soc
ialb
ehav
iour
’
whi
chal
sodr
ifte
din
toth
ete
rrit
ory
ofth
ene
wso
ciol
ogy;
His
rese
arch
team
cond
ucte
del
abor
ate
obse
rvat
iona
lan
din
terv
iew
stud
ies
ina
Vic
tori
an
coun
try
tow
n,in
subu
rbs
ofM
elbo
urne
,and
inse
ven
fact
orie
s.T
heto
pics
incl
uded
clas
s-co
nsci
ousn
ess,
job
satis
fact
ion,
indu
stri
alre
latio
nsan
dfa
mily
life.
Thi
sst
yle
ofso
cial
-rea
list
fiel
dob
serv
atio
nw
asso
ondr
oppe
dby
Aus
tral
ian
psyc
holo
gy,w
hich
fell
unde
rth
esp
ell
ofbe
havi
ouri
sm.B
utth
e
thre
evo
lum
esof
the
Soci
alS
truc
ture
and
Pers
onal
ityse
ries
(Oes
eran
d
Ham
mon
d19
54;
Oes
eran
dE
mer
y19
54;
Laf
itte
1958
)pr
ovid
edke
y
empi
rica
lm
ater
ialf
orth
efi
rst
univ
ersi
tyco
urse
sin
soci
olog
y;w
hich
wer
e
laun
ched
alm
osti
mm
edia
tely
afte
rth
ese
book
sw
ere
publ
ishe
d.
Dur
ing
the
1950
s,th
eid
eaof
soci
alsu
rvey
son
the
whi
teco
mm
unit
y
beca
me
fam
ilia
r.A
nA
ustr
alia
nm
arke
tre
sear
chfi
rm,
Roy
Mor
gan
Res
earc
h,st
arte
dsa
mpl
esu
rvey
sus
ing
its‘G
allu
pPo
ll’in
the
1940
s.T
he
poll
find
ings
,pre
sent
edby
Mor
gan
assc
ient
ific
mea
sure
sof
opin
ion,
wer
e
repo
rted
inth
epr
ess
and
incr
easi
ngly
noti
ced
bypo
litic
ians
.Uni
vers
ity-
and
wel
fare
-bas
edsu
rvey
sap
pear
ed,d
escr
ibin
gsp
ecif
icso
cial
grou
psan
d
thei
rpro
blem
s.T
hey
incl
uded
the
aged
inV
icto
ria,
surv
eyed
bya
Uni
vers
ity
ofM
elbo
urne
grou
p(H
utch
inso
n19
54);
the
youn
gin
Sydn
ey,s
urve
yed
bya
Uni
vers
ityof
Sydn
eygr
oup
(Con
nell,
Fran
cis
and
Skilb
eck
1957
);an
d
the
leis
ure
prob
lem
sof
aM
elbo
urne
subu
rban
esta
te,
surv
eyed
byth
e
Bro
ther
hood
ofSt
Lau
renc
e(S
cott
and
U’r
en19
62).
Aca
dem
icre
sear
cher
s
also
bega
nto
see
the
nati
onal
cens
usas
aso
urce
ofda
tafo
rso
cial
anal
ysis
.
Geo
rge
Zub
rzyc
ki(1
960)
thus
cond
ucte
d‘a
dem
ogra
phic
surv
ey’
of
imm
igra
nts
inA
ustr
alia
.
Thi
sge
nera
tion
ofso
cial
rese
arch
ers
forg
eda
new
rela
tion
ship
wit
h
met
ropo
lita
nso
ciol
ogy.
Aus
tral
iace
ased
tobe
ada
tam
ine,
anec
onom
y
expo
rtin
gfa
cts
(or
imag
ined
fact
s). M
osto
f the
sest
udie
sw
ere
publ
ishe
d
inA
ustr
alia
and
rem
aine
dun
know
nin
the
met
ropo
le.
How
ever
, the
new
gene
rati
onof
rese
arch
ers
adop
ted
the
new
Am
eric
ande
fini
tion
ofth
e
subj
ect-
mat
ter o
f soc
iolo
gy, a
ndth
eyad
opte
dth
em
etho
dsof
met
ropo
litan
rese
arch
ers.
Wal
ker’
sC
oalto
wn,
for
inst
ance
,m
enti
oned
noth
eory
and
did
not
com
pare
itsfi
ndin
gsw
ithan
yot
her
rese
arch
. But
itw
ascl
earl
ym
odel
led
onco
mm
unit
yst
udie
ssu
chas
the
Lynd
s’M
iddl
etow
nan
dW
arne
r’s ‘
Yan
kee
City
’se
ries
. The
Sydn
eyed
ucat
ioni
sts’
Gro
win
gU
pin
anA
ustr
alia
nC
ity
was
mor
eex
plic
tlyco
nnec
ted
wit
hm
odel
sin
the
Am
eric
anso
ciol
ogy
of
yout
h.Fo
rO
ldPe
ople
ina
Mod
ern
Aus
tral
ian
Com
mun
ity,
the
acad
emic
and
busi
ness
spon
sors
actu
ally
impo
rted
from
Bri
tain
‘an
expe
rien
ced
inve
stig
ator
ofso
cial
prob
lem
s’to
run
the
stud
y(H
utch
inso
n19
54: v
).
Thi
sst
ance
was
fam
iliar
inA
ustr
alia
nin
telle
ctua
llife
atth
etim
e.A
.A.
Phill
ips
(195
3:85
)di
agno
sed
‘the
pers
iste
nce
ofth
eco
loni
alsu
rren
der
in
the
Aus
tral
ian
min
d’as
am
ajor
prob
lem
for
lite
ratu
reto
o.So
itw
asea
sy
for
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
yto
cons
titu
teit
self
asa
bran
chof
fice
of
met
ropo
lita
nso
ciol
ogy,
impo
rtin
gm
etro
poli
tan
met
hods
and
topi
csin
orde
rto
addr
ess
alo
cal a
udie
nce
abou
tlo
calv
ersi
ons
ofso
cial
prob
lem
s.
The
com
mon
estt
itle
ofan
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
ical
repo
rt, f
orth
e30
year
s
from
1950
, was
Xin
Aus
tral
ia—
whe
reX
was
aph
enom
enon
alre
ady
defi
ned
inth
em
etro
pole
and
for w
hich
met
ropo
lita
npa
radi
gms
ofre
sear
chw
ere
avai
labl
e.X
mig
htbe
‘rel
igio
n‘s
tatu
san
dpr
estig
e’, ‘
soci
alst
rati
flca
tion
‘div
orce
‘mar
riag
ean
dth
efa
mily
’,‘u
rban
izat
ion
‘pro
stit
utio
n‘p
oliti
cal
lead
ersh
ip‘w
omen
‘mas
sm
edia
’,‘i
mm
igra
nts’
or‘s
ocio
logy
’its
elf.
(The
se
are
alla
ctua
l titl
esfr
omth
epe
riod
.)T
heta
skof
the
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
ist
was
toap
ply
the
met
ropo
lita
nre
sear
chte
chni
que,
dem
onst
rate
that
the
phen
omen
onal
soex
iste
din
Aus
tral
ia,
and
say
empi
rica
llyw
hat
form
it
took
here
. In
som
eof
this
wri
ting
ther
ew
asa
fain
t mis
sion
ary
flav
our,
as
ifth
eso
ciol
ogis
tsw
ere
brin
ging
new
light
toth
eun
soph
isti
cate
dlo
cals
.
The
sem
etro
poli
tan-
styl
est
udie
sof
‘our
own
soci
ety’
wer
eth
e
know
ledg
eba
seon
whi
chan
acad
emic
disc
iplin
eca
lled
‘soc
iolo
gy’
was
inst
alle
din
Aus
tral
ia’s
expa
ndin
gun
iver
sity
syst
em. T
heac
tion
was
very
fast
.Aha
lf-d
ozen
year
s,fr
om19
59to
1965
,saw
the
firs
tna
med
chai
rof
soci
olog
y,th
efi
rst
soci
olog
yte
achi
ngpr
ogra
ms,
the
firs
tte
xtbo
ok,
the
The
dis
cover
yof
Aust
rali
a81
82L
ooki
ngso
uth
The
dis
cover
yo
fA
ust
rali
a83
foun
dati
onof
apr
ofes
sion
alas
soci
atio
n,an
dth
efi
rsti
ssue
sof
itsac
adem
icjo
urna
l.T
his
brie
f per
iod
even
saw
the
firs
tpop
soci
olog
ybe
st-s
elle
r,Th
e
Luc
kyC
ount
ry,
wri
tten
bya
jour
nali
st(H
ome
1964
).In
the
follo
win
g
deca
de,
anot
her
ten
depa
rtm
ents
ofso
ciol
ogy
spra
ngup
arO
und
the
coun
try.
But
aco
llect
ion
ofso
cial
surv
eys
was
not
enou
ghto
clai
msp
ace
inth
e
univ
ersi
ties
asa
new
disc
iplin
e.T
here
also
need
edto
beid
eas,
asD
avie
s
and
Enc
elob
serv
edin
the
firs
tedi
tion
ofth
eir
text
book
Aus
tral
ian
Soci
ety
(196
5).
Ina
vigo
rous
lyar
gued
pape
ron
‘The
Scop
ean
dP
urpo
seof
Soc
iolo
gyH
arol
dFa
lidin
g(1
962)
insi
sted
that
soci
olog
yw
asno
wan
esta
blis
hed
disc
ipli
nein
term
sof
itsob
ject
ofkn
owle
dge—
syst
ems
of
soci
alac
tion
—an
dits
theo
reti
cal
logi
c.Si
nce
noso
ciol
ogic
alth
eory
was
bein
gpr
oduc
edin
Aus
tral
ia,
this
too
had
tobe
impo
rted
from
the
met
ropo
le.
Faild
ing’
sso
lutio
nw
asto
impo
rtPa
rson
ian
func
tion
alis
min
alu
mp.
Oth
ers
impo
rted
empi
rici
sm,W
eber
iani
sm,i
nter
pret
ive
soci
olog
y
and,
alit
tlela
ter,
neo-
Mar
xism
.T
here
sult
was
ahy
brid
stru
ctur
eof
know
ledg
ein
the
new
disc
iplin
e,
whe
reA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogis
tsco
mbi
ned
met
ropoli
tan
theo
ryan
d
met
hodo
logy
wit
hlo
cal
data
and
audi
ence
s.A
nota
ble
exam
ple
was
Sol
Enc
el’s
(197
0)m
onog
raph
Equ
alit
yan
dA
utho
rity
.E
ncel
’sbo
ok
trav
erse
dth
em
etro
poli
tan
(mai
nly
Bri
tish
and
US)
cont
rove
rsie
sab
out
clas
san
dst
ratif
icat
ion,
adop
ted
am
odif
ied
Web
eria
npo
siti
on,
and
then
repo
rted
seri
atim
the
auth
or’s
impr
essi
veco
mpi
lati
ons
ofda
taab
out
Aus
tral
ian
elite
s.A
noth
erex
ampl
e,I
have
toco
nfes
s,w
asC
onne
llan
d
Irvi
ng’s
Cla
ssS
truc
ture
inA
ustr
alia
nH
isto
ry(1
980)
.We
star
ted
wit
ha
chap
ter
deba
ting
met
ropo
lita
nth
eori
esof
clas
sbe
fore
sett
ling
into
an
expo
sitio
nof
Aus
tral
ian
empi
rica
lm
ater
ial.
Alo
ngw
ith
met
ropo
lita
nth
eory
—th
ough
this
was
hard
lyno
tice
dat
the
tim
e—ca
me
am
etro
poli
tan
visi
onof
wha
tso
ciet
yw
asan
dho
ww
e
shou
ldta
lkab
out
it.‘A
ustr
alia
nso
ciet
y’w
assi
mpl
ypr
esum
edto
beth
e
sam
eki
ndof
thin
g,fo
rw
hich
the
sam
eco
ncep
tual
cate
gori
esw
ere
unpr
oble
mat
ical
lyap
prop
riat
e.
The
risi
ngqu
alit
yof
Aus
tral
ian
rese
arch
entr
ench
edth
ispa
tter
n.
As
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
ists
beca
me
mor
eso
phis
tica
ted
inus
ing
the
met
ropo
lita
nto
ols,
they
bega
nto
publ
ish
inm
etro
poli
tan
jour
nals
.The
re
wer
ego
odre
ason
s:as
wel
las
the
desi
reto
find
aw
ider
audi
ence
,th
e
pres
tige
atta
ched
toin
tern
atio
nal
publ
icat
ion
grea
tlyhe
lped
prom
otio
n
inA
ustr
alia
nun
iver
sitie
s.H
owev
er,t
opu
blis
hin
thos
efo
rum
s,A
ustr
alia
ns
had
tow
rite
info
rms
fam
iliar
tom
etro
poli
tan
edito
rs:t
ous
em
etro
poli
tan
conc
epts
,add
ress
met
ropo
lita
nlit
erat
ures
,and
offe
rcre
dibl
ein
terv
entio
ns
inm
etro
poli
tan
deba
tes.
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
yw
asth
uspr
oduc
edas
a
prof
essi
onal
acco
unto
f Aus
tral
ian
soci
ety
asse
enth
roug
hm
etro
poli
tan
eyes
. The
cons
truc
tion
ofA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogy
asan
acad
emic
disc
iplin
ein
the
deca
des
1950
—80
thus
com
plet
ely
reve
rsed
the
rela
tion
ship
betw
een
Aus
tral
iaan
dm
etro
poli
tan
soci
olog
yth
atha
dex
iste
da
hund
red
year
s
earli
er.T
hen
Aus
tral
iaw
astr
eate
das
the
site
ofdi
ffer
ence
—in
fact
,ext
rem
e
diff
eren
ce—
from
the
adva
nced
soci
ety
ofth
em
etro
pole
.N
owA
ustr
alia
was
trea
ted
asth
esi
teof
sim
ilari
ty.
Ofc
ours
e,th
isin
volv
eda
shif
t of e
mpi
rica
lint
eres
tfro
mA
bori
gina
lto
settl
erso
ciet
y.B
utA
ustr
alia
nso
ciet
yw
asno
t the
oris
edin
the
new
disc
iplin
e
asa
settl
erso
ciet
y;it
was
sim
ply
rega
rded
aspa
rtof
mod
erni
tyIn
dige
nous
cultu
res
wer
eno
wre
gard
edas
the
busi
ness
ofan
thro
polo
gy—
whi
chw
as,
inA
ustr
alia
nun
iver
sitie
s,th
eol
der
and
mor
epr
estig
ious
disc
ip1i
ne.T
his
was
abo
unda
ryth
eso
ciol
ogis
tsdi
dno
tye
tch
alle
nge.
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
Indi
geno
usso
ciet
yan
dse
ttle
r/m
oder
nso
ciet
yth
atha
dbe
enso
impo
rtan
tfo
rev
olut
iona
ryso
ciol
ogy
sim
ply
vani
shed
asan
inte
llect
ual
them
e.A
bori
gina
lpe
ople
did
conc
ern
soci
olog
ists
,but
ina
new
way
:as
the
subj
ects
ofso
cial
proc
esse
sch
arac
teri
stic
ofm
oder
nity
.The
yco
uld
bese
en
asa
disa
dvan
tage
dgr
oup
ina
syst
emof
soci
alst
rati
fica
tion
(Anc
ich
etal
.
1969
).M
ore
com
mon
ly,t
hey
wer
ecl
assi
fied
unde
rth
eN
orth
Am
eric
an
rubr
icof
‘eth
nic
min
orit
yT
his
isho
wth
eyw
ere
trea
ted,
for
inst
ance
,in
Bal
dock
and
Lally
’s(1
974)
surv
eyof
Soci
olog
yin
Aus
tral
iaan
dN
ew
Zea
land
.In
this
book
Abo
rigi
nalp
eopl
eap
pear
edin
ach
apte
ron
‘stu
dies
ofet
hnic
min
orit
ies’
who
sepr
imar
yfo
cus
was
post
war
non-
Bri
tish
imm
igra
tion
.T
heir
onic
resu
ltof
the
new
stru
ctur
eof
soci
olog
ical
know
ledg
ew
asth
atIn
dige
nous
grou
psw
ere
unde
rsto
odas
bein
gth
esa
me
kind
ofgr
oup
asth
em
ost
rece
ntse
ttler
s.
With
loca
lsoc
iolo
gyw
holly
depe
nden
t on
met
ropo
lita
nco
ncep
tsan
d
met
hods
,pe
ople
bega
nto
won
der
abou
tth
eid
enti
typu
zzle
.Wha
tw
as
spec
ific
ally
Aus
tral
ian
abou
tth
is?
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
yha
d,pe
rhap
s,a
char
acte
rist
icem
piri
cal
focu
s—fo
rin
stan
ce,o
nm
igra
tion
.In
deed
,Jea
n
Mar
tin,
Geo
rge
Zub
rzyc
kian
dot
her
soci
olog
ists
wer
epr
omin
ent
in
84L
ooki
ngso
uth
The
dis
cover
yof
Aust
rali
a85
cons
truc
ting
the
disc
ours
eof
mul
ticu
ltur
alis
mth
atfr
amed
Aus
tral
ian
polic
yon
ethn
icit
yan
dim
mig
rati
onun
til
the
1990
sre
viva
lofr
acis
m.
Alte
rnat
ivel
y,A
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogy
had
ach
arac
teri
stic
iron
y,be
caus
e
soci
olog
ists
’do
cum
enta
tion
ofst
rati
fica
tion
,el
ites
and
excl
usio
nsra
n
coun
ter
toA
ustr
alia
neg
alit
aria
nism
.B
usti
ng‘m
yths
’ab
out
Aus
tral
ia
beca
me
afa
vour
edtr
ope
inA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogic
alw
riti
ngin
the
1960
s
(e.g
.Taf
t19
62).
But
itw
asha
rdto
see
adi
stin
ctiv
ecu
ltur
alfo
rmat
ion
in
the
soci
olog
ical
book
spu
blis
hed
inA
ustr
alia
,or
inth
epa
pers
inth
e
Aus
tral
ian
and
New
Zea
land
Jour
nal
ofSo
ciol
ogy.
Ade
fini
tion
ofth
e
iden
tity
ofA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogy
thus
prov
edve
ryel
usiv
e,ev
enin
the
peri
odw
hen
the
disc
iplin
ew
asgr
owin
gm
ostv
igor
ousl
y.
New
poss
ibil
itie
sT
here
lati
onsh
ipbe
twee
nco
lony
and
met
ropo
leha
sbe
enfo
rmat
ive
for
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
y,th
ough
the
term
sof
that
rela
tions
hip
have
chan
ged.
Can
the
term
sch
ange
agai
n?
Muc
hof
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
yco
ntin
ues
onth
epa
thal
read
ym
appe
dou
t.
Met
ropo
lita
nth
eory
rem
ains
hege
mon
ic.P
arso
nian
ism
and
Web
eria
nism
wer
edi
spla
ced
byst
ruct
ural
ist
Mar
xism
,an
dth
atin
turn
bya
stro
ng
wav
eof
post
-str
uctu
rali
sm.I
nth
etw
enty
-fir
stce
ntur
y,Fo
ucau
ldia
nsan
d
Bou
rdie
uvia
nsfr
olic
whe
refu
nctio
nalis
tson
cesa
fely
graz
ed.
The
orie
sar
ece
rtai
nly
depl
oyed
with
mor
eso
phis
ticat
ion
and
skill
,and
itis
poss
ible
for
Aus
tral
ian
soci
olog
ists
todo
wor
kth
atis
path
-bre
akin
g
inin
tern
atio
nalt
erm
s.Jo
hnB
raith
wai
te’s
(198
9)cr
imin
olog
ical
wor
kon
rein
tegr
atio
nco
mes
tom
ind,
asdo
esM
icha
elPu
sey’
sE
cono
mic
Rat
iona
lism
inC
anbe
rra
(199
1).
Com
bini
ngsu
rvey
data
onfe
dera
lci
vil
serv
ants
,
anal
ysis
ofpo
litic
alan
din
stitu
tiona
lcha
nge,
and
aso
cial
visi
onin
flue
nced
byH
aber
mas
,Pus
eycr
eate
da
pion
eeri
ngso
ciol
ogy
ofne
olib
eral
ism
whi
ch
has
very
wid
eim
plic
atio
ns.
Aus
tral
ians
have
also
done
wor
kin
soci
olog
ical
theo
ry,n
otas
peri
pher
al
cons
umer
sof
the
met
ropo
le’s
outp
utbu
tas
part
icip
ants
inm
etro
poli
tan
deba
tes.
Not
able
exam
ples
are
Cla
reB
urto
n’s
(198
5)sy
nthe
sis
offe
min
ism
and
soci
alth
eory
;Ja
ckB
arba
let’
s(1
998)
wor
kon
the
mac
ro-s
ocio
logy
ofem
otio
ns;
and
Paul
ine
John
son’
s(2
006)
stud
yof
the
chan
ging
idea
of
the
publ
icre
alm
inth
eth
ough
tof
Jurg
enH
aber
mas
.T
his
wor
kis
ofte
n
publ
ishe
din
the
met
ropo
lean
d,w
heth
eror
not
itus
esan
yA
ustr
alia
n
rese
arch
orex
peri
ence
,th
efo
cus
ison
am
etro
poli
tan
lite
ratu
re.
In
effe
ct,
thes
eau
thor
sha
vefo
llow
edth
esa
me
stra
tegy
asW
.E.
Hea
rn,
doin
gN
orth
ern
theo
ryin
new
cond
itio
nsan
dab
ando
ning
the
iden
tity
prob
lem
.B
utin
ach
ange
dcu
ltur
alan
dpo
liti
cal
envi
ronm
ent,
anop
posi
test
rate
gyw
asal
sopo
ssib
le:
focu
sing
onth
esp
ecif
icity
ofA
ustr
alia
asa
prod
uct
ofse
ttle
rco
loni
alis
m.
Inte
rest
inth
ere
lati
onsh
ipbe
twee
nin
dige
nous
and
settl
erso
ciet
yw
asre
vive
dby
hist
oria
nsof
fron
tier c
onfl
ict,
byan
thro
polo
gist
s’re
thin
king
ofth
eir
own
conn
ecti
onw
ithco
loni
alis
m,
and
abov
eal
lby
the
Abo
rigi
nal L
and
Rig
hts
mov
emen
t(s
eeC
hapt
er9)
.Aso
ciol
ogis
tsuc
has
Viv
ien
John
son
(199
6)co
uld
beco
me
deep
lyin
tere
sted
inth
eA
bori
gina
lart
mov
emen
t,co
nsid
erin
gno
tonl
yth
ebo
dyof
artis
ticw
ork
but
also
the
way
sin
whi
chit
isap
prop
riat
edby
the
dom
inan
tcu
ltur
e—in
clud
ing
wid
espr
ead
com
mer
cial
expl
oita
tion
and
copy
righ
tvi
olat
ion.
Inhe
rR
adio
Bir
dman
,Jo
hnso
n(1
990)
turn
edth
ein
telle
ctua
l
rela
tions
hips
arou
nd, u
sing
som
eA
bori
gina
lsoc
ialc
once
pts
for
anal
ysin
g
that
mos
tm
etro
poli
tan
ofso
cial
phen
omen
a:a
new
wav
ero
ckba
nd.
Itw
asal
sono
wpo
ssib
leto
thin
k,fr
oman
Aus
tral
ian
star
ting
poin
t,
abou
tglo
bals
truc
ture
san
dco
nnec
tions
.Thi
sw
asdo
neby
Chi
llaB
ulbe
ck
inO
neW
orld
Wom
en’s
Mov
emen
t (19
88),
wri
tten
befo
regl
obal
isat
ion
had
beco
me
apo
pula
rso
ciol
ogic
alth
eme.
Thi
sbo
okto
okup
the
prob
lem
sra
ised
byth
eU
nite
dN
atio
nsD
ecad
efo
rW
omen
(197
5—85
),di
scus
sing
whe
ther
itw
aspo
ssib
leto
have
aun
ited
inte
rnat
iona
lfem
inis
m, g
iven
the
diff
eren
tsitu
atio
nsof
wom
enin
diff
eren
tcou
ntri
es,a
ndre
sist
ance
toth
e
dom
inan
ceof
whi
teW
este
rnfe
min
ism
. In
the
sequ
elR
e-or
ient
ing
Wes
tern
Fem
inis
ms
(199
8),
Bul
beck
look
edm
ore
deep
lyat
the
prob
lem
sof
univ
ersa
lism
and
cult
ural
diff
eren
ce,a
ndof
fere
da
com
plex
rela
tivis
mas
aba
sis
for
poli
tica
lco
oper
atio
nam
ong
wom
en’s
mov
emen
ts.
Few
have
gone
asfa
rdow
nth
istr
ack
asB
ulbe
ck.N
ever
thel
ess,
inth
e19
90s
itbe
cam
e
mor
eco
mm
onfo
rAus
tral
ian
soci
olog
ists
tose
tthe
iran
alys
esin
abr
oade
r
inte
rnat
iona
lco
ntex
t,or
wit
hin
aw
ider
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
colo
nial
ism
(e.g
.B
otto
mle
y(1
992)
onm
igra
tion
and
cultu
re;
Gild
ing
(199
7)on
the
fam
ily;C
onne
ll(1
993)
onge
nder
).
Non
eof
this
defi
nes
adi
stin
ctiv
eA
ustr
alia
nsc
hool
ofso
ciol
ogy.
Wha
t
itdo
esm
ean
isth
atA
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogis
tsha
vere
cogn
ised
aw
ider
spec
trum
ofpo
ssib
ilit
ies
inhe
rent
inth
ege
opol
itic
alsi
tuat
ion
ofa
rich
peri
pher
alco
untr
yan
dth
ehi
stor
yof
sett
ler
colo
nial
ism
.R
ecog
nisi
ngth
ese
poss
ibil
itie
s,A
ustr
alia
nso
ciol
ogy
may
cont
ribu
teto
muc
hm
ore
86L
oo
kin
gso
uth
impo
rtan
tgo
als
than
the
crea
tion
ofa
loca
let
hos.
For
the
firs
tti
me,
as
Bul
beck
’sw
ork
clea
rly
show
s,it
ispo
ssib
leto
mov
ebe
yond
the
trad
itio
nal
link
wit
hth
em
etro
pole
toli
nkw
ith
the
inte
llec
tual
proj
ects
ofot
her
regi
ons
ofth
epe
riph
ery.
PAR
T111
Sou
ther
nth
eory
5In
dige
nous
know
ledge
and
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
As
soci
alsc
ient
ists
,w
eha
veto
leav
eth
eca
mpu
san
dta
lkto
the
peo
ple
face
-to-
face
.T
his
isp
erh
aps
even
mor
eim
pera
tive
for
Afr
ican
soci
alsc
ient
ists
.F
orth
eyw
illon
lyfi
ndli
sten
ers
inth
eir
own
coun
trie
sif
they
adap
tto
thei
rla
nguag
e.O
nth
eoth
erha
nd,
itis
only
thro
ugh
conta
ctw
ithlo
cal
know
ledg
eth
atth
eyca
nac
quir
e
the
insi
ghts
whi
char
eto
day
ofpr
ime
impo
rtan
cefo
rth
eques
tions
ofdev
elopm
enta
lpo
liti
cs.
—M
amad
ouD
iaw
ara
(200
0)
90S
outh
rnth
eory
Indig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
91
From
Yor
uba
oral
po
etry
toso
ciolo
gic
alth
eory
In19
86th
ene
wjo
urna
lIn
tern
atio
nal
Soci
olog
ypu
blis
hed
apa
per
byth
eN
iger
ian
soci
olog
ist A
kins
ola
Aki
wow
oca
lled
‘Con
trib
utio
nsto
the
Soc
iolo
gyof
Kno
wle
dge
from
anA
fric
anO
ral
Poet
ryIt
was
one
ofth
em
ost
stri
king
cont
ribu
tion
sto
ade
bate
abou
tw
orld
soci
olog
yth
atIn
tern
atio
nal
Soci
olog
yan
dits
pare
ntor
gani
sati
on,
the
Inte
rnat
iona
lS
ocio
logi
cal
Ass
ocia
tion
(IS
A),
wer
esp
onso
ring
.T
heco
ncep
tof
‘ind
igen
ous
soci
olog
y’w
ascr
eati
nga
stir
,an
dA
kiw
owo’
sco
ntri
buti
onse
emed
tobe
ape
rfec
tex
ampl
e.A
kiw
owo
was
aw
ell-
know
nfi
gure
,hav
ing
been
onth
eIS
Aex
ecut
ive
com
mit
tee.
Afe
wye
ars
earl
ier
heha
dw
ritt
ena
deta
iled
surv
eyof
‘Soc
iolo
gyin
Afr
ica
Toda
y’th
atdi
scus
sed
the
diff
eren
tnat
iona
lsit
uati
ons
and
the
diff
icul
ties
forA
fric
anso
ciol
ogis
tsin
com
mun
icat
ing
wit
hea
chot
her,
and
expr
esse
dth
eho
peth
atne
vert
hele
ssth
eyco
uld:
‘reo
rien
tthe
disc
iplin
eto
Afr
ican
real
ityth
roug
han
inte
grat
edsy
stem
ofco
ncep
tual
sche
mes
,the
orie
s,an
dm
etho
dolo
gica
lte
chni
ques
draw
nup
inre
lati
onto
both
Afr
ican
and
Eur
opea
nth
ough
t-w
ays
and
soci
alpr
acti
ces’
(Aki
wow
o19
80: 6
7).T
he19
86‘C
ontr
ibut
ions
’pa
per
trie
dto
real
ise
this
prop
osal
,and
itm
ade
ara
dica
ldep
artu
refr
omth
est
ruct
ure
ofkn
owle
dge
usua
lin
post
colo
nial
coun
trie
s.In
stea
dof
impo
rtin
gco
ncep
tsfr
omE
urop
ean
dN
orth
Am
eric
aan
dap
plyi
ngth
emto
loca
lda
ta,A
kiw
owo
prop
osed
tofi
ndco
ncep
tsin
Nig
eria
and
expo
rtth
emto
the
rest
ofth
ew
orld
.S
peci
fica
lly,
hepr
opos
edto
find
them
ina
reso
urce
that
met
ropo
lita
nso
cial
theo
ryne
ver
used
—th
eri
tual
oral
poet
ryof
the
com
mun
ity.
‘Con
trib
utio
ns’
isa
shor
tand
unco
mpr
omis
ing
tçxt
.Mos
tofi
tsfi
ftee
npa
ges
cons
ist
ofa
line
-by-
line
tran
slat
ion
ofa
Yor
uba-
lang
uage
ritu
alpo
emfr
omO
yost
ate
inw
este
rnN
iger
ia,w
itha
runn
ing
com
men
tary
onits
mea
ning
and
agl
ossa
ryof
itste
rms.
The
poem
(str
ictly
,a
grou
pof
poem
san
da
song
),to
bere
cite
dat
the
foun
dati
onof
ane
wse
ttle
men
t,te
llsa
crea
tion
stor
yan
dde
scri
bes
how
the
diff
eren
tbei
ngs
ofth
ecr
eatio
nco
me
toge
ther
inco
mm
unit
ies.
Aki
wow
o’s
com
men
tary
emph
asis
esth
eid
eaof
asuw
ada,
defi
ned
as‘t
hepu
rpos
ive
clum
ping
ofdi
vers
eiw
a’
(bei
ngs)
, as
the
prin
cipl
eof
crea
tion
and
the
key
toth
ew
orld
asw
eno
wfi
ndit.
The
poem
also
brie
fly
rela
tes
the
viol
atio
nof
the
com
mon
good
by
am
ythi
calb
eing
who
stea
lsso
me
seed
from
the
divi
nem
othe
r;an
das
sert
sth
eim
port
ance
ofso
cial
harm
ony.
Insh
ort
conc
ludi
ngse
ctio
ns, A
kiw
owo
sum
mar
ises
the
onto
logi
cal
prin
cipl
eshe
find
sin
the
text
, and
nine
soci
olog
ical
prop
osit
ions
hede
rive
sfr
omit.
Exa
mpl
esof
the
latte
rar
e(p
.353
):
1.T
heun
itof
soci
allif
eis
the
indi
vidu
al’s
life,
bein
g,ex
iste
nce,
orch
arac
ter
3.T
heco
rpor
eal i
ndiv
idua
l,es
sent
ially
, can
not c
onti
nue-
in-b
eing
wit
hout
aco
mm
unity
.4.
Sinc
eth
eso
cial
life
ofa
grou
pof
indi
vidu
albe
ings
issu
stai
ned
bya
spir
itof
soda
lity,
any
form
ofse
lf-a
lien
atio
nfo
rth
epu
rpos
eof
purs
uing
apu
rely
self
ish
aim
is,
mor
ally
spea
king
,an
erro
ror
sin
...
6.A
genu
ine
soci
albe
ing
ison
ew
how
orks
daily
,and
sacr
ific
esw
illin
gly,
inva
ryin
gw
ays,
his
orhe
rch
eris
hed
free
dom
and
mat
eria
l acq
uisi
tions
for s
elf-
impr
ovem
enta
sw
ella
sfo
rthe
com
mon
good
.For
wit
hout
one,
the
othe
rca
nnot
beac
hiev
ed...
As
are
ader
from
anot
her
cult
ural
back
grou
nd, I
did
not
find
this
easy
tofo
llow
.T
hela
ngua
gean
dch
arac
ters
ofth
iscr
eati
onm
yth,
and
the
wor
ld-v
iew
itex
pres
ses,
are
enti
rely
unfa
mil
iar.
Wel
lan
dgo
od—
that
’sw
hati
ndig
enou
sso
ciol
ogy
issu
ppos
edto
be.A
kiw
owo
give
slit
tlehe
lpby
way
ofba
ckgr
ound
onth
ete
xt.
Ile
arne
dfr
omot
her
auth
ors
(esp
ecia
llyPa
yne
1992
)th
atth
ispo
etry
isas
soci
ated
wit
ha
soci
ally
elite
trad
itio
nof
divi
nati
onan
dad
visi
ng, s
oit
isno
tex
actly
folk
poet
ry.A
sIu
nder
stan
dit,
Aki
wow
ois
tryi
ngto
extr
acts
ocio
logi
cal p
rinc
iple
sfr
omth
eac
cum
ulat
edw
isdo
man
dob
serv
atio
nsof
soci
ety
byY
orub
aco
mm
unit
yel
ders
and
inte
llect
uals
, as
cond
ense
din
the
myt
hsof
anor
alli
tera
ture
trad
itio
n.T
his
appr
oach
did
not
spri
ngto
life
in19
86.
Aki
wow
oha
dbe
ende
velo
ping
itth
roug
hth
e19
80s
atth
eU
nive
rsity
ofIf
e,in
colla
bora
tion
with
agr
oup
ofyo
unge
rsc
hola
rsth
ere.
Thi
sin
turn
was
part
ofa
wid
erm
ovem
ent,
inA
fric
aan
dbe
yond
,to
reva
lue
oral
sour
ces
for
hist
ory
and
soci
alan
alys
is(V
ansi
na19
85;W
hite
, Mie
sche
ran
dC
ohen
2001
).In
1988
,Int
erna
tion
alSo
ciol
ogy
publ
ishe
da
follo
w-u
ppa
per
byon
eof
thes
efo
rmer
colle
ague
s,M
oses
Mak
inde
,ca
lled
‘Asu
wad
aPr
inci
ple:
An
anal
ysis
ofA
kiw
owo’
sC
ontr
ibut
ions
toth
eSo
ciol
ogy
ofK
now
ledg
efr
om
92S
outh
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
93
anA
fric
anP
ersp
ecti
veM
akin
desu
ppor
tsth
ein
tent
ion
ofde
rivi
ng
soci
olog
ical
idea
sfr
om‘A
fric
ancu
ltur
ean
dph
ioso
phy’
—th
ead
diti
onof
‘phi
loso
phy’
issi
gnif
ican
t,as
Iwill
show
late
r.
Mak
inde
trie
sto
syst
emat
ise
the
soci
olog
ical
thou
ghti
n‘C
ontr
ibut
ions
He
boil
sdo
wn
Aki
wow
o’s
list
ofpr
opos
itio
nsin
toth
ree
fund
amen
tal
‘axi
oms’
conc
erni
ngth
epr
inci
ple
ofas
uwad
a,fr
omw
hich
the
othe
rs
follo
w:
1.T
heun
itof
soci
allif
eis
the
indi
vidu
al’s
life,
bein
g,ex
iste
nce
or
char
acte
r.2.
Alth
ough
each
hum
anbe
ing
ism
etap
hysi
cally
aun
ique
eman
atio
n—an
emi—
ofa
Div
ine
Bei
ng,e
ach
indi
vidu
al’s
life,
asa
corp
orea
lsel
f,ne
eds
the
fell
owsh
ipof
othe
rco
rpor
eal
selv
esto
feel
and
bew
hole
and
com
plet
e.3.
The
corp
orea
lind
ivid
ual,
esse
ntia
lly,c
anno
tcon
tinue
-in-
bein
gw
itho
ut
aco
mm
unity
.
The
core
ofM
akin
de’s
pape
rm
oves
onfr
omth
ese
pres
uppo
siti
ons
to
mor
esu
bsta
ntiv
eis
sues
,par
ticu
larl
yA
kiw
owo’
sid
eas
abou
tth
edi
ffer
ent
form
sof
soci
alco
nnec
tion
.T
heke
ydi
stin
ctio
nis
betw
een
ajob
i,th
e
conn
ecti
onbe
twee
nbl
ood
rela
tives
,and
ajog
be,t
heco
nnec
tion
betw
een
peop
lew
holiv
eto
geth
eror
besi
deea
chot
her.
Ajo
bi,
cons
angu
init
yor
kins
hip,
isse
enas
the
fund
amen
talu
nito
fan
Afr
ican
soci
ety,
and
toge
ther
wit
haj
ogbe
bond
s,ac
tsto
crea
teso
cial
harm
ony.
But
brea
kdow
nca
noc
cur.
Mak
inde
quot
esA
kiw
owo’
sde
scri
ptio
nof
the
seve
reat
tenu
atio
nof
ajob
i kin
ship
bond
sfo
llow
ing
the
adve
ntof
the
Eur
opea
nsin
Wes
tA
fric
a,ri
sing
indi
vidu
alis
m,
new
form
sof
mon
ey,
uneq
ual
wea
lth,a
ndri
valr
yra
ther
than
solid
arity
amon
gsi
blin
gs.
The
n,
only
ajog
beco
-res
iden
cebo
nds
rem
ain.
But
Mak
inde
argu
esth
atth
ese
too
may
fail,
and
inth
atca
seth
ege
nera
lpr
inci
ple
ofas
uwad
aha
sbr
oken
dow
n.T
his
cris
isof
the
soci
al,
Mak
inde
sugg
ests
,ha
sno
wbe
com
e
com
mon
,esp
ecia
llyin
Thi
rdW
orld
coun
trie
s.
Her
eM
alci
nde
intr
oduc
esA
kiw
owo’
sco
ncep
tof
ifogb
onta
ayes
e,‘u
sing
wis
dom
tore
mak
eth
ew
orl
dT
echn
olog
ical
deve
lopm
ent
alon
eis
insu
ffic
ient
—in
deed
,iti
sa
sour
ceof
the
diff
icul
ty.M
akin
desu
gges
tsth
at
the
cris
isca
nbe
com
bate
dby
inte
llec
tual
sco
min
gto
geth
erac
ross
disc
iplin
es,
espe
cial
lyth
eso
cial
scie
nces
,for
the
purp
ose
ofm
akin
gth
e
soci
etie
sof
the
wor
ldbe
tter
plac
esto
live
in—
thus
follo
win
gth
epr
inci
ple
ofas
uwad
ath
emse
lves
.Tw
oye
ars
late
r,In
tern
atio
nal
Soci
olog
ypu
blis
hed
ath
ird
pape
rby
scho
lars
from
the
Uni
vers
ityof
Ife
(now
Oba
fem
iAw
olow
oU
nive
rsity
).It
was
calle
d‘T
owar
dsan
Afr
ican
Soci
olog
ical
Tra
diti
on:
AR
ejoi
nder
toA
kiw
owo
and
Mak
inde
’ Its
tone
was
very
diff
eren
t.O
latu
nde
Bay
oL
awuy
i,an
anth
ropo
logi
st,
and
Olu
fem
iTa
iwo,
aph
ilos
ophe
r,do
not
reje
ctth
eid
eaof
‘doi
ngso
ciol
ogy
inA
fric
anid
iom
s’B
utth
eyar
gue
that
Aki
wow
oan
dM
akin
deha
vefa
iled
todo
it.In
cour
teou
sbut
firm
lang
uage
,L
awuy
ian
dT
aiw
osh
owth
atA
kiw
owo’
san
dM
akin
de’s
read
ings
ofth
eor
alpo
etry
trad
itio
nyi
eld
conc
epts
wit
hsh
ifti
ngm
eani
ngs.
The
usag
eof
asuw
ada
itse
lfbl
urs
thre
edi
stin
ctid
eas
(apr
inci
ple
ofcr
eati
on, t
hech
arac
ter
ofth
ings
tend
ing
tocl
ump
toge
ther
, and
hum
ans
com
ing
toge
ther
for
aco
mm
onen
d).T
heco
ncep
tof
iwa
(bei
ngs)
iseq
ually
blur
ry, a
ndth
eid
eaof
ajob
iis
used
byA
kiw
owo
intw
oin
com
pati
ble
sens
es.
Ajo
bi(k
insh
ip)
and
ajog
be(c
ore
side
nce)
are
som
etim
esse
enas
form
sof
soci
allif
eth
atca
nex
ist
toge
ther
, som
etim
esas
ase
quen
cew
ith
the
latt
erfo
llow
ing
the
brea
kdow
nof
the
form
er.
Furt
her,
Law
uyia
ndT
aiw
osh
owth
atA
kiw
owo
and
Mak
inde
prod
uce
diff
eren
tun
ders
tand
ings
thou
ghth
eyar
ere
ason
ing
from
the
sam
eor
alpo
etry
mat
eria
l.M
akin
desh
ifts
the
mea
ning
ofaj
ogbe
tow
ards
the
conc
ept
ofso
ciet
y-as
-a-w
hole
, thu
sm
akin
gaj
obia
unit
wit
hin
it.In
Aki
wow
o’s
acco
unt,
the
two
are
coor
dina
tefo
rms
ofso
cial
rela
tions
hip.
The
logi
calc
riti
que
isde
vast
atin
g,an
dth
ere
ism
ore
toco
me.
Law
uyi
and
Tai
wo
argu
eth
atA
kiw
owo
has
not
succ
eede
din
doin
gso
ciol
ogy
inY
orub
a.In
stea
d,th
eef
fort
has
larg
ely
amou
nted
toa
sear
chfo
rY
orub
a•
lang
uage
equi
vale
nts
for
Eng
lish
-lan
guag
eso
ciol
ogic
alte
rms.
The
proj
ect
hasn
’tac
tual
lyge
nera
ted
anin
dige
nous
soci
olog
y:‘W
edo
not
disp
ute
the
clai
mth
atA
kiw
owo’
sdi
scov
erie
ssh
owth
atth
eev
eryd
ayba
sis
for
soci
olog
yis
ther
ein
Yor
uba.
Wha
t we
deny
isth
atei
ther
ofou
rin
terl
ocut
ors
has
give
nus
aso
ciol
ogic
alth
eory
inY
orub
a’(L
awtiy
ian
dT
aiw
o19
90:
67).
Law
uyi a
ndTa
iwo
rais
ean
othe
rim
port
ant
prob
lem
abou
tAki
wow
o’s
and
Mak
inde
’spr
ojec
t.T
heid
eaof
zfog
bont
aaye
se(u
sing
wis
dom
tore
mak
eth
ew
orld
)ap
pear
edea
rlie
rin
Aki
wow
o’s
wri
tings
publ
ishe
din
Nig
eria
,an
dsp
eaks
tohi
spo
litic
alin
tent
ions
.Alc
iwow
oha
dbe
enco
ncer
ned
abou
t
94S
outh
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
kn
ow
’ed
ge
and
Afr
ican
Renais
sance
95
the
disi
nteg
ratin
gef
fect
ofin
divi
dual
ism
onA
fric
anso
ciet
ies,
argu
ing
that
Afr
ican
ssh
ould
retu
rnto
indi
geno
uscu
lture
sto
disc
over
the
crite
ria
for
rele
vant
know
ledg
e.L
awuy
iand
Taiw
oar
gue
that
this
nece
ssar
ilypr
oduc
es
acu
ltur
e-bo
und
idea
ofkn
owle
dge.
Furt
her,
Law
uyi
and
Taiw
osu
gges
t,
the
argu
men
tov
er-s
impl
ifie
sA
fric
anre
ality
and
mis
ses
the
soci
alfo
rces
shap
ing
know
ledg
eit
self
,si
nce
the
soci
alev
alua
tion
ofkn
owle
dge
‘inv
aria
bly
refl
ects
both
the
dist
ribu
tion
ofpo
wer
and
the
prin
cipl
esof
soci
alco
ntro
l’(1
990:
72).
Aki
wow
oha
sw
ritt
entw
ore
plie
sto
thes
ecr
itici
sms,
publ
ishe
din
1991
and
1999
.The
firs
t,‘R
espo
nses
toM
akin
de/L
awuy
iand
Tai
wo
was
shor
t,
reje
ctin
gth
ecr
itic
ism
sw
ith
scor
n.L
awuy
ian
dT
aiw
ow
ere
accu
sed
of
faili
ngto
read
Aki
wow
o’s
text
corr
ectly
,fai
ling
toun
ders
tand
the
Yor
uba
univ
erse
ofdi
scou
rse,
and
espe
cial
lyth
eph
iloso
phy
behi
ndth
ese
poem
s,
and
fail
ing
tore
alis
eth
atse
nten
ces
inY
orub
aha
dm
ulti
ple
nuan
ces.
Aki
wow
osp
ecif
ical
lyde
nied
ther
ew
asa
prob
lem
ofcu
ltur
e-bo
und
know
ledg
ein
his
use
ofm
ythi
calm
ater
ial,
citin
gJo
seph
Cam
pbel
l’s
clai
ms
abou
tthe
univ
ersa
lity
ofm
yth.
The
seco
ndre
ply,
‘Ind
igen
ous
Soci
olog
ies:
Ext
endi
ngth
eSc
ope
ofth
e
Arg
umen
twas
publ
ishe
daf
terA
kiw
owo
had
mov
edto
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es.
Itis
long
eran
dm
ore
mea
sure
d,th
ough
itis
clea
rhe
isst
illtr
oubl
edby
the
crit
icis
ms.
He
defe
nds
the
dist
inct
iven
ess
ofin
dige
nous
thou
ght
via
the
exam
ple
ofa
Yor
uba
psyc
hiat
rist
who
used
loca
lm
yth
toun
ders
tand
men
talp
robl
ems.
Inth
ispa
per,
Aki
wow
ore
visi
tsan
dto
som
eex
tent
revi
ses
his
conc
eptu
al
syst
em.
He
star
tsw
ith
the
prob
lem
ofth
ebr
eakd
own
ofth
eas
uwad
a
prin
cipl
era
ised
byM
akin
de.A
kiw
owo
now
sugg
ests
that
this
impl
icat
es
the
hum
ansp
irit
,th
atth
esp
irit
ual
fact
orin
soci
alre
lati
ons
has
tobe
reco
gnis
ed,a
ndth
atin
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
insp
iritu
ality
affe
ctth
ew
orki
ng
ofth
eas
uwad
apr
inci
ple.
Aki
wow
oth
enof
fers
agl
ossa
ryof
Yor
uba
term
s
rele
vant
toun
ders
tand
ing
the
asuw
ada
prin
cipl
e,ex
poun
dsso
me
ofth
em,
and
re-t
ells
anot
her
myt
holo
gica
lsto
ryth
atill
ustr
ates
the
com
ing
toge
ther
ofbe
ings
into
aha
rmon
y—in
this
case
,the
part
sof
the
body
.
Aki
wow
o’s
choi
ceof
apa
rtic
ular
body
ofor
alpo
etry
asth
eso
urce
of
indi
geno
usco
ncep
tsw
asno
tat
issu
ein
this
deba
te,
thou
ghpe
rhap
sit
shou
ldha
vebe
en.T
his
sour
cing
mea
nsth
athi
sso
ciol
ogic
alco
ncep
tsar
e
draw
nfr
omth
eou
tloo
kof
ana
rrow
grou
pw
ithi
nN
iger
ian
soci
ety,
rela
tivel
ypr
ivile
ged
and
stro
ngly
trad
itio
nali
st.
Giv
ena
body
ofY
orub
a-la
ngua
gecu
ltur
alm
ater
ial t
ow
ork
from
, how
dow
eac
tual
lyge
t to
soci
olog
ical
conc
epts
?T
hem
etho
dis
neve
r ver
ycl
ear
inA
kiw
owo
orM
akin
de. W
hat
iscl
ear
from
the
cont
rove
rsy
asa
who
leis
that
ther
eis
noun
ambi
guou
sw
ayof
doin
gth
ejo
b.A
kiw
owo
prod
uces
one
set
ofco
ncep
ts, t
hen
am
odif
ied
set;
Mak
inde
prod
uces
aso
mew
hat
diff
eren
tin
terp
reta
tion
of
the
issu
es;
and
Law
uyi
and
Tai
wo
have
mis
unde
rsto
odth
ew
hole
exer
cise
, in
Aki
wow
o’s
view
.T
his
isa
fam
iliar
prob
lem
inot
her
cult
ural
setti
ngs.
As
anA
ustr
alia
n,I
amfa
mil
iar
wit
hlo
cal
cont
rove
rsie
sab
out
Aus
tral
ian
iden
tity
and
the
mea
ning
ofA
ustr
alia
nm
yths
and
sym
bols
. But
wha
t is
atst
ake
here
isno
tju
stth
eet
hnog
raph
icin
terp
reta
tion
ofa
loca
l cul
ture
. The
ques
tion
isth
egr
ound
ing
ofco
ncep
tsth
atar
ein
tend
edto
circ
ulat
ebe
yond
Yor
uba
cultu
rean
d,as
Aki
wow
o’s
1986
pape
rpu
tit,
‘con
trib
ute
toa
gene
ral
body
ofex
plan
ator
ypr
inci
ples
’fo
rso
ciol
ogy
acro
ssth
ew
orld
.If
four
Yor
uba
spea
king
spec
ialis
tsdo
n’t
agre
eon
how
toge
tso
ciol
ogic
alm
eani
ngfr
omth
ese
text
s,th
enho
wsh
ould
I,as
aso
ciol
ogis
t in
anot
her
part
ofth
ew
orld
,re
late
toth
em?
The
prob
lem
isco
mpo
unde
dw
hen
Aki
wow
o,de
fend
ing
his
syst
emin
1999
, pro
duce
sm
ore
myt
holo
gica
lm
ater
ial
from
othe
ror
also
urce
s.Le
t’sas
sum
eth
atI
amtr
ying
tous
eth
eas
uwad
apr
inci
ple
and
the
conc
epts
ofaj
obi
and
ajog
bein
my
soci
olog
ical
rese
arch
inA
ustr
alia
.I
don’
tha
veac
cess
toth
ege
nera
lba
ckgr
ound
ofY
orub
ala
ngua
gean
dcu
ltur
e,no
rto
Ifa
divi
nati
onri
tual
inpa
rtic
ular
, let
alon
eth
eex
tra
text
sth
atA
kiw
owo
know
s.T
hech
ance
sar
eth
atI w
ould
noto
nly
goas
tray
inm
yin
terp
reta
tion
ofth
ete
rms,
asA
kiw
owo
thin
kshi
slo
cal i
nter
locu
tors
have
,but
wou
ldgo
very
badl
yas
tray
.I
wou
ldno
tso
muc
hbe
usin
gan
indi
geno
usso
ciol
ogy
from
Nig
eria
asco
nstr
ucti
ngm
yow
nsy
ncre
tic
syst
em,
whi
chw
ould
mak
eli
ttle
sens
eto
othe
rso
ciol
ogis
tsei
ther
inA
ustr
alia
orN
iger
ia.
As
far
asI
know
,th
ere
are
noso
ciol
ogis
tsfr
omot
her
coun
trie
sw
hoac
tual
lyha
veus
edA
kiw
owo’
sco
ncep
tsin
subs
tant
ive
rese
arch
.In
1992
,th
eU
Sso
ciol
ogis
tMar
kPa
yne
publ
ishe
da
pape
r pra
isin
gA
kiw
owo’
sid
eas,
and
defe
ndin
gth
eor
alli
tera
ture
trad
itio
nan
ddi
vina
tion
prac
tice
sas
usef
ulso
urce
sof
soci
olog
ical
insi
ght.
But
hedo
esno
tac
tual
lydo
any
soci
olog
yw
ith
thes
eco
ncep
ts. O
nth
ispo
int,
the
situ
atio
nre
mai
nsex
actly
asLa
wuy
i and
Taifo
desc
ribe
dit:
the
poss
ibili
tyof
aY
orub
a-ba
sed
soci
olog
yha
sbe
ende
mon
stra
ted,
but
subs
tant
ivel
yit
hasn
’tye
t bee
ndo
ne.
96S
outh
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
know
ledge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
97
The
rese
ems
tobe
,ifw
eca
nju
dge
from
this
exam
ple,
apr
oble
mab
out
putt
ing
indi
geno
usso
ciol
ogy
into
play
inot
her
cult
ural
cont
exts
,an
d
perh
aps
even
inw
hatA
kiw
owo
calls
the
‘par
entc
ultu
re’
ofth
ein
dige
nous
soci
olog
y.T
hehi
ghho
pes
of20
year
sag
oth
atin
dige
nous
soci
olog
ies
wou
ldch
alle
nge
the
conc
eptu
alsy
stem
ofm
etro
poli
tan
soci
olog
yse
emto
have
led
now
here
.
Yet
ther
eis
som
ethi
ngm
ore
tobe
said
.Aki
wow
o’s
bold
proj
ect
may
have
prod
uced
few
frui
tsin
term
sof
conc
epts
usef
ulin
agl
obal
disc
ours
e.
But
heis
sayi
ngso
met
hing
sign
ific
ant
abou
tA
fric
a,w
hich
isex
pres
sed
inhi
sch
oice
ofY
orub
ate
rms
thou
ghit
prob
ably
isn’
tde
pend
ent
on
them
.H
isw
riti
ngim
plie
sa
soci
aldi
agno
sis
ofth
ecr
itic
alpr
oble
ms
of
cont
empo
rary
Nig
eria
,and
byex
tens
ion
the
prob
lem
sof
othe
rco
untr
ies
inth
ere
gion
.Su
cha
diag
nosi
sdo
esno
tde
pend
onth
ete
rms
ofan
indi
geno
usso
ciol
ogy,
thou
ghit
may
cert
ainl
ydr
awin
sigh
tfr
omth
em.
Any
inte
rnat
iona
lre
ader
can
lear
nso
met
hing
from
it.
Spec
ifica
lly,A
kiw
owo’
sus
eof
the
ajob
i/ajo
gbe
coup
lesu
gges
tsa
read
ing
ofth
epr
oces
sof
chan
gefr
oma
kins
hip-
base
dso
ciet
y,un
der
the
impa
ct
ofco
loni
alis
man
dth
epo
stco
loni
alec
onom
y.H
isem
phas
ison
the
asuw
ada
prin
cipl
eits
elfs
ugge
sts
his
conc
ern
abou
tfun
dam
enta
lsoc
iali
nteg
rati
on
and
the
thre
ats
toit.
Eve
nth
em
oral
isin
gto
neof
the
‘pro
posi
tions
’in
his
1986
artic
lesu
gges
thi
sco
ncer
nab
out
thes
eth
reat
s,an
dim
ply
the
need
for
resi
stan
ceto
them
.
‘Wha
tap
pear
sas
ara
dica
lep
iste
mol
ogic
alpr
ojec
tfr
omth
epo
int
of
view
ofin
tern
atio
nal
soci
olog
yis
—if
Iam
read
ing
itri
ghtl
y—al
soa
cons
erva
tive
resp
onse
toso
cial
chan
gein
Wes
tAfr
ica,
from
the
poin
tof
view
ofa
trad
itio
nali
stol
derm
anse
ekin
gto
rest
ore
soci
alin
tegr
atio
nan
d
bala
nce.
The
cont
rove
rsy
wit
hL
awuy
ian
dT
aiw
oha
sa
gene
rati
onal
elem
ent
init.
Aki
wow
o’s
atte
mpt
toco
nstr
uct
anA
fric
anso
ciol
ogy
from
indi
geno
uscu
ltur
alm
ater
ials
was
not
anun
usua
lki
ndof
proj
ect
for
inte
llect
uals
ofhi
sge
nera
tion.
The
mai
nac
tion,
how
ever
,did
noto
ccur
in
soci
olog
y.
Fro
m‘A
fric
anph
ilos
ophy
’to
the
soci
olo
gy
ofpost
-colo
nia
lknow
ledge
Inth
e‘C
ontr
ibut
ions
’pa
per
of19
86,A
kiw
owo
cite
sa
cert
ain
philo
soph
y
text
,whi
chha
dno
reso
nanc
efo
rIn
tern
atio
nalS
ocio
logy
(itm
eant
solit
tle
that
the
jour
nalm
issp
eltt
heau
thor
’sna
me)
butw
ashi
ghly
sign
ific
antf
or
Afr
ican
inte
llect
uals
. Thi
sw
asB
antu
Philo
soph
yby
the
Bel
gian
mis
sion
ary
Plac
ide
Tem
pels
(195
9),
orig
inal
lypu
blis
hed
inF
renc
hin
1945
—th
est
arti
ngpo
int
ofa
huge
deba
teab
out
cultu
rean
dph
iloso
phy
inA
fric
a.It
isw
orth
exam
inin
gth
isde
bate
beca
use
init
fund
amen
tal p
robl
ems
abou
tan
yin
dige
nous
soci
alsc
ienc
eha
vebe
enra
ised
.T
hest
ory
ofth
eB
elgi
anin
vasi
onan
dex
ploi
tati
onof
cent
ralA
fric
ais
now
reas
onab
lyw
ell k
now
n.It
ison
eof
the
mor
eho
rrif
ying
stor
ies
inth
ebl
ood-
stai
ned
hist
ory
ofco
loni
alco
nque
st. I
tsbr
utal
ity
grad
ually
leak
edou
tto
Eur
opea
nan
dN
orth
Am
eric
anau
dien
cesv
iapr
ogre
ssiv
ejo
urna
lists
,on
eof
who
mw
asR
ober
tE.
Park
,lat
era
key
figu
rein
the
Chi
cago
scho
olof
soci
olog
y(L
yman
1992
).A
num
ber
ofC
atho
lic
mis
sion
ary
orde
rsar
rive
din
the
Con
goat
the
end
ofth
eni
nete
enth
cent
ury
and
set
abou
tco
nver
ting
the
nati
ves.
Val
entin
eM
udim
bede
scri
bes
the
proc
ess
inhi
sm
agni
fice
ntsu
rvey
The
Inve
ntio
nof
Afr
ica
(198
8)an
dits
sequ
elTh
eId
eaof
Afr
ica
(199
4). T
heta
skw
ason
eof
cult
ural
chan
geas
muc
has
chan
gein
faith
.T
he‘c
olon
isin
gst
ruct
ure
asM
udim
beca
llsth
eap
para
tus
ofru
le,u
nder
took
the
do
min
atio
nof
spac
e,th
ein
tegr
atio
nof
loca
leco
nom
ies
into
the
capi
talis
tsys
tem
,an
dth
ere
-for
min
gof
the
nativ
es’ m
inds
.A
few
deca
des
into
the
twen
tiet
hce
ntur
y,m
uch
ofth
epo
pula
tion
was
atle
astn
otio
nall
yC
hris
tian,
indi
geno
usm
enw
ere
beco
min
gpr
iest
s,an
dth
epr
oble
mch
ange
d.It
beca
me
impo
rtan
t to
show
that
loca
lcul
ture
she
ldca
pabi
litie
s on
whi
chC
hris
tiani
tyco
uld
build
.Thi
swas
the
task
unde
rtak
enby
Tem
pels
inB
antu
Philo
soph
y.To
unde
rsta
ndits
impa
ct,
itis
impo
rtan
tto
real
ise
how
fier
ceth
eE
urop
ean
deni
grat
ion
ofA
fric
ans
had
been
. Col
onis
ers’
cont
empt
for
the
colo
nise
dis
aco
mm
onfe
atur
eof
impe
rial
ism
. Nor
thA
mer
ican
indi
geno
uspe
ople
wer
esl
ande
red
astr
each
erou
s,B
enga
lisas
effe
min
ate,
Chi
nese
asde
cade
nt,
and
soon
.A
fric
a,th
ela
stm
ajor
regi
onof
the
wor
ldto
beco
loni
sed
com
plet
ely,
gott
hefu
llba
rrag
eof
met
ropo
lita
nco
ntem
pt. M
uch
asA
bori
gina
lAus
tral
iaca
me
tost
and
for
the
ultr
a-pr
imit
ive,
Afr
ica
cam
eto
epito
mis
eth
eE
urop
ean
idea
ofa
zone
ofsa
vage
ry,i
ncap
able
ofim
prov
em
entb
yits
own
effo
rts.
Tem
pels
argu
edth
atco
loni
alup
lifth
adfa
iled
beca
use,
inth
inki
ngof
blac
kA
fric
ans
assa
vage
peop
lew
ith
prim
itiv
em
inds
, Eur
opea
nsfa
iled
tose
eth
ew
ell-
deve
lope
dim
plic
itph
iloso
phy
that
Afr
ican
sal
read
ypo
sses
sed.
Ban
tuPh
iloso
phy
sets
this
philo
soph
you
tin
deta
il.B
antu
thou
ghtr
ests
on
98S
outh
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
know
ledge
and
Afr
ican
Renais
sance
99
anon
tolo
gy,a
theo
ryof
bein
gth
ateq
uate
sbe
ing
wit
h‘v
ital f
orce
Whe
re
Eur
opea
nsse
ean
obje
ctor
ape
rson
, Afr
ican
sse
ea
forc
eof
life.
The
se
forc
esar
ein
inte
ract
ion
wit
hea
chot
her,
usua
lly
hier
arch
ical
.T
hus
a
pers
onliv
esin
aco
mm
unit
yun
der
the
dire
ctio
nof
head
men
who
embo
dy
agr
eate
rlif
e-fo
rce;
the
livin
gne
cess
aril
yha
vere
lati
ons
wit
hth
ede
ad
(hen
cean
cest
orw
orsh
ip);
and
one
life-
forc
eca
ndo
min
ate
orda
mag
e
anot
her
(hen
cew
itchc
raft
).T
his
onto
logy
lead
sto
ath
eory
ofth
epe
rson
,
mun
tu,
ina
kind
ofph
ilos
ophi
cal
psyc
holo
gy;
and
toan
ethi
cs, s
tron
gly
com
mun
al. A
llof
thes
ebe
liefs
are
base
don
anun
derl
ying
beli
efin
the
stro
nges
t vita
lfor
ceof
all:
God
.
Rea
ding
Tem
pels
’te
xt60
year
sla
ter,
Ifo
und
itdi
ffic
ultt
ogr
asp
how
it
coul
dha
veha
dsu
chan
impa
ct.
The
met
hod
byw
hich
hear
rive
sat
his
philo
soph
ical
form
alis
atio
nsis
som
uddy
that
itis
impo
ssib
leto
reco
nstr
uct,
orto
test
,hi
sar
gum
ent.
His
clai
ms
are
vast
lyov
er-g
ener
alis
ed-—
’In
the
min
dsof
the
Ban
tu.
.or
‘In
Afr
ican
eyes
..(1
959:
46,7
6,12
4). T
empe
ls
was
,atb
est,
anam
ateu
rate
thno
grap
hy.H
isev
iden
ceis
anec
dota
l,an
dth
ere
are
larg
ear
eas
ofin
dige
nous
life
that
hedo
esno
tcon
side
rat
all,
such
asth
e
econ
omy
and
soci
alin
stit
utio
ns.
Inth
ishe
follo
wed
the
idea
list
styl
eof
Fren
chan
thro
polo
gyin
his
gene
ratio
n(C
opan
s19
71).
Tem
pels
’re
sear
chis
mar
kedl
yin
feri
orto
ethn
ogra
phic
wor
kin
othe
rpa
rts
ofA
fric
apu
blis
hed
befo
reW
orld
War
II,s
uch
asJo
mo
Ken
yatta
’sFa
cing
Mou
ntK
enya
(193
8).
Wha
tsh
ines
thro
ugh
the
book
,ne
vert
hele
ss,
isT
empe
ls’
pass
iona
te
reje
ctio
nof
the
Eur
ocen
tric
belie
ftha
t Afr
ican
sha
veno
wor
thw
hile
cultu
re
and
noet
hics
.His
book
isad
dres
sed
tow
hite
‘col
onia
lsof
good
will
’(1
959:
184,
his
italic
s).T
empe
lsw
ante
dth
eB
elgi
ans
tost
opde
stro
ying
indi
geno
us
cult
ure
and
‘hel
pth
eB
antu
tobu
ild
thei
row
nB
antu
civi
lizat
ion,
ast
able
and
nobl
eon
eof
thei
row
n’(1
959:
174)
.Tem
pels
was
,in
fact
,on
eof
a
diss
iden
tfa
ctio
nam
ong
the
colo
nise
rs,
who
defe
nded
nati
veri
ghts
(Hou
nton
dji 2
002a
:212
—16
).To
pers
uade
his
com
patr
iots
,Tem
pels
wro
te
war
mly
ofth
eco
here
nce
and
prof
undi
tyof
Afr
ican
thou
ght,
spea
king
of
‘alo
fty
wis
dom
’fr
omw
hich
Eur
opea
nsto
oco
uld
lear
n.T
here
isa
half
-
veile
dsu
gges
tion
inB
antu
Phi
loso
phy
that
the
Ban
tuar
ecl
oser
toG
od
than
the
Eur
opea
nsar
e.G
iven
the
reco
rdof
Eur
opea
nsin
the
Con
go,w
ho
coul
ddi
sagr
ee?
But
this
prai
seon
lyap
plie
sto
cert
ain
Afr
ican
s—th
ose
who
stic
k
wit
htr
adit
iona
lcu
ltur
e.Fu
llof
prai
sefo
r‘o
bstin
ate,
cons
erva
tive
and
philo
soph
y-fi
lled’
grou
pslik
eth
eB
alub
a(1
959:
161)
,Tem
pels
was
open
ly
cont
empt
uous
ofE
urop
eani
sed
Afr
ican
s,th
eév
olué
sas
Bel
gian
and
Fren
ch
colo
nial
ism
calle
dth
em(l
itera
lly‘t
heev
olve
don
es’—
ahi
stor
yof
colo
nial
atti
tude
sin
one
wor
d).
ToT
empe
ls,t
hese
peop
lew
ere
root
less
,mon
ey-
obse
ssed
,‘em
pty
and
unsa
tisf
ied
sou1
s‘m
oral
and
inte
llec
tual
tram
ps
‘acl
ass
ofps
eudo
-Eur
opea
ns,
wit
hout
prin
cipl
es,
char
acte
r,pu
rpos
es,
orse
nse’
(195
9:18
0,18
4).
Thi
spa
rtof
Tem
pels
’ar
gum
ent
rese
mbl
esth
eid
eas
ofso
me
othe
r
inte
llect
uals
not
far
toth
eso
uth,
who
also
had
ath
eory
abou
tth
eB
antu
.
The
idea
ofa
fund
amen
tal c
ultu
ral g
apbe
twee
nB
antu
and
Eur
opea
nw
as
part
ofth
eju
stif
icat
ion
for
‘rig
htfu
lra
ce-s
epar
atio
nin
the
thou
ght
of
Afr
ikan
ersc
hola
rssu
chas
Geo
ffre
yC
ronj
é,w
hoin
the
1940
sde
velo
ped
a
soci
olog
ical
just
ific
atio
nfo
rth
eem
erge
ntA
part
heid
regi
me
inS
outh
Afr
ica
(Cro
njé
1947
;C
oetz
ee19
91).
But
thes
ebe
liefs
wer
eno
tun
iver
sal
amon
gw
hite
Sout
hA
fric
anin
telle
ctua
ls.A
fier
cede
bate
igni
ted
betw
een
criti
csan
dsu
ppor
ters
ofA
part
heid
,and
abou
t str
ateg
ies
ofop
posi
tion
to
the
regi
me—
the
them
e,fo
rins
tanc
e,of
Nad
ine
Gor
dim
er’s
beau
tiful
nove
l
Bur
ger’
sD
augh
ter(
1979
).
Tem
pels
’bo
okw
as,w
itho
uta
doub
t,a
just
ific
atio
nfo
rco
loni
alis
m—
puri
fied
colo
nial
ism
,in
whi
chm
issi
onar
ies
and
educ
ator
sw
ould
com
bine
the
best
ofC
hris
tiani
tyw
ithth
ebe
stof
Ban
tuon
tolo
gyto
lead
the
Afr
ican
s
upw
ards
.Tem
pels
did
nots
eeco
min
gth
etid
alw
ave
ofde
colo
nisa
tion
that
soon
tran
sfor
med
Afr
ica,
led
prec
isel
yby
thos
eév
olué
she
desp
ised
—
radi
cals
like
Kw
ame
Nkr
umah
(195
7),e
duca
ted
inbo
thth
eG
old
Coa
st
and
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, w
hoin
1951
won
ala
ndsl
ide
elec
tion
inw
hat
was
tobe
com
eG
hana
. Tem
pels
’pat
erna
list
mod
elof
chan
gew
asim
med
iate
ly
obso
lete
.D
urin
gth
etw
ode
cade
sof
anti
-col
onia
lpo
litic
alan
dcu
ltur
al
stru
ggle
that
follo
wed
Wor
ldW
arII
,itw
asth
eot
her
side
ofhi
sth
ough
t,
the
prai
seof
Afr
ican
philo
soph
y,th
atha
da
rem
arka
ble
infl
uenc
e.
The
publ
icat
ion
ofB
antu
Phi
loso
phy
trig
gere
da
who
lein
dust
ryof
ethn
ophi
osop
hyfr
omth
e19
40s
toth
e19
80s.
Tem
pels
’am
ateu
ret
hno
grap
hyw
asso
onre
plac
edby
muc
hm
ore
soph
isti
cate
dw
ork.
Ale
xis
Kag
ame
from
Rw
anda
wro
tein
La
phil
osop
hie
bant
u-rw
anda
ise
del’
être
(195
6),
anel
abor
ate
acco
unt
ofin
dige
nous
onto
logy
base
don
acl
ose
anal
ysis
ofw
ord
form
sin
the
loca
lla
ngua
ge,s
uppl
emen
ted
bypr
over
bs,
fabl
es,t
radi
tion
alst
orie
san
ddy
nast
icpo
ems.
Kag
ame
wen
ton
toco
mpi
le
ava
stco
mpa
rativ
est
udy
of18
0B
antu
lang
uage
san
ddi
alec
tson
whi
chhe
base
da
surv
eyof
La
philo
soph
ieba
ntu
com
pare
e(1
976)
. He
defe
nded
the
1.
100
South
ern
theo
ry
conc
ept
ofa
‘Ban
tuci
vilis
atio
n’an
dcl
aim
edto
reve
alits
form
allo
gic,
onto
logy
,doc
trin
eof
the
pers
on,a
ndid
eaof
apr
ime
caus
e.
Mea
nwhi
le,i
nE
astA
fric
a,Jo
hnM
biti
publ
ishe
dhi
ssu
rvey
ofA
fric
an
Rel
igio
nsan
dPh
iloso
phy
(196
9), w
hich
offe
red
anev
enva
ster
surv
eyof
indi
geno
usth
ough
tac
ross
the
cont
inen
t,co
veri
ngno
ton
lyon
tolo
gyan
d
theo
logy
but
also
ethn
icit
y,th
eli
fe-c
ours
e,m
arri
age,
inte
llec
tual
s,
witc
hcra
ftan
det
hics
.Tho
ugh
hest
arte
dby
reco
gnis
ing
dive
rsity
,he
too
drif
ted
into
swee
ping
gene
ralis
atio
nsab
outt
heA
fric
anvi
ewof
the
wor
ld,
ofw
hich
the
mos
tfam
ous
was
his
clai
mth
at:
acco
rdin
gto
trad
itio
nal
conc
epts
,ti
me
isa
two-
dim
ensi
onal
phen
omen
on,w
itha
long
past
,apr
esen
t,an
dvi
rtua
llyno
futu
re.T
he
line
arco
ncep
tof
tim
ein
wes
tern
thou
ght,
wit
han
inde
fini
tepa
st,
pres
ent
and
infi
nite
futu
re,i
spr
actic
ally
fore
ign
toA
fric
anth
inki
ng
(Mbi
ti19
69:
17).
Res
earc
hin
this
trad
itio
nw
asst
illco
ntin
uing
inth
e19
80s.
Afi
ne
exam
ple
isK
wam
eG
yeky
e’s
An
Essa
yon
Afr
ican
Philo
soph
ical
Tho
ught
:
The
Aka
nC
once
ptua
lSc
hem
e(1
987)
.G
yeky
ein
terv
iew
eda
num
ber
of
‘wis
em
en.
..th
egu
rus
of
trad
itio
nal
wis
dom
’am
ong
the
Aka
n
com
mun
itie
sof
Gha
na,
coll
ecte
dpr
over
bsan
dle
gend
s,an
dca
me
up
wit
han
acco
unt
of‘t
heA
kan
conc
eptio
n’of
bein
g,th
epe
rson
,de
stin
y,
ethi
cs,l
ogic
,the
rela
tion
betw
een
the
indi
vidu
alan
dth
eco
mm
unity
,and
soon
.L
ike
Kag
ame
and
Mbi
ti,
hem
oved
onfr
omlo
cal
mat
eria
lto
gene
rali
sati
ons
abou
tth
eco
mm
ongr
ound
amon
gA
fric
ancu
ltur
es,
argu
ing
that
mod
ern
phil
osop
hers
shou
ldco
ncer
nth
emse
lves
with
,and
build
on,t
hese
‘int
elle
ctua
lfou
ndat
ions
ofA
fric
ancu
lture
and
expe
rien
ce’
(198
7:21
2).
Bec
ause
the
rise
ofet
hnop
hios
ophy
was
exac
tlyco
ntem
pora
ryw
ith
deco
loni
satio
n,th
edi
scov
ery
ofph
iloso
phie
sba
sed
inin
dige
nous
cultu
res
beca
me
ave
hicl
efo
rth
ere
asse
rtio
nof
Afr
ican
dign
ity.G
yeky
e(1
987:
33)
cite
sa
fasc
inat
ing
docu
men
t,a
reso
lutio
nab
outp
hilo
soph
yfr
omth
e19
59
Con
gres
sof
Neg
roW
rite
rsan
dA
rtis
ts,w
hich
stat
esth
atA
fric
anph
iloso
phy
shou
ldbe
base
don
‘the
trad
ition
s,ta
les,
myt
hsan
dpr
over
bs’o
fthe
peop
le,
and
shou
lddr
awfr
omth
em‘t
hela
ws
of
atr
ueA
fric
anw
isdo
m’.
Philo
soph
ers
doin
gth
issh
ould
rid
them
selv
esof
any
infe
rior
ity
feel
ings
vis-
à-vi
sth
eW
est.
Indig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
and
Afr
ican
Renais
sance
101
The
idea
ofA
fric
anph
iloso
phy,
then
,was
anin
telle
ctua
l par
alle
lto
the
bett
er-k
now
nre
asse
rtio
nof
Afr
ican
crea
tivity
inth
ene
gritu
dem
ovem
ent
ofth
e19
30s
and
1940
s.Po
ets
such
asL
eopo
ldSe
ngho
ran
dA
imé
Cés
aire
cele
brat
edth
eex
peri
ence
ofth
ose
who
wer
ene
gate
d,de
fine
das
‘oth
erby
whi
teE
urop
ean
cultu
re.T
hem
ovem
entw
asgi
ven
enor
mou
spu
blic
ityin
the
met
ropo
leby
Jean
-Pau
lSar
tre’s
essa
y‘B
lack
Orp
heus
whi
chap
pear
edw
ithin
afe
wye
ars
ofTe
mpe
ls’
Ban
tuPh
iloso
phy
and
Ala
nPa
ton’
sfa
mou
sno
velC
ry,t
heB
elov
edC
ount
ry, m
arki
nga
high
poin
t for
whi
tein
telle
ctua
lsin
the
deve
lopm
ent o
fbla
ckco
nsci
ousn
ess.
The
liter
ary
mov
emen
tbec
ame
incr
easi
ngly
poli
tici
sed
asth
est
rugg
les
for
colo
nial
inde
pend
ence
deve
lope
d—in
flue
ncin
g,am
ong
othe
rs, F
rant
zFa
non
and
Stev
eB
iko.
‘Afr
ican
phio
sophy
then
,pl
ayed
apa
rtin
cont
esti
ngth
ecu
ltur
eof
impe
rial
ism
and
inle
gitim
atin
gA
fric
anin
depe
nden
ce.B
utw
asit
actu
ally
philo
soph
y?T
hequ
esti
onha
dbe
enra
ised
byT
empe
lshi
mse
lf.
By
the
l960
s,m
ore
doub
tsw
ere
bein
gex
pres
sed.
In19
76th
eyw
ere
crys
talli
sed
ina
bril
lian
t,w
itty
and
angr
ybo
okca
lled
Afr
ican
Philo
soph
y:M
yth
and
Rea
lity,
byth
eyo
ung
Dah
omey
anph
ilos
ophe
rPa
ulin
Hou
nton
dji.
Hou
nton
dji
issc
athi
ngab
out
the
idea
ofan
imm
anen
tA
fric
an
phil
osop
hyth
atco
uld
bedi
scov
ered
incu
stom
s,ch
ants
and
myt
hs.
He
poin
tsto
the
lack
ofa
clea
rte
xtua
lba
sefo
rth
eet
hnop
hilo
soph
ers’
inte
rpre
tati
ons,
and
the
cont
radi
ctor
ydo
ctri
nes
they
prod
uced
.T
his
‘phi
loso
phy’
was
not
cons
truc
ted
byri
goro
usan
dte
stab
lem
etho
ds;
itis
,
infa
ct,a
loos
epr
ojec
tion
ofth
eet
hnop
hios
ophe
rs’
own
idea
s:
that
whi
chex
ists
,th
atw
hich
isin
cont
rove
rtib
lygi
ven
isth
at
[eth
noph
ioso
phic
al]
liter
atur
e.A
sfo
rth
eob
ject
itcl
aim
sto
rest
ore,
itis
atm
ost
aw
ayof
spea
king
,a
verb
alin
vent
ion,
am
ytho
s.W
hen
Isp
eak
ofA
fric
anph
ilos
ophy
Im
ean
that
lite
ratu
re,
and
Itr
yto
unde
rsta
ndw
hyit
has
sofa
rm
ade
such
stre
nuou
sef
fort
sto
hide
behi
ndth
esc
reen
,al
lth
em
ore
opaq
uefo
rbe
ing
imag
inar
y,of
an
impl
icit
‘phi
loso
phy’
conc
eive
das
anun
thin
king
,sp
onta
neou
s,
colle
ctiv
esy
stem
ofth
ough
t,co
mm
onto
allA
fric
ans
orat
leas
tto
all
mem
bers
seve
rally
,pa
st,
pres
ent
and
futu
re,
ofsu
ch-a
nd-s
uch
anA
fric
anet
hnic
grou
p.It
ryto
unde
rsta
ndw
hym
ostA
fric
anau
thor
s,w
hen
tryi
ngto
enga
gew
ith
phil
osop
hy,
have
sofa
rth
ough
tit
nece
ssar
yto
proj
ectt
hem
isun
ders
tood
real
ityof
thei
row
ndi
scou
rse
onto
such
palp
able
fict
ion
(Hou
nton
dji
1976
:55
).
I [ I
102
South
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
and
Afr
ican
Renais
sance
103
As
hela
ter
put
it,th
isw
asan
evas
ion
ofre
spon
sibi
lity:
[Eth
noph
ilos
ophe
rs]
deve
lope
da
sort
ofph
ilos
ophy
inth
eth
ird
pers
on,c
onsi
stin
gof
sent
ence
slik
eth
is: ‘
The
yth
ink
soan
dso
‘The
ysa
yso
and
soet
c.T
hey
reno
unce
d,in
ase
nse,
spea
king
and
argu
ing
onth
eir
own
beha
lf.
The
yre
noun
ced
inte
llec
tual
resp
onsi
bili
ty(H
ount
ondj
i19
96:
83).
Furt
her,
ethn
ophi
osop
hyw
asba
sed
onba
dso
cial
anal
ysis
.Itm
ade
anim
plau
sibl
eas
sum
ptio
nof
cons
ensu
sw
ithi
nA
fric
ancu
lture
s,‘th
em
yth
ofpr
imiti
veun
anim
ity,w
ith
itssu
gges
tion
that
in“p
rim
itive
”so
ciet
ies—
that
isto
say,
non-
Wes
tern
soci
etie
s—ev
eryb
ody
alw
ays
agre
esw
ith
ever
ybod
yel
se’
(Hou
nton
dji
1976
:60
).It
mad
ea
fals
eas
sum
ptio
nth
atA
fric
anso
ciet
ies
wer
ecu
ltura
llyst
atic
, so
anun
chan
ging
wor
ld-v
iew
coul
dbe
disc
over
edin
them
.Fa
rfr
ompu
ttin
gau
then
tic
Afr
ican
philo
soph
ical
wor
kin
tow
ider
circ
ulat
ion,
ethn
ophi
osop
hyre
prod
uced
the
colo
nise
rs’
gaze
onA
fric
ancu
lture
.In
shor
t,H
ount
ondj
iar
gues
,th
ew
hole
scho
olof
ethn
ophi
loso
phy
from
Tem
pels
onw
ard
was
a‘m
adan
dho
pele
ssen
terp
rise
’ba
sed
on‘a
huge
mis
conc
eptio
n’(1
976:
52, 7
5—6)
-—un
scie
ntifi
c,ar
bitr
ary
and
now
polit
ical
lyre
actio
nary
.H
ount
ondj
iun
ders
tood
that
ethn
ophi
loso
phy
and
the
negr
itud
e
mov
emen
tw
ere
resp
onse
sto
the
colo
nial
ist
cont
empt
for
prim
itiv
eth
ough
t,a
cont
empt
expr
esse
dno
ton
lyby
sunb
urne
dpl
ante
rsin
pith
helm
ets,
but
also
bydi
stin
guis
hed
inte
llec
tual
sin
Pari
s.B
utas
sert
ion
ofth
edi
stin
ctne
ssof
Afr
ican
cultu
re,p
rogr
essi
vein
the
tim
eof
antic
olon
ial
stru
ggle
,ch
ange
dit
spo
liti
cal
colo
urin
the
neoc
olon
ial
era.
Itno
wbe
cam
epa
rtof
the
ideo
logy
ofdi
ctat
oria
lpo
stin
depe
nden
cest
ates
.H
ount
ondj
iwas
pung
ent
inhi
scr
itic
ism
ofth
ese
regi
mes
and
thei
rse
lf-
serv
ing
cult
ural
orth
odox
ies.
He
had
pers
onal
expe
rien
ceof
teac
hing
inZ
aire
inth
eti
me
of
the
Mob
utu
dic
tato
rsh
ipan
dit
sdo
gma
of
‘aut
hent
icit
yH
ount
ondj
iw
asby
nom
eans
alon
ein
mak
ing
such
criti
cism
s.Fo
rin
stan
ce,t
heG
hana
ian
phil
osop
her
Kw
asiW
ired
u,in
Philo
soph
yan
dan
Afr
ican
Cul
ture
(198
0),m
ade
acl
ear
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
‘fol
kth
ough
t’on
the
one
hand
,an
dph
ilos
ophy
asa
criti
cal
prac
tice,
base
don
reas
onan
dar
gum
ent,
onth
eot
her.
IfA
fric
anph
ilos
ophy
mea
nton
lytr
adit
iona
lcu
ltur
e,W
ired
uar
gued
,ph
ilos
ophe
rsw
ould
have
toab
ando
nm
oder
n
logi
can
dep
iste
mol
ogy
as‘u
n-A
fric
an’
and
‘con
tent
ours
elve
sw
ith
repe
atin
gth
epr
over
bsan
dfo
lkco
ncep
tions
ofou
rfo
refa
ther
sW
hat
rem
ains
for
Afr
ican
phil
osop
hyaf
ter
this
trul
yde
vast
atin
gcr
itiqu
e?In
Hou
nton
dji’
san
dW
ired
u’s
view
,ev
eryt
hing
rem
ains
.T
hey
have
mer
ely
been
clea
ring
away
ada
mag
ing
myt
h,w
hich
has
beco
me
anob
stru
ctio
nto
inte
llec
tual
deve
lopm
ent.
As
Wir
edu
(198
0:36
)ar
gued
:‘A
fric
anph
iloso
phy,
asdi
stin
ctfr
omA
fric
antr
adit
iona
lw
orld
-vie
ws,
isth
eph
ilos
ophy
that
isbe
ing
prod
uced
byco
nte
mpora
ryA
fric
anph
iloso
pher
s.It
isst
illin
the
mak
ing.
’T
hese
argu
men
tsw
ere
notr
ecei
ved
wit
hun
iver
sal a
ccla
im. H
ount
ondj
iin
part
icul
artr
odon
som
any
toes
that
Afr
ican
Phi
loso
phy
beca
me
the
cent
reof
itsow
nco
ntro
vers
y,so
me
ofit
vici
ous.
Hou
nton
dji w
asac
cuse
dby
the
left
ofbe
ing
ape
tit-
bour
geoi
sin
divi
dual
ist,
and
byth
eri
ght
ofbe
tray
ing
Afr
ican
peop
lean
dcu
ltur
e.E
thno
phil
osop
hers
saw
him
asco
mm
itte
dto
aE
uroc
entr
icvi
ewof
philo
soph
y.H
ew
asch
arge
dw
ith
bein
ga
neoc
olon
ialis
t,an
eliti
st,a
nid
ealis
t,a
wri
ting-
fetis
hist
, asn
oban
dan
inte
llec
tual
frau
d.N
ow
onde
r,lo
okin
gba
ckon
the
cont
rove
rsy,
heca
lled
ita’
pollu
ted
deba
te’
(Gye
kye
1987
; Ser
eque
berh
an19
91; H
ount
ondj
i19
90, 2
002a
:16
2ff)
.Y
et, o
ver
time,
the
crit
ique
ofet
hnop
hios
ophy
prev
aile
d.T
hecr
itics
wer
eno
tab
ando
ning
issu
esab
out
Afr
ica,
but
thin
king
abou
tth
emin
adi
ffer
ent
way
.B
oth
Wir
edu
and
Hou
nton
dji
wer
eco
ncer
ned
wit
hth
ere
cons
truc
tion
ofA
fric
ancu
lture
s.H
ount
ondj
i’s
firs
tboo
k,L
iber
tés
(197
3),
had
been
cent
rall
yco
ncer
ned
wit
hth
eco
nnec
tion
sam
ong
inte
llec
tual
inte
grity
, fre
edom
and
popu
lar
part
icip
atio
nin
polit
ical
chan
ge.
Hou
nton
dji
did
not w
ish
toab
ando
nlo
cal c
ultu
ral k
now
ledg
e,bu
the
insi
sted
that
ethn
ophi
loso
phy
and
ethn
osci
ence
(the
acad
emic
disc
iplin
eth
attr
ies
tore
cons
truc
tno
n-W
este
rncu
lture
s’vi
ews
ofpl
ants
,an
imal
s,th
ena
tura
l wor
ld, m
athe
mat
ics,
etc.
)re
pres
ente
da
Eur
opea
nga
zeon
it.So
Afr
ican
inte
llect
uals
who
purs
ued
thes
eap
proa
ches
wer
ead
opti
nga
Eur
opea
npo
int
ofvi
ew;
thei
rw
ork
was
‘ext
rove
rted
‘Wha
twas
need
ed,
rath
er, w
asa
real
istic
appr
oach
tolo
cal k
now
ledg
esth
atal
low
edth
emto
bese
enin
rela
tion
toot
her
know
ledg
es, c
ritic
ised
and
reap
prop
riat
edin
form
sre
leva
ntto
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofA
fric
anso
ciet
ies.
The
unfo
ldin
gof
thes
evi
ews
stea
dily
mov
edH
ount
ondj
ifr
omco
nven
tion
alph
ilos
ophy
tow
ards
the
soci
olog
yof
know
ledg
e.T
hepr
oduc
tive
ness
ofth
isap
proa
chis
seen
inLe
ssa
voir
sen
doge
nes:
104
South
ern
theo
ry
pist
espo
urun
ere
cher
che
(End
ogen
ous
know
ledg
e:re
sear
chtr
ails
)pu
blis
hed
byth
eC
ounc
ilfo
rth
eD
evel
opm
ent
ofSo
cial
Scie
nce
Res
earc
hin
Afr
ica,
CO
DE
SRIA
, in
Dak
ar(H
ount
ondj
i19
94).
Thi
svo
lum
eco
llect
sst
udie
son
endo
geno
uste
chno
logi
essu
chas
iron
wor
king
,on
conc
eptu
alst
ruct
ures
such
asnu
mbe
rsy
stem
s,m
edic
ine
and
phar
mac
olog
y,an
don
the
form
s
oftr
ansm
issi
onof
know
ledg
e.
Hou
nton
dji’
sin
trod
ucti
onto
this
book
,to
geth
erw
ith
anu
mbe
rof
artic
les
publ
ishe
dat
abou
tthe
sam
etim
e,ge
nera
lised
his
obse
rvat
ion
abou
t
the
extr
over
sion
ofA
fric
ansc
ienc
e.T
hean
alys
isis
base
don
am
ater
ialis
t
view
ofkn
owle
dge
aspa
rtof
ato
tal
soci
alpr
oces
sof
prod
ucti
on,
and
Hou
nton
djie
xplic
itly
conn
ects
his
argu
men
t with
the
econ
omic
anal
ysis
of
Sam
irA
min
inA
ccum
ulat
ion
ona
Wor
ldSc
ale.
Und
erco
loni
alis
m,
the
inte
grat
ion
ofsu
bsis
tenc
eec
onom
ies
into
the
wor
ldca
pita
list
mar
ket
prod
uced
adi
stin
ctiv
epa
tter
nin
the
prod
ucti
onof
know
ledg
e:
With
resp
ect
tom
oder
nsc
ienc
e,th
ehe
art
ofth
epr
oces
sis
neit
her
the
stag
eof
data
colle
ctio
nno
rth
atof
the
appl
icat
ion
ofth
eore
tical
find
ings
topr
acti
cal
issu
es.
Rat
her,
itlie
sbe
twee
nth
etw
o,in
the
stag
esof
theo
rybu
ildin
g,in
terp
reta
tion
ofra
win
form
atio
nan
dth
e
theo
reti
cal
proc
essi
ngof
the
data
colle
cted
..
.T
heon
ees
sent
ial
shor
tcom
ing
ofsc
ient
ific
activ
ityin
colo
nial
Afr
ica
was
the
lack
of
thes
esp
ecif
icth
eory
-bui
ldin
gpr
oced
ures
and
infr
astr
uctu
res
(Hou
nton
dji
1995
:2)
.
Inth
eco
loni
es,t
heth
eore
tical
stag
eof
scie
nce
was
omitt
ed.A
ccor
ding
ly,
the
colo
nies
beca
me
afi
eld
for
the
colle
ctio
nof
raw
mat
eria
l—sc
ient
ific
data
—th
atw
asse
ntto
the
met
ropo
lew
here
theo
ryw
aspr
oduc
ed.
Exa
mpl
esof
this
proc
ess
abou
ndin
the
hist
ory
ofE
urop
ean
scie
nce.
Witn
ess
Sir
Jose
phB
anks
,for
deca
des
the
pres
iden
tof
the
Roy
alSo
ciet
y
inL
ondo
n.B
anks
rece
ived
ahu
gevo
lum
eof
spec
imen
san
dob
serv
atio
ns
from
allo
ver t
heex
pand
ing
Bri
tish
empi
re, a
sw
ell a
sho
ldin
gth
eor
igin
al
biol
ogic
allo
otfr
om‘B
otan
yB
ay’ i
nA
ustr
alia
, col
lect
edin
1770
duri
nghi
s
fam
ous
voya
gew
ith
Cap
tain
Coo
k(O
’Bri
an19
87).
Col
onia
lre
lati
onsh
ips
ofkn
owle
dge
l?ec
ame
incr
easi
ngly
inst
itu
tiona
lised
thro
ugh
mus
eum
san
dun
iver
sitie
s.H
ount
ondj
i(1
995,
2002
b)
show
sth
atth
isst
ruct
ure
pers
ists
pow
erfu
llyin
the
post
colo
nial
peri
od. H
e
offe
rsth
irte
en‘i
ndic
esof
extr
over
sion
’ in
asa
rdon
ican
dal
l-to
o-be
lieva
ble
Indig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
105
diag
nosi
sof
the
dile
mm
asof
toda
y’s
inte
llect
uals
inth
epe
riph
ery.
One
exam
ple
will
suff
ice:
scie
ntis
tsfr
omth
epe
riph
ery
tryi
ngto
publ
ish
thei
r
wor
kin
met
ropo
litan
acad
emic
jour
nals
.Suc
hjo
urna
lsha
veno
expe
ctat
ion
that
theo
ryw
illco
me
from
the
Sout
h.T
here
fore
:
Afr
ican
scho
lars
are
ofte
nte
mpt
ed,
espe
cial
lyin
the
soci
alsc
ienc
es,
tolo
ckth
emse
lves
upin
toan
empi
rica
lde
scri
ptio
nof
the
mos
t
pecu
liar
feat
ures
ofth
eir
soci
etie
s,w
itho
utan
yco
nsis
tent
effo
rtto
inte
rpre
t,el
abor
ate
on,o
rth
eori
zeab
out
thes
efe
atur
es.
Inso
doin
g,
they
impl
icitl
yag
ree
toac
tas
info
rman
ts,t
houg
hle
arne
din
form
ants
,
for
Wes
tern
scie
nce
and
scie
ntis
ts(H
ount
ondj
i19
95: 4
).
Tha
tis
exac
tlyth
epr
oble
mth
atth
ein
dige
nous
soci
olog
ym
ovem
ent w
as
tryi
ngto
addr
ess.
Hou
nton
dji’
spr
ofou
ndcr
itiqu
eof
Afr
ican
philo
soph
yis
easi
lyap
plie
dto
this
mov
emen
t.T
here
isth
esa
me
vagu
enes
sof
met
hod,
the
sam
eim
plau
sibl
eas
sum
ptio
nof
hom
ogen
eous
and
stat
iccu
lture
s,th
esa
me
com
plic
ityw
ithna
tion
alis
m,
and
the
sam
edi
ffic
ulty
inco
nnec
ting
with
inte
rnat
iona
l dia
logu
eex
cept
onte
rms
ofun
equa
lexc
hang
e.
Yet
Hou
nton
dji’
sla
ter
wor
kop
ens
upa
mor
epo
sitiv
elin
eof
thou
ght.
Loca
lkno
wle
dge
is,in
deed
,im
port
ant i
nec
onom
ican
dso
cial
deve
lopm
ent.
But
tom
ake
use
ofit,
Hou
nton
jiar
gues
,it
isne
cess
ary
tobe
conc
erne
d
with
the
trut
hof
indi
geno
uskn
owle
dge,
the
reas
ons
for
itsef
fect
iven
ess,
asw
ella
sth
ere
ason
sit
isso
muc
hbo
und
upw
ithm
yth
and
mag
ic.
Thi
sis
the
argu
men
tI
had
inm
ind
whe
nsu
gges
ting
that
Aki
wow
o’s
wor
kco
mm
ands
atte
ntio
npa
rtic
ular
lyfo
rits
diag
nosi
sof
soci
alch
ange
inW
est
Afr
ica.
The
know
ledg
eof
soci
alsi
tuat
ions
embe
dded
inno
n-
met
ropo
lita
ndi
scou
rses
abou
tlo
cal
soci
ety
iskn
owle
dge
ofth
esa
me
orde
r—as
deta
iled,
subt
le,
grou
nded
inex
peri
ence
,an
dco
ntes
tabl
e—as
met
ropo
lita
ndi
scou
rse
abou
tm
etro
poli
tan
soci
ety.
On
Hou
nton
dji’
svi
ewof
scie
nce,
prob
lem
sof
the
sam
eor
der
wou
ld
appe
arin
both
the
met
ropo
lean
dth
epe
riph
ery,
inco
nver
ting
info
rmal
know
ledg
eof
soci
alsi
tuat
ions
into
the
form
aldi
scou
rse
ofso
cial
scie
nce.
Inbo
thca
ses,
ther
em
ust
bea
proc
ess
ofcr
itiq
ueto
over
com
eth
e
dete
rmin
atio
nsof
soci
alst
ruct
ure.
As
Dia
war
a(2
000)
obse
rves
,th
e
know
ledg
eof
alo
calg
roup
is:
know
ledg
eth
atco
nsti
tute
sit
self
exac
tlyth
roug
hth
ecl
ash
oflo
cal
and
univ
ersa
lkn
owle
dge,
thei
rdi
alog
ues
and
thei
rtr
ansm
issi
on
F [ t p
106
So
uth
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
107
proc
esse
s.
..T
his
loca
lkno
wle
dge
isno
tdi
stri
bute
dev
enly
over
the
who
leso
ciet
ybu
tva
ries
wit
hso
cial
grou
p,st
atus
,et
hnic
ity
and
gend
er.
The
poss
essi
on,
pass
ing
onan
dne
goti
atio
nof
this
loca
l
know
ledg
ear
eth
usin
extr
icab
lybo
und
upw
ithso
cial
diff
eren
ces
and
pow
erre
lati
ons
..
.Fa
rfr
oma
stat
icen
sem
ble,
this
know
ledg
eis
an
obje
ctof
ince
ssan
tre
inte
rpre
tati
onac
cord
ing
tova
ryin
gsi
tuat
ions
and
inte
rest
s(2
000:
368—
9).
But
thou
ghsi
mila
rin
kind
,the
prob
lem
sof
prod
ucin
gkn
owle
dge
in
the
met
ropo
lean
dth
epe
riph
ery
are
diff
eren
tlyst
ruct
ured
inpr
actic
e.T
his
follo
ws
from
the
glob
alin
equa
litie
sth
atha
veco
nsti
tute
dth
em
etro
pole
asth
eho
me
ofth
eory
,or
‘sci
ence
’as
such
,and
the
peri
pher
yas
eith
erth
e
sour
ceof
data
,or
the
aren
ain
whi
chm
etro
poli
tan
know
ledg
eis
appl
ied.
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
and
Afr
ican
inte
llec
tual
sIn
May
1996
,sp
eaki
ngat
the
nati
onal
conv
enti
onth
atw
asto
adop
ta
dem
ocra
tic
cons
titu
tion
,S
outh
Afr
ican
Dep
uty
Pres
iden
tT
habo
Mbe
ki
open
edhi
sad
dres
sby
decl
arin
g:‘I
aman
Afr
ican
!’T
hefo
llow
ing
year
Mbe
kiad
opte
dth
ete
rm‘A
fric
anR
enai
ssan
ce’f
orhi
svi
sion
ofa
new
wav
e
ofcu
ltur
alan
dec
onom
icde
velo
pmen
t.Si
nce
Mbe
kibe
cam
ePr
esid
ent i
n
succ
essi
onto
Nel
son
Man
dela
,th
isid
eaha
spr
ovid
edth
efr
amin
gfo
r
Sou
thA
fric
a’s
fore
ign
polic
y.T
here
have
been
seve
ral
book
sab
out
the
‘Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
atle
ast
one
inst
itut
eto
prom
ote
it,an
da
wid
enin
g
deba
teab
outt
heid
ea.
The
pow
erfu
lrh
etor
icof
‘Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
’w
aslig
hton
prop
osal
s,
how
ever
,an
dne
eded
tobe
fille
dou
t.A
docu
men
tof
1997
list
edfiv
e
prio
rity
area
sfo
rSou
thA
fric
a’s
enga
gem
ent w
ithth
ere
stof
the
cont
inen
t:
cult
ural
exch
ange
;th
eem
anci
pati
onof
Afr
ican
wom
en;
mob
ilis
atio
n
ofyo
uth;
the
pro
moti
on
ofde
moc
racy
;an
dsu
stai
nabl
eec
onom
ic
deve
lopm
ent.
Itis
clea
rth
atth
eve
ryid
eaw
asin
spir
ing
tom
any
loca
l
peop
le.
For
inst
ance
,B
othl
ale
Tem
a(2
002:
129)
,a
mat
ter-
of-f
act
scie
nce
educ
ator
,sp
eaks
ofit
asa
‘won
drou
sm
omen
t’;
whi
leV
ale
and
Mas
eko
(200
2:13
0),s
ober
polic
yan
alys
ts,s
peak
ofth
e‘e
man
cipa
tory
mom
ent t
hat
Mbe
kiha
sca
ptur
ed’.
Whe
nth
eA
fric
anN
atio
nal C
ongr
ess
cam
eto
pow
erth
roug
ha
seri
es
ofco
mpr
omis
esw
ith
the
form
ergo
vern
men
t,So
uth
Afr
ican
busi
ness
and
glob
alca
pita
l,it
grad
ually
shed
itsfo
rmer
com
mit
men
tto
soci
alis
man
d
adop
ted
am
ildne
olib
eral
ism
dom
estic
ally
(Jac
obs
and
Cal
land
2002
).T
hevi
sion
ofec
onom
icde
velo
pmen
tfo
rA
fric
a,th
ece
ntre
ofw
hatV
ale
and
Mas
eko
(200
2)ca
llth
e‘g
loba
list’
inte
rpre
tati
onof
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
,em
phas
ises
free
mar
kets
,sc
alin
gdo
wn
ofth
epu
blic
sect
or,
good
gove
rnan
ce,a
ttra
ctin
gpr
ivat
ein
vest
men
t,an
dbe
tter
infr
astr
uctu
re.C
ritic
s
see
this
aslit
tlem
ore
than
are
gion
alve
rsio
nof
neol
iber
algl
obal
isat
ion.
Even
so,t
heag
enda
has
notb
een
easy
toim
plem
ent.
Tay
lor
and
Will
iam
s(2
001)
show
how
the
deva
stat
ing
war
inth
eC
ongo
,rei
gnite
din
1998
with
part
icip
atio
nfr
omse
vera
lne
ighb
ouri
ngst
ates
,is
inco
nsis
tent
wit
hth
epr
emis
esof
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
.Fa
rfr
ombe
ing
pote
ntia
lal
lies
inA
fric
anun
ity,
refo
rman
dde
velo
pmen
t,po
litic
alel
ites
ince
ntra
lAfr
ica
mak
ehu
gepr
ofit
sfr
omw
aran
din
stab
ilit
y,w
hich
allo
wth
emto
run
patr
onag
ene
twor
ksto
bols
ter
thei
row
nru
le.
The
reis
,ho
wev
er,
ase
cond
inte
rpre
tati
onof
‘Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
whi
chV
ale
and
Mas
eko
call
the
‘Afr
ican
ist’
inte
rpre
tati
on.I
nth
is,M
beki
’s
idea
sfa
llw
ithi
nth
etr
adit
ion
ofcu
ltur
alre
asse
rtio
nth
atgo
esba
ckto
the
negr
itude
mov
emen
tan
dth
epa
n-A
fric
anis
mof
Nkr
umah
(Ahi
uwal
ia
2002
).So
me
ofth
est
rong
est
supp
orte
rsof
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
idea
have
adop
ted
this
inte
rpre
tati
on(M
akgo
ba19
99;N
tuli
2002
).Pi
tika
Ntu
li,
fori
nsta
nce,
draw
sa
dich
otom
ybe
twee
n‘th
eW
este
rnW
ay’ a
nd‘th
eA
fric
an
Way
’.In
ast
yle
stro
ngly
rem
inis
cent
ofet
hnop
hilo
soph
y,N
tuli
argu
esth
at
the
Afr
ican
cosm
o-vi
sion
isho
listic
,and
inte
grat
edw
ithso
ciet
y,ce
rem
onia
l,
rebi
rth
and
repr
oduc
tion
.B
uthi
sve
rsio
nis
polit
icis
ed. N
tuli
belie
ves
the
Afr
ican
Way
isbe
ing
betr
ayed
byW
este
rnis
edin
tell
ectu
als
who
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
criti
cise
the
‘vir
gini
tyte
stin
g’of
girl
s,w
hich
Ntu
libe
lieve
sis
a
sign
ofm
oral
rene
wal
.(M
beki
’spr
inci
ple
ofth
eem
anci
pati
onof
Afr
ican
wom
ense
ems
toha
vego
tlo
stso
mew
here
.)It
iscl
ear
that
Ntu
lith
inks
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
proj
ect
just
ifie
sha
ulin
gdi
ssid
ent
inte
llec
tual
s
into
line.
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
ina
cult
ural
sens
eis
clos
ely
conn
ecte
dw
ithth
ere
vali
dati
onof
indi
geno
uskn
owle
dge.
As
Cat
heri
neO
dora
Hop
pers
(200
2)re
late
s,th
eS
outh
Afr
ican
parl
iam
ent
aske
dth
eco
untr
y’s
scie
nce
coun
cils
tore
cons
ider
the
subj
ect
ofin
dige
nous
know
ledg
e,la
unch
ing
are
sear
chag
enda
toco
rrec
tth
e‘e
pist
emol
ogic
aldi
senf
ranc
hise
men
t’of
loca
lpe
ople
.R
aym
ond
Sut
tner
(200
6)to
oha
sar
gued
for
indi
geno
uskn
owle
dge
asre
alkn
owle
dge,
and
argu
esth
atS
outh
Afr
ica
need
san
incl
usiv
ecu
ltur
eth
atre
alis
esth
esu
ppre
ssed
crea
tivity
ofA
fric
anpe
ople
.
108
South
ern
theo
ryIn
dig
enous
kn
ow
led
ge
an
dA
fric
anR
enais
sance
109
An
Sita
s(2
006)
sees
inth
eA
fric
anR
enai
ssan
ceid
eath
est
imul
usto
ane
wso
ciol
ogy,
trac
ing
the
‘rec
lam
atio
njo
urne
ys’
that
soci
olog
ists
such
as
Aki
wow
oha
vem
ade
into
indi
geno
uskn
owle
dge,
and
argu
ing
for
anin
terp
lay
betw
een
gene
ral
and
spec
ific
know
ledg
es.
Not
ever
yone
,how
ever
,is
uncr
itica
llysu
ppor
tive.
Sita
sac
know
ledg
es
the
com
plex
ityw
ithi
nth
eE
urop
ean
trad
itio
n,an
dth
eda
nger
ofba
sing
cont
empo
rary
know
ledg
eon
dubi
ous
idea
sab
out
uniq
uetr
adit
iona
l
cultu
res.
The
psyc
holo
gist
Liv
ings
tone
Mqo
tsi
(200
2:17
0)fo
rthr
ight
lycr
itici
sesA
froc
entr
icth
ough
tand
the
polic
yof
thos
ein
pow
er‘to
resu
scita
te
trib
alis
man
dpr
imev
alin
stit
utio
ns.
..A
fric
ais
notp
opul
ated
bya
spec
ial
bree
dof
hum
ans
endo
wed
wit
hsp
ecia
lat
trib
utes
’.Pa
lAhl
uwal
ia(2
002)
sim
ilarl
yw
arns
agai
nstt
heA
fric
anR
enai
ssan
ce
mod
eldr
iftin
gto
war
dsra
cial
esse
ntia
lism
.Her
eth
ear
gum
enta
bout
form
s
ofkn
owle
dge
inte
rsec
tsin
trou
bles
ome
way
sw
ithid
enti
typo
litic
s.In
a
dich
otom
ous
disc
ours
eth
ateq
uate
s‘A
frica
n’w
ithin
dige
nous
ethn
icid
entit
y,
ther
eis
nopl
ace
fors
igni
fica
ntgr
oups
ofin
telle
ctua
lsw
hose
Afr
ican
iden
tity
has
othe
rgr
ound
s.T
hey
incl
ude
whi
tew
rite
rsw
hosh
ared
inth
eA
fric
an
cultu
ralr
eviv
alan
dth
est
rugg
leag
ains
tApa
rthe
id(e
.g.D
avid
son,
Fuga
rd),
mem
bers
ofth
ebl
ack
Afr
ican
dias
pora
(Du
Boi
s,Fa
non)
,int
elle
ctua
lsfr
om
Ara
bA
fric
a(A
min
),an
dth
em
any
loca
llybo
rnin
tell
ectu
alw
orke
rsof
Eur
opea
n,In
dian
orin
terr
acia
lba
ckgr
ound
sw
hoha
vea
role
incu
rren
t
proj
ects
ofre
form
and
deve
lopm
ent
(see
Con
nell
2007
).
The
sedi
ffic
ultie
sw
illno
tbe
solv
edby
mor
eel
abor
ate
cate
gori
es,b
ut
byth
inki
ngm
ore
care
fully
abou
tth
eci
rcum
stan
ces
ofin
telle
ctua
lw
ork.
Ina
pene
trat
ing
disc
ussi
onof
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
idea
,M
ahm
ood
Mam
dani
(199
9)re
calle
dho
w,
unde
rth
eA
part
heid
syst
em,
segr
egat
ed
univ
ersi
ties
had
func
tione
d‘m
ore
asde
tent
ion
cent
res
forb
lack
inte
llect
uals
than
asce
ntre
sth
atw
ould
nour
ish
inte
llect
ualt
ho
ug
ht
Mam
dani
note
d
that
raci
alis
edth
inki
ngpe
rsis
ted
inth
epo
st-A
part
heid
peri
od,a
ndit
was
now
cruc
ialt
oat
tem
ptth
e‘d
erac
ialis
atio
nof
inte
llect
ualp
rodu
ctio
nT
his
impl
ied
dera
cial
ised
inst
itutio
ns,p
lus
inte
llect
ualf
reed
om.B
utde
raci
alis
ed
know
ledg
eab
out
Afr
ica
coul
don
lybe
prod
uced
byan
‘Afr
ica-
focu
sed
inte
llige
ntsi
a’T
his
was
diff
icul
t in
Sout
hA
fric
a,w
here
the
inst
itut
ions
of
scie
nce
and
high
ered
ucat
ion
cont
inue
dto
be‘h
ostil
eto
Afr
ica-
focu
sed
thought
Mor
eha
dbe
enac
hiev
edin
othe
rpa
rts
ofA
fric
a—fo
rin
stan
ce,
wit
hth
eD
akar
scho
olof
cult
ural
rese
arch
orth
eD
ares
Sala
amsc
hool
of
polit
ical
econ
omy.
Mam
dani
thus
poin
ted
toth
esa
me
issu
eth
atco
ncer
ned
Hou
nton
dji:
the
cond
ition
sof
exis
tenc
eof
inte
llect
ualw
orke
rsin
Afr
ica,
inth
eco
ntex
tof a
glob
alec
onom
yan
dm
etro
polit
ancu
ltura
l heg
emon
y.T
his
isun
ques
tiona
bly
aso
repo
int.
Ina
bitt
erre
flec
tion,
Tha
ndik
aM
kand
awir
e(2
000)
trac
edth
ehi
stor
yof
the
rela
tion
ship
betw
een
inte
llect
uals
and
post
-ind
epen
denc
ego
vern
men
tsac
ross
blac
kA
fric
a.In
telle
ctua
lsha
dm
ostly
supp
orte
dna
tion-
build
ing
inth
e19
50s
and
1960
s,bu
trep
ress
ive
regi
mes
clos
edth
esp
aces
for
deba
tean
dof
ten
dem
ande
did
eolo
gica
lcon
form
ity.A
fric
anso
cial
scie
ntis
tsin
part
icul
arw
ere
cut
off
from
polic
y-m
akin
g.W
hen
neol
iber
alis
man
dS
truc
tura
lA
djus
tmen
tP
rogr
ams
arri
ved
inth
e19
80s
and
1990
s,th
eal
iena
tion
was
rene
wed
.G
over
nmen
tstu
rned
tofo
reig
nad
vise
rs, w
hile
NG
Os
wan
ted
only
cons
ulta
ncie
s,no
t bas
icre
sear
chpr
ogra
ms,
assu
min
gth
at‘p
oor
rese
arch
was
good
enou
ghfo
rth
epoor
The
diff
icul
tyof
find
ing
grou
ndfo
rth
ede
velo
pmen
tofA
fric
anso
cial
scie
nces
isem
phas
ised
byth
ose
who
have
look
edat
the
inst
itut
ions
men
tion
edby
Mam
dani
.C
heck
ing
the
curr
icul
aof
univ
ersi
ties
inSu
b-Sa
hara
nA
fric
a,Pe
ter
Cro
ssm
anan
dR
ené
Dev
isch
(200
2)an
dB
irgi
tB
rock
-Utn
e(2
002)
find
litt
leA
fric
anis
atio
nof
cont
ent,
orte
achi
ngin
indi
geno
usla
ngua
ges,
40ye
ars
afte
rpo
liti
cal
inde
pend
ence
.Li
keN
GO
fund
ing,
aid
dire
ctly
inte
nded
for
the
soci
alsc
ienc
este
nds
tosu
ppor
t•
smal
l-sc
ale,
prac
tical
lyor
ient
edst
udie
s.W
itnes
sth
epr
ojec
tssu
ppor
ted
orre
port
edth
roug
hth
eO
rgan
isat
ion
for
Soci
alSc
ienc
eR
esea
rch
inE
aste
rnan
dS
outh
ern
Afr
ica.
The
yin
clud
elo
cals
tudi
esof
yout
hle
ader
ship
,AID
Sri
sk,
stre
ssam
ong
publ
icse
rvan
ts,
food
secu
rity
,ge
nder
and
smal
l•
ente
rpri
ses,
sexu
alab
use
(OSS
RE
AB
ulle
tin
2005
).A
llar
ew
orth
yto
pics
but,
asH
ount
ondj
iob
serv
ed,t
hest
age
ofth
eory
-bui
ldin
gis
mis
sing
.So
far,
itse
ems,
the
Afr
ican
Ren
aiss
ance
has
not
give
nri
seto
anin
telle
ctua
lfer
men
ttha
twou
ldin
spir
ene
wde
velo
pmen
tsin
soci
alth
ough
t.Y
etsu
cha
thin
gha
sha
ppen
edin
the
past
.Mud
imbe
’s(1
988)
vast
surv
eyT
heIn
vent
ion
ofA
fric
atr
aces
epis
tem
olog
ical
rupt
ures
inth
ough
tab
out
Afr
ica,
espe
cial
lyth
eon
eth
atch
alle
nged
the
read
ing
ofA
fric
aas
‘oth
er’ t
oth
eE
urop
ean.
Pick
ing
upst
eam
inth
e19
20s
and
com
plet
edin
the
1950
s,th
isep
iste
mol
ogic
albr
eak—
incl
udin
gth
ene
wA
fric
anhi
stor
iogr
aphy
, the
criti
que
ofet
hnog
raph
y,th
ene
gritu
dem
ovem
enta
ndA
fric
anin
depe
nden
cepo
liti
cal
thou
ght—
mad
epo
ssib
leth
eve
ryid
eaof
anA
fric
a-fo
cuse
din
telli
gent
sia
tow
hich
Mam
dani
muc
hla
ter
appe
aled
.In
this
spir
it,
Ire
call
ast
udy
from
age
nera
tion
even
befo
reth
atof
110
South
ern
theo
ry
Ken
yatta
and
Tem
pels
.In
1916
inL
ondo
n,S
olom
onT
shek
isho
Plaa
tje
publ
ishe
dN
ativ
eL
ife
inS
outh
Afr
ica.
Thi
sw
asno
ta
trav
elog
ue,n
oran
ethn
ogra
phy,
nor
ata
leof
life
onan
Afr
ican
farm
.Itw
asan
acco
unto
fthe
impa
ctof
the
1913
Nat
ives
’Lan
dA
ct,p
ushe
dth
roug
hth
eal
l-w
hite
Sout
h
Afr
ican
parl
iam
ent i
nth
ew
ake
ofun
ion
betw
een
the
Bri
tish
and
Afr
ikan
er
colo
nies
.The
purp
ose
ofth
eA
ctw
asto
forc
ebl
ack
tena
ntfa
rmer
sof
fthe
ir
land
,to
crea
tea
wag
ela
bour
forc
efo
rthe
bene
fito
fwhi
tepr
oper
tyow
ners
,
and
tose
t up
blac
kho
mel
ands
(as
they
wer
ela
ter
calle
d).
Itw
as,i
nsh
ort,
anen
clos
ure
act a
long
raci
allin
es,a
nda
key
mov
eto
war
dsA
part
heid
.
Plaa
tjew
asa
cour
ttra
nsla
tor
turn
edjo
urna
list
,att
heti
me
the
gene
ral
secr
etar
yof
the
rece
ntly
foun
ded
Sout
hA
fric
anN
ativ
eN
atio
nalC
ongr
ess
(soo
nto
beco
me
the
AN
C).
He
trav
elle
dth
eco
untr
yby
bicy
cle
tore
sear
ch
the
impa
ctof
the
Act
ondi
spla
ced
fam
ilies
driv
enof
fthe
irla
nd.T
hebo
ok
desc
ribe
sca
ses
from
his
fiel
dwor
k,an
dal
sodo
cum
ents
spee
ches
,
parl
iam
enta
ryde
bate
san
dne
wpa
per
repo
rts.
Plaa
tjebe
gan
wri
ting
iton
boar
dth
esh
ipto
Eng
land
,to
appe
alto
the
impe
rial
gove
rnm
ent
to
inte
rven
e.H
isca
sein
clud
edpa
ssio
nate
repo
rtin
gab
out
the
soci
al
cons
eque
nces
ofth
eA
ct,i
rony
abou
tth
eC
hris
tian
pret
ensi
ons
ofSo
uth
Afr
ica’
sru
lers
,acr
itiq
ueof
raci
alha
tred
and
ofth
eim
plac
abil
ity
ofth
e
Boe
rpol
itici
ans,
anap
peal
toim
peri
alci
tizen
ship
,and
ave
iled
pred
icti
on
ofth
ebl
oods
hed
that
mig
htre
sult
from
the
path
ofra
cial
segr
egat
ion.
The
Bri
tish
felt
deep
sym
path
y.B
utth
eye
arth
ede
lega
tion
arri
ved
was
1914
and
the
impe
rial
gove
rnm
ent h
adot
her
fish
tofr
yA
sL
loyd
Geo
rge
late
rto
ldPl
aatje
,the
Bri
tish
coul
dha
rdly
inte
rfer
ein
the
inte
rnal
affa
irs
ofa
dom
inio
nto
whi
chth
eyha
dju
stgi
ven
self
-gov
ernm
ent.
Soth
ede
lega
tion,
and
the
book
,fa
iled
inth
eir
poli
tica
lpu
rpos
e.Y
et
the
book
has
endu
ring
impo
rtan
ce.
Ifw
ear
elo
okin
gfo
rcl
assi
csof
wor
ld
soci
olog
y,N
ativ
eL
ife
inS
outh
Afr
ica
isce
rtai
nly
one.
Itis
not
only
a
pion
eeri
ngpi
ece
offi
eldw
ork,
done
unde
rgr
eat
diff
icul
ty,a
nda
stri
king
diss
eCtio
nof
raci
sm,i
nbo
thre
spec
tsco
mpa
rabl
eto
the
wor
kof
W.E
.B.
duB
ois
inth
esa
me
gene
ratio
n.Pl
aatje
’sw
ork
isal
soan
acut
ean
alys
isof
apo
litic
alan
dso
cial
conj
unct
ure.
Itsh
ows
how
,in
the
colo
nial
situ
atio
n,
the
cont
rol
ofla
ndan
dth
edi
srup
tion
ofla
ndte
nure
are
cent
ral
toth
e
patt
ern
ofdo
min
atio
n,th
epl
ayof
inte
rest
s,th
eco
nsci
ousn
ess
ofgr
oups
and
the
proc
ess
ofso
cial
chan
ge.I
tis
ast
rilci
ngex
ampl
eof
soci
aldi
agno
sis,
and
ithi
ghli
ghts
anis
sue
that
met
ropo
lita
nso
ciol
ogy
alm
ost
enti
rely
mis
sed.
Iwifi
retu
rnto
this
issu
ein
Cha
pter
9.
6Is
lam
and
Wes
tern
dom
inan
ceT
heP
rophet
of
Isla
mw
asap
poin
ted
toco
mple
teth
e
mov
emen
tw
hich
has
exis
ted
thro
ughout
hist
ory
in
opposi
tion
todec
epti
on,
fals
ehoo
d,po
lyth
eism
,di
scor
d,
hypo
cris
y,ar
isto
crac
y,an
dcl
ass
diff
eren
ces.
Thj
sw
asm
ade
ago
alof
the
stru
ggle
byth
ean
nounce
men
tth
atal
l
hum
anit
yis
ofon
era
ce,
one
sour
ce,
one
natu
re,
and
of
one
God
.
—A
uS
har
iati
(197
2)
I
r
112
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
an
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
113
Inth
isch
apte
r,Ip
rese
ntm
yen
coun
ters
with
the
wri
tings
ofth
ree
Iran
ian
inte
llect
uals
who
grap
pled
with
the
prob
lem
ofW
este
rndo
min
ance
inth
e
Mus
lim
wor
ld.
The
reis
abr
oade
rM
usli
mli
tera
ture
onth
issu
bjec
t;
Shi’
ism
,tho
ugh
the
maj
orit
ytr
adit
ion
inIr
an,
isa
min
orit
yin
Isla
mas
a
who
le.
Ifo
cuse
don
this
trad
itio
nbo
thbe
caus
eI
have
mor
eba
ckgr
ound
inIr
ania
nth
anA
rab
orIn
done
sian
hist
ory,
and
beca
use
ofth
esi
gnif
ican
ce
ofth
eIr
ania
nre
volu
tion
of19
79in
resh
apin
gth
eM
uslim
wor
ld’s
rela
tions
with
the
met
ropo
le.I
slam
is—
cont
rary
tom
edia
ster
eoty
pes
and
‘cla
shof
civi
lisat
ions
’id
eolo
gues
—un
derg
oing
vast
chan
gean
dre
nova
tion
,an
d
thes
eau
thor
sfo
rma
sign
ific
ants
tran
din
this
proc
ess.
Whe
nI s
ayen
coun
ters
with
thei
rwri
tings
,Ish
ould
say
enco
unte
rsw
ith
tran
slat
ions
.I
have
nokn
owle
dge
ofFa
rsi
(Per
sian
)or
Ara
bic.
Iam
not
only
depe
nden
ton
tran
slat
ors’
rend
erin
gsof
text
, but
also
onth
eir
choi
ce
ofte
xts
totr
ansl
ate.
For
tuna
tely
, the
key
book
sby
al-A
fgha
nian
dA
1-e
Ahm
adha
vebe
entr
ansl
ated
infu
ll,as
have
asa
mpl
eof
Shar
iati’
sle
ctur
es
onso
cial
issu
es;o
ther
wis
eth
isch
apte
rw
ould
notb
epo
ssib
leat
all.
I hav
etr
ied
tofil
l the
gaps
byst
udyi
ngbi
ogra
phie
s,ge
nera
lhi
stor
ies,
anth
olog
ies
and
spec
ialis
tar
ticl
es.
Nev
erth
eles
s,I
emph
asis
eth
atth
is
chap
ter
isno
tof
fere
das
ate
chni
cal
stud
yof
thei
roe
uvre
, but
spec
ific
ally
asan
enco
unte
rin
soci
alth
eory
.I
belie
veit
isan
enco
unte
rth
atot
her
Ang
loph
one
soci
alth
eori
sts
shou
ldha
ve.
Ref
uta
tion
ofth
eM
ater
iali
sts
Dur
ing
the
seco
ndha
lfof
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yC
E,th
efo
rmat
ions
that
we
call
the
soci
alsc
ienc
esca
me
into
exis
tenc
ein
Wes
tern
Eur
ope
and
Nor
thA
mer
ica.
At
the
sam
eti
me
inth
eIs
lam
icw
orld
,an
even
mor
e
frau
ght
tran
siti
onw
asbe
ginn
ing,
whi
chal
soin
volv
edkn
owle
dge
and
mor
aldi
scou
rse
abou
tth
eso
cial
—th
ough
itw
asst
ruct
ured
indi
ffer
ent
way
s.A
cent
ral f
igur
ein
this
tran
siti
onw
asSa
yyid
Jam
alad
-Din
,kn
own
tofa
me
asal
-Afg
hani
.1
1Fo
rth
ose
unfa
mil
iar w
ith
thes
ena
min
gcu
stom
s:‘S
ayyi
d’is
anho
nori
fic
sign
ifyi
ngth
at
the
pers
on’s
fam
ilyis
desc
ende
dfr
omth
efa
mily
ofth
eP
roph
et.‘
A1-
Afg
hani
’is
aco
mm
on
type
ofal
tern
ativ
eto
the
pers
onal
nam
e;it
mea
ns,m
ore
orle
ss,‘
ofA
fgha
nist
an’
and
was
used
byJa
mal
ad-D
inaf
ter
his
firs
tim
po
rtan
tpo
liti
cal
post
,as
anad
vise
rto
the
Em
iro
f
Afg
hani
stan
.Ado
pted
byso
meo
nefr
omSh
i’ite
Iran
,the
nam
eal
sosu
gges
tsso
lida
rity
wit
h
Sunn
is.
AI-
Afg
hani
’sbe
stkn
own
wor
ksw
ere
wri
tten
inth
e18
80s
whe
nhe
was
alre
ady
mid
dle-
aged
;he
was
ayo
unge
rco
ntem
pora
ryof
Her
bert
Spen
cer
and
Frie
dric
hEn
gels
, alit
tleol
der t
han
Ferd
inan
dT
önni
es.B
uthi
sco
nditi
ons
oflif
ew
ere
dram
atic
ally
diff
eren
tfro
mth
eirs
. He
spen
t mos
tofh
isad
ultl
ife
trav
ellin
gac
ross
the
Isla
mic
wor
ld, f
rom
Kol
kata
toC
airo
, with
peri
ods
also
inC
hris
tian
coun
trie
s,liv
ing
offh
isw
itsan
dhi
ssc
hola
rshi
p,ra
rely
able
to
settl
ean
ywhe
refo
rm
ore
than
afe
wye
ars.
He
was
deep
lyin
volv
edin
elite
polit
ics,
bein
gad
vise
r atv
ario
ustim
esto
mon
arch
sin
Afg
hani
stan
, Ira
nan
d
the
Ott
oman
empi
re.
He
was
also
invo
lved
inre
form
polit
ics
inse
vera
l
coun
trie
s,an
dhe
lped
toin
spir
eim
port
ant
soci
alm
ovem
ents
inE
gypt
and
Iran
. He
was
expe
lled
from
,or
had
tofle
e,fo
urco
untr
ies
atdi
ffer
entt
imes
.
He
seem
sto
have
been
aw
onde
rful
orat
oran
dte
ache
r;he
also
crea
ted
one
ofth
efi
rst
new
spap
ers
tobe
read
acro
ssth
eIs
lam
icw
orld
. He
had
alo
yal
follo
win
g,an
dpr
obab
lyin
spir
edth
eas
sass
inat
ion
ofa
Shah
.He
was
rega
rded
byth
eB
ritis
has
aR
ussi
anag
enta
ndw
aseq
ually
dist
rust
edby
the
Rus
sian
s.
Att
heen
d,he
died
inde
tent
ion,
trap
ped
byth
ere
gim
eth
atw
asth
em
ain
bene
fici
ary
ofhi
spa
n-Is
lam
icca
mpa
ign.
Thi
sw
asno
talif
em
ade
for
quie
t sch
olar
lyre
flec
tion.
Al-
Afg
hani
wro
te
only
one
book
,T
heT
ruth
abou
tth
eN
eich
eri
Sect
and
anE
xpla
nati
onof
the
Nei
cher
is,
bett
erkn
own
asR
efut
atio
nof
the
Mat
e-ri
alis
ts(t
heti
tle
of
itsA
rabi
ctr
ansl
atio
n).
Mos
tof
his
wri
tten
wor
kco
mpr
ised
essa
ysfo
r
new
spap
ers
and
mag
azin
es.
Muc
hof
his
infl
uenc
ew
asce
rtai
nly
due
to
face
-to-
face
teac
hing
,no
tsu
rpri
sing
inw
hat
was
still
mai
nly
anor
al
cultu
re.T
houg
hth
ere
are
som
ere
cord
sof
his
teac
hing
and
conv
ersa
tion,
ther
eis
cont
rove
rsy
abou
thi
sex
actv
iew
s.Fo
ral
ltha
t,it
iscl
ear
that
al
Afg
hani
was
anor
igin
alth
inke
ran
dha
da
pow
erfu
lint
elle
ctua
lim
pact
.
Rat
hert
han
syst
ems
inth
em
anne
rofS
penc
eror
Enge
ls, h
ecr
eate
dst
artin
g
poin
tsfo
rcu
ltura
lch
ange
. He
open
edup
prob
lem
san
dcr
eate
dm
odel
sof
argu
men
ttha
twer
ede
velo
ped
byla
ter
thin
kers
inm
any
diff
eren
t way
s.
We
shou
ldse
eal
-Afg
hani
asan
inte
llect
ualo
f ahi
stor
ical
lyne
wki
nd—
asw
esh
ould
see
the
soci
alsc
ient
ists
ofE
urop
e—m
ade
poss
ible
byth
e
uphe
aval
sof
cult
ure,
educ
atio
nan
dpo
liti
cal
syst
ems
resu
ltin
gfr
om
impe
rial
ism
. Al-
Afg
hani
was
apr
acti
tion
erin
two
cultu
res,
that
ofth
e
impe
rial
ists
and
that
ofth
eco
loni
sed,
and
wor
ked
atth
ein
ters
ecti
onof
the
two.
He
was
one
ofth
efi
rstt
hink
ers
anyw
here
inth
ew
orld
who
trie
d
tom
obili
seth
ere
sour
ces
ofbo
thcu
lture
sto
gene
rate
avi
goro
usan
swer
,
atbo
thpr
actic
alan
din
telle
ctua
lle
vels
,to
the
impe
rial
ists
.
114
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
an
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
115
The
prob
lem
was
acut
e.A
l-A
fgha
nica
me
tom
atur
ity
inth
epe
riod
that
has
been
aptly
calle
d‘t
heze
nith
ofE
urop
ean
pow
er’
(Bur
y19
60).
He
lived
ina
regi
onpa
rtly
occu
pied
byE
urop
ean
mili
tary
forc
es, w
ithth
ere
stsw
ept
byE
urop
ean
polit
ical
pres
sure
and
econ
omic
pene
trat
ion.
Mos
trem
aini
ngM
uslim
gove
rnm
ents
wer
epu
ppet
sof
the
impe
rial
pow
ers,
orco
mpl
etel
yin
tim
idat
edby
them
.A1-
Afg
hani
saw
this
atfi
rsth
and,
visi
ting
Indi
aso
onaf
ter
the
grea
tri
sing
of18
57ha
dbe
encr
ushe
d.H
esa
wth
efe
eble
Qaj
arre
gim
ein
Iran
pull
edth
isw
ayan
dth
atbe
twee
nth
eR
ussi
ans
and
the
Bri
tish,
and
trie
dun
succ
essf
ully
tone
gotia
tea
peac
ebe
twee
nth
eB
ritis
han
dth
eM
ahdi
stm
ovem
ent
inSu
dan.
Toso
meo
neco
ncer
ned
wit
hth
edi
gnity
ofIs
lam
,thi
sw
asin
tole
rabl
e.A
1-A
fgha
nibe
cam
ea
life
long
opponen
tof
the
Bri
tish
empi
re,
the
supe
rpow
erin
the
Mus
limw
orld
atth
eti
me
(muc
has
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esis
now
).M
ost
ofhi
spo
liti
cal
wor
kco
ncer
ned
atte
mpt
s,w
hich
mos
tly
fail
edin
the
shor
tte
rm,
tost
reng
then
Isla
mic
regi
mes
and
crea
tean
ti-B
ritis
hre
sist
ance
.But
heal
soin
quir
edin
toth
ere
ason
sfo
r the
terr
ible
wea
knes
sof
Isla
mic
soci
ety.
The
rear
ese
vera
lst
rand
sto
al-A
fgha
ni’s
thou
ght
onth
ispr
oble
m.H
esa
wtr
ends
that
had
sapp
edth
est
reng
thof
Isla
mfr
omw
ithi
n,su
chas
tyra
nnou
sru
lers
who
had
dest
roye
dcu
ltur
alre
sour
ces.
He
saw
aM
uslim
cler
ical
inte
llige
ntsi
a,th
eul
ama,
who
had
repl
aced
livin
gre
ligio
nw
itha
dust
ysc
hola
stic
ism
.He
saw
rift
sam
ong
Mus
lims—
the
Shi’
ite/S
unni
split
amon
gth
em—
that
open
edth
epa
thto
conq
uest
from
outs
ide.
He
also
deve
lope
da
mor
eco
mpl
excu
ltura
lana
lysi
s,an
dfo
r thi
sIt
urn
tohi
slon
gest
text
,the
Ref
utat
ion
ofth
eMat
eria
lists
.On
the
face
ofit,
the
Ref
utat
ion
isno
tab
out
impe
rial
ism
atal
l.It
isa
defe
nce
ofre
ligio
nag
ains
tir
relig
ion,
spec
ifica
llyth
efo
rmof
irre
ligio
nre
pres
ente
dby
mat
eria
list p
hilo
soph
y.W
ithm
uch
rhet
oric
alex
agge
ratio
n,al
-Afg
hani
pres
ents
mat
eria
lism
asa
cons
ciou
sco
nspi
racy
agai
nst
relig
ion.
Mor
ein
tere
stin
gis
the
spec
ific
char
gehe
brin
gsag
ains
tthe
mat
eria
lists
ofpa
stan
dpr
esen
t,th
atth
eir i
deas
caus
elic
ence
,ana
rchy
and
com
mun
ism
.Tha
tis
tosa
y,he
focu
ses
onth
eso
cial
effe
cts
offa
lse
doct
rine
. Mor
ein
tere
stin
gst
illis
his
defe
nce
ofre
ligio
n,w
hich
ispr
aise
dbe
caus
eit
mak
esfo
rvir
tuou
spe
ople
and
soci
alco
hesi
on.
Al-
Afg
hani
deve
lops
this
poin
tatl
engt
h.R
elig
ion
prom
otes
thre
eke
ybe
liefs
(tha
tm
anis
the
nobl
estc
reat
ure;
that
one’
sow
nso
ciet
yis
the
nobl
est;
and
that
ther
eis
anaf
terl
ife)
, and
thre
equ
aliti
esin
peop
lean
dna
tions
(ase
nse
ofsh
ame;
trus
twor
thin
ess;
and
trut
hfiil
ness
).O
nce
thes
ebe
liefs
and
qual
ities
are
esta
blis
hed,
soci
ety
will
flou
rish
;w
itho
utth
em,s
ocie
tyde
clin
es.T
hus
relig
ion
isth
eke
yto
prog
ress
:’Sin
ceit
iskn
own
that
relig
ion
isun
ques
tiona
bly
the
sour
ceof
man
’sw
elfa
re,t
here
fore
,ifi
t isp
lace
don
firm
foun
datio
nsan
d
soun
dba
ses,
that
relig
ion
will
natu
rally
beco
me
the
com
plet
eso
urce
ofto
tal
happ
ines
san
dpe
rfec
ttra
nqui
llity
.Abo
veal
lit w
illbe
the
caus
eof
mat
eria
l
and
mor
alpr
ogre
ss’
(196
8:16
9).
Oth
erre
ligio
nsca
nha
veth
ese
effe
cts,
but
the
best
reli
gion
isIs
lam
.
Aga
in,
al-A
fgha
ni’s
reas
ons
are
inte
rest
ing.
Isla
mis
supe
rior
toot
her
relig
ions
,he
argu
es,b
ecau
seit
isth
em
ostr
atio
nal.
Itha
sno
doct
rine
sth
at
depe
ndon
irra
tion
alfa
ithor
prie
stly
auth
orit
y:
The
Isla
mic
relig
ion
isth
eon
lyre
ligio
nth
atce
nsur
esbe
liefw
itho
ut
proo
fan
dth
efo
llow
ing
ofco
njec
ture
s;re
prov
esbl
ind
subm
issi
on;
seek
sto
show
proo
fof
thin
gsto
itsfo
llow
ers;
ever
ywhe
read
dres
ses
itse
lfto
reas
on;
cons
ider
sal
lha
ppin
ess
the
resu
ltof
wis
dom
and
clea
rsig
hted
ness
;att
ribu
tes
perd
itio
nto
stup
idit
yan
dla
ckof
insi
ght;
and
sets
uppr
oofs
for
each
fund
amen
talb
elie
fin
such
aw
ayth
atit
wil
lbe
usef
ulto
allp
eopl
e(1
968:
172)
.
With
this
ring
ing
decl
arat
ion,
al-A
fgha
niis
nota
band
onin
ghi
scr
itiqu
e
ofco
ntem
pora
ryM
uslim
soci
ety.
He
mee
tsth
eob
viou
sob
ject
ion
thus
:
Ifso
meo
nesa
ys:I
fthe
Isla
mic
relig
ion
isas
you
say,
then
why
are
the
Mus
lims
insu
cha
sad
cond
ition
?Iw
illan
swer
:Whe
nth
eyw
ere
trul
y
Mus
lims,
they
wer
ew
hat
they
wer
ean
dth
ew
orld
bear
sw
itnes
sto
thei
rex
celle
nce.
Asf
orth
epr
esen
t,Iw
illco
nten
tmys
elfw
ithth
isho
ly
text
:‘G
oddo
esno
tch
ange
the
cond
itio
nof
ape
ople
unle
ssth
ey
chan
gew
hati
sin
them
selv
es’
(196
8:l7
3).
2
Two
lines
ofso
cial
anal
ysis
conv
erge
inth
eR
efut
atio
n.T
hefi
rst
isa
soci
olog
yof
soci
alco
hesi
onin
whi
chec
onom
ican
dpo
litic
alw
ell-
bein
g
depe
ndon
the
cultu
ralf
ound
atio
nsof
hum
anac
tion—
cultu
ralf
ound
atio
ns
that
al-A
fgha
nipr
esen
ted
inth
ela
ngua
geof
mor
alit
yan
dre
ligio
n.It
was
entir
ely
cons
iste
ntth
atal
-Afg
hani
inot
her
wri
ting
emph
asis
edim
peri
al
ism
’sth
reat
toIs
lam
,an
dIs
lam
asth
eba
sis
for
resi
stan
ce.
2Q
ur’a
n13
:11;
Iha
veus
eda
mor
em
oder
ntr
ansl
atio
n.
116
South
ern
theo
ry
The
Ref
utat
ion
was
wri
tten
in18
81w
hen
al-A
fgha
niw
asin
Indi
a,as
acr
itiq
ueof
aco
ntra
stin
gM
usli
mre
spon
seto
conq
uest
,th
eA
liga
rhm
ovem
ent.
Led
bySa
yyid
Ahm
adK
han,
this
tren
dem
phas
ised
the
purs
uit
ofm
oder
nity
,W
este
rn-s
tyle
educ
atio
n,ra
tion
alis
tre
form
ofIs
lam
and
poli
tica
lac
com
odat
ion
wit
hth
eB
riti
sh(M
alik
1980
).A
hmad
Kha
nex
plic
itly
supp
orte
deq
ualit
yfo
r wom
en, w
hich
hesa
was
Isla
mic
prin
cipl
eth
ough
deni
edin
Mus
limpr
actic
e.T
heA
ligar
hm
ovem
ent w
asan
earl
yst
atem
ent
ofa
mod
erni
sing
logi
cla
ter
follo
wed
inm
any
part
sof
the
colo
nise
dw
orld
.To
al-A
fgha
ni,
itre
pres
ente
da
disa
stro
usco
nces
sion
toim
peri
alpo
wer
,sp
ecif
ical
lyun
derm
inin
gIs
lam
.A
l-A
fgha
niw
asa
mod
erni
ser
too,
but
hew
ante
dto
mod
erni
sefr
oma
posi
tion
ofIs
lam
icst
reng
th, n
otw
eakn
ess.
Thi
sw
asex
pres
sed
inhi
sla
ter
life
byco
mm
itm
ent
toa
pan-
Isla
mic
mov
emen
tce
ntre
don
the
Cal
ipha
tein
Ista
nbul
. He
also
bega
nto
see
the
ulam
aas
pote
ntia
lal
lies
ofth
em
ovem
ent t
ost
reng
then
Isla
mic
soci
etie
s.In
1891
, in
the
stru
ggle
agai
nst t
heIr
ania
nQ
ajar
regi
me’
sco
nces
sion
ofa
toba
cco
mon
opol
yto
aB
ritis
hco
mpa
ny, a
l-A
fgha
nim
ade
afa
mou
sap
peal
toth
ele
ader
ofth
eul
ama,
Haj
Mir
zaH
asan
Shir
azi,
tojo
inth
eO
ppos
ition
.In
this
conf
lict,
the
unit
edre
sist
ance
ofse
cula
rm
oder
nise
rs,
ulam
aan
dm
asse
sde
feat
edth
eSh
ahan
dth
eB
ritis
h,an
dcr
eate
da
vita
l pre
cede
ntfo
rfu
ture
polit
ics.
The
othe
rke
ylin
eof
thou
ght
conc
erns
ratio
nalit
y.A
l-A
fgha
niw
asth
ein
heri
tor o
f ara
tiona
list t
radi
tion
inIs
lam
icph
iloso
phy
that
had
been
stro
ngin
Iran
.(I
tis
muc
hle
ssw
idel
ykn
own
toW
este
rner
sth
anth
em
ystic
altr
adit
ion
ofSu
fism
.)In
his
essa
y‘T
heB
enef
itsof
Philo
soph
y’, a
I-A
fgha
niar
gues
for
the
unit
yof
know
ledg
e,in
voki
ngth
eke
yIs
lam
icth
eolo
gica
lco
ncep
t of t
awhi
d,th
eab
solu
teun
ity
ofG
od. F
orhi
mth
ere
was
nose
para
teIs
lam
icsc
ienc
e.M
uslim
inte
llect
uals
had
draw
nfr
eely
onG
reek
, Rom
anan
dPe
rsia
nkn
owle
dge
inth
epa
st,
and
Isla
msh
ould
bevi
goro
usly
asso
ciat
edw
ithth
epr
ogre
ssof
univ
ersa
l sci
ence
inth
epr
esen
t.H
eth
eref
ore
calle
don
the
ulam
ato
get
wit
hit:
tost
udy
elec
tric
ity,
stea
mpo
wer
,th
eph
onog
raph
,th
eca
mer
a,‘t
heen
tire
sphe
reof
new
scie
nces
and
inve
ntio
nsan
dfr
esh
crea
tions
’(1
968:
121—
2). A
l-A
fgha
nike
ptab
reas
tof
tech
nolo
gyan
dus
edit
him
self
—fo
rin
stan
ce, p
rom
otin
gne
wsp
aper
sas
ane
wm
eans
for
crea
ting
aM
uslim
publ
icsp
here
.In
part
ofhi
sca
reer
heus
edth
em
ost
trad
itio
nal
ofpo
liti
cal
tech
niqu
es,
aspe
rson
alad
vise
r to
Mus
limm
onar
chs;
inan
othe
r par
t he
purs
ued
ara
dica
l
JIs
lam
an
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
117
tech
niqu
eof
dist
ance
polit
ics,
livin
gin
Eur
ope
and
diss
emin
atin
ghi
sid
eas
acro
ssth
eM
uslim
wor
ldvi
apr
int.
Toal
-Afg
hani
(as,
iron
ical
ly,a
lso
toA
hmad
Kha
nat
Alig
arh)
,Isl
amic
revi
valw
asin
larg
epa
rtan
educ
atio
nalp
robl
em.T
hedi
sint
egra
ting
effe
cts
ofm
ater
ialis
man
dim
peri
alis
m,w
hich
inhi
sw
orld
wer
ein
tert
win
ed,h
ad
tobe
coun
tere
dby
good
educ
atio
n.T
his
requ
ired
mov
ing
away
from
the
ster
ilere
peti
tion
typi
calo
frel
igio
ussc
hool
s.K
now
ledg
e,he
argu
edin
the
Ref
utat
ion
and
othe
rte
xts,
was
the
key
toso
cial
wea
lthan
dpr
oduc
tivity
.
Ifth
egr
eatq
uest
ion
ofph
iloso
phy
isno
w:‘
Wha
t ist
heca
use
ofth
epo
vert
y,
indi
genc
e,he
lple
ssne
ss,a
nddi
stre
ssof
the
Mus
lims,
and
isth
ere
acu
refo
r
this
impo
rtan
tph
enom
enon
and
grea
tm
isfo
rtun
eor
not?
’(1
968:
120)
,
then
itis
incu
mbe
nton
any
Mus
limw
ithin
telle
ctua
lre
sour
ces
tofo
cus
onth
ispr
oble
man
ddo
som
ethi
ngab
outi
t.
Al-
Afg
hani
’sE
ngli
sh-l
angu
age
biog
raph
ersu
gges
tsth
atth
eso
urce
ofhi
sin
flue
nce
was
his
find
ing
wit
hin
Isla
mth
eba
ses
for
rati
onal
ist
and
mod
erni
sing
thou
ght
(Ked
die
1972
).H
ism
oder
nisi
ngag
enda
was
ther
efor
eno
taut
omat
ical
lyse
enas
anal
ien
intr
oduc
tion
.To
put i
tano
ther
way
,al
-Afg
hani
refu
sed
the
mod
erni
ty/t
radi
tion
alis
mdi
chot
omy
so
fam
iliar
inW
este
rnso
cial
thou
ght.
Tha
tm
akes
his
thou
ght
sign
ific
ant i
na
broa
der
pers
pect
ive
agai
n.A
l
Afg
hani
had,
from
long
expe
rien
ce,
anac
ute
sens
eof
the
glob
alpo
wer
rela
tions
ofhi
ser
a.H
ew
asno
tde
ceiv
edby
the
ideo
logi
cal
cons
truc
tion
ofim
peri
alpo
wer
asa
refl
ectio
nof
cultu
ralw
orth
,the
idea
embe
dded
in
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yco
ncep
tof
‘pro
gres
s’(s
eeC
hapt
er1)
.He
saw
the
Bri
tish
stra
ight
forw
ardl
yas
aba
ndof
robb
ers
and
tyra
nts.
But
heal
sosa
wth
eir
pow
eras
havi
ngm
ajor
cult
ural
effe
cts,
and
ther
efor
eas
requ
irin
ga
new
kind
ofre
spon
se,
notj
ust
anim
itat
ion.
To
defe
ndan
dpu
rify
the
cultu
reof
the
colo
nise
d,an
dat
the
sam
etim
eac
quir
e
scie
nce,
tech
nolo
gyan
dso
cial
tech
niqu
esfr
omth
eim
peri
alis
ts—
ther
efor
e
toch
ange
the
bala
nce
ofgl
obal
pow
erby
acu
ltur
al/p
olit
ical
rege
nera
tion
with
inth
eco
loni
sed
wor
ld—
was
the
diff
icul
tpat
hal
-Afg
hani
thou
ghtw
as
now
nece
ssar
y.
A1-
Afg
hani
’srh
etor
icis
unfa
mili
arto
me,
and
som
eof
his
atti
tude
sar
e
asun
attr
activ
eas
thos
eof
his
Eur
opea
nco
ntem
pora
ries
.But
Ire
spec
this
dedi
catio
n,hi
sev
iden
tcou
rage
and
abov
eal
lhis
crea
tivity
. In
his
life
and
wri
ting
s,on
efi
nds
avi
sion
ofth
ew
orld
that
has
abr
eadt
h,a
leve
lof
insi
ght,
am
oral
forc
ean
da
prac
tical
edge
that
are
rare
inan
yge
nera
tion.
18S
ou
ther
nth
eory
slam
and
Wes
tern
do
min
an
ce
119
Wes
t oxic
ati
cn
In19
62th
ece
nsor
edve
rsio
nof
ash
ort
book
bya
wel
l-kn
own
lite
rary
figu
rew
aspr
ivat
ely
prin
ted
inT
ehra
n.T
hego
vern
men
tba
nned
it,bu
tco
pies
leak
edou
tto
the
Iran
ian
dias
pora
.In
1964
the
auth
or,
Jala
l Al-
eA
hmad
, pre
pare
da
com
plet
eun
cens
ored
vers
ion.
The
gove
rnm
ent s
eize
dth
ebo
okdu
ring
prin
ting
and
bank
rupt
edth
epu
blis
her.
The
com
plet
ete
xtw
asno
tpu
blis
hed
unti
l19
78.
Inth
em
eant
ime,
editi
ons
ofth
ece
nsor
edte
xtha
dbe
enpu
blis
hed
outs
ide
Iran
and
the
book
had
beco
me
asy
mbo
lof
Iran
ian
inte
llect
ual
oppo
siti
on. W
hen
itw
asfr
eely
avai
labl
ein
Iran
, on
the
eve
ofth
ere
volu
tion,
itbe
cam
ea
best
-sel
ler.
The
book
was
titl
edG
harb
zade
gi,
am
ade-
upw
ord
that
tran
slat
ors
have
stru
ggle
dto
rend
erin
Eng
lish.
‘Wes
toxi
catio
n’an
d‘P
lagu
edby
the
Wes
t’ar
eam
ong
the
bett
eref
fort
s;‘W
esta
fflic
tedn
ess’
and
‘Occ
idat
ion’
are
amon
gth
ew
orse
.T
rans
lato
rsJo
hnG
reen
and
Ahm
adA
lizad
eh, w
hopr
efer
‘Wes
tstr
uckn
ess
rem
ark
that
the
Fars
iro
ots
have
conn
otat
ions
ofco
ntag
ion
and
ofa
blow
bein
gde
live
red—
and
A1-
eA
hmad
cert
ainl
yst
arts
his
text
wit
hth
em
etap
hor
ofa
dise
ase,
‘Isa
yth
atW
esto
xica
tion
islik
ech
oler
aB
utth
ere
isal
soa
conn
otat
ion
ofin
fatu
atio
n.I
will
use
‘Gha
rbza
degi
’fo
rth
ebo
okan
d‘W
esto
xica
tion’
for
the
conc
ept.
Gha
rbza
degi
isa
tricl
cybo
okfo
ran
outs
ider
toap
prec
iate
. It i
sw
ritt
enin
apo
pula
rst
yle
spec
ific
ally
forI
rani
anre
ader
s.T
here
are
allu
sion
s,jo
kes
and
satir
ew
hich
wou
ldha
vein
crea
sed
the
book
’slo
cal p
opul
arit
ybu
tdo
not
help
itto
trav
el.
The
text
isal
soha
rdto
follo
wbe
caus
eit
is,t
obe
blun
t,di
sorg
anis
ed.
A1-
eA
hmad
(198
2a)
chat
sto
the
read
er,
excu
ses
him
self
,in
terr
upts
him
self
,thi
nks
ofa
new
topi
can
dda
rts
off a
fter
it,th
enre
peat
shi
mse
lf.
He
isop
inio
nate
d,la
ying
abou
t wit
hsc
athi
ngco
mm
ents
onth
esc
hool
s,th
ear
my,
the
ulam
aan
dth
ein
telle
ctua
ls, b
uthe
does
not f
ollo
wth
roug
hve
ryfa
ron
any
argu
men
t.H
isje
ers
atW
este
rnis
edw
omen
com
ecl
ose
tom
isog
yny.
He
isa
vivi
dw
rite
rw
ith
ash
arp
eye
and
ano
tabl
ese
nse
ofhu
mou
r,bu
tis
inno
sens
ea
syst
emat
icth
inke
r.(I
nan
othe
res
say,
Al-
eA
hmad
(198
2b:
98)
mak
esth
issa
me
crit
icis
mof
his
own
gene
rati
onof
Iran
ian
wri
ters
:‘W
e’re
ina
hurr
y.W
ew
rite
too
muc
h.W
e’re
seld
omca
refu
l.’)
Exa
sper
ated
Iran
ian
criti
cspo
int t
oer
rors
offa
ctan
din
terp
reta
tion
inG
harb
zade
gi,
and
even
anou
tsid
erca
nse
eso
me
ofth
em.
And
yet,
fora
llits
mes
sine
ss,G
harb
zade
gico
ntai
nsa
pow
erfu
larg
umen
t.In
inte
rnat
iona
lper
spec
tive,
itw
ason
eof
the
firs
tatt
empt
sto
diss
ectt
hecu
ltura
ldim
ensi
onof
neoc
olon
ialis
man
dit
laun
ched
idea
sth
atw
ere
late
rto
beco
me
very
fam
iliar
.Itw
asal
sono
tabl
ein
sugg
estin
ga
feas
ible
stra
tegy
ofre
sist
ance
tocu
ltur
aldo
min
atio
n.G
harb
zade
giis
reco
gnis
edas
anim
port
ant
mom
ent
inth
ehi
stor
yof
the
Iran
ian
oppo
siti
on.
Ith
ink
itsh
ould
bere
cogn
ised
mor
ew
idel
y.T
hegr
ipof
the
Qaj
arm
onar
chy
had
been
brok
enby
the
‘Con
stitu
tiona
lR
evol
utio
n’of
1905
—11
,whi
chin
stal
led
ash
aky
parl
iam
enta
ryre
gim
e.T
his
was
subv
erte
dby
inte
rnal
and
exte
rnal
forc
es,e
spec
ially
byth
eB
ritis
h,w
hoha
dbe
com
ede
pend
ento
nIr
an’s
oild
uiin
gW
orld
War
I.A
peri
odof
turb
ulen
cew
asen
ded
byan
arm
yta
keov
er;
wit
hco
vert
Bri
tish
supp
ort,
the
gene
ral
Rez
aK
han
took
pow
eran
din
1925
inst
alle
dhi
mse
lfas
Shah
.R
eza
Shah
purs
ued
am
oder
nisi
ngst
rate
gyba
sed
onth
atof
Kem
al’s
regi
me
inTu
rkey
,cre
atin
ga
secu
lar
stat
ean
dbe
ginn
ing
indu
stri
alis
atio
n.B
uthe
wan
dere
dto
ocl
ose
toth
eG
erm
ans.
Dur
ing
Wor
ldW
arII
,the
Bri
tish
and
Rus
sian
sth
rew
him
out,
givi
ngth
emse
lves
com
plet
eco
ntro
loft
heoi
land
asu
pply
rout
eto
the
Sovi
etU
nion
(Ked
die
1981
).A
fter
the
war
, the
rew
asa
dem
ocra
tic
open
ing,
lead
ing
toth
eel
ectio
nof
the
refo
rmis
tMos
sade
qgo
vern
men
twhi
chtr
ied
topu
rsue
neut
rali
sman
dde
velo
pmen
t,ev
entu
ally
natio
nalis
ing
the
oili
ndus
try.
Thi
str
igge
red
avio
lent
reac
tion
from
the
Wes
tern
pow
ers,
who
back
eda
righ
t-w
ing
coup
agai
nstM
ossa
deq
in19
53.T
heU
nite
dSt
ates
prom
ptly
repl
aced
the
Bri
tish
asth
em
ain
cont
rolle
rsof
Iran
ian
oila
ndpo
litic
s.By
1955
,the
gove
rnm
ent
was
ape
rson
aldi
ctat
orsh
ipin
the
hand
sof
Moh
amm
edR
eza
Shah
.Thi
sre
gim
ebe
cam
eon
eof
the
mos
tbr
utal
ofth
epr
o-A
mer
ican
Col
dW
ardi
ctat
orsh
ips,
thou
ghit
neve
rqu
ite
mat
ched
the
Suh
arto
regi
me
inIn
done
sia
whi
chw
aded
topo
wer
in19
65th
roug
hth
ebl
ood
ofha
lfa
mill
ion
peop
le.
Moh
amm
edR
eza
Sha
hre
new
edhi
sfa
ther
’spo
licy
ofse
cula
rm
oder
nisa
tion
-fro
m-a
bove
,us
ing
oil
reve
nues
and
US
aid
tofu
nda
mil
itar
ybuil
d-u
p,
econ
omic
and
educa
tional
expa
nsio
n,an
dsp
ecta
cula
rde
velo
pmen
twor
kssu
chas
big
dam
s.B
utlit
tleau
tono
mou
sin
dust
rial
isat
ion
occu
rred
;ra
ther
,im
port
sso
ared
.R
isin
gle
vels
ofco
nsum
ptio
nan
da
Wes
tern
lifes
tyle
for
the
wea
lthy—
gent
lysa
tiris
edin
the
tale
sof
uppe
r-cl
ass
fam
ilylif
eby
Am
irsh
ahi
(199
5)—
did
not
tric
kle
dow
nto
the
wor
king
clas
s.So
ther
ew
asgr
owin
gin
equa
lity,
exac
erba
ted
120
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
and
Wes
tern
do
min
an
ce
121
bya
mas
sin
flow
ofun
empl
oyed
rura
lw
orke
rsto
the
citie
s.P
opul
ardi
scon
tent
was
put
dow
nby
forc
e,an
dop
posi
tion
figu
res
wer
ega
oled
,ex
iled
orki
lled.
The
Shah
’sin
fam
ous
secr
etpo
lice
orga
nisa
tion
,SA
VA
K,
was
set u
pin
1957
and
trai
ned
byth
eA
mer
ican
san
dIs
rael
is.
Thi
sw
asth
esi
tuat
ion
addr
esse
dby
Gha
rbza
degi
, wri
tten
in19
61as
asu
bmis
sion
toan
offi
cial
inqu
iry
onth
ego
als
ofed
ucat
ion.
Itre
quir
eda
good
deal
ofco
urag
eto
wri
tesu
chcr
itica
lid
eas,
let
alon
esh
owth
emto
the
Shah
’sgo
vern
men
t.A
l-e
Ahm
ad,
who
was
born
abou
tth
eti
me
Rez
aSh
ahse
ized
pow
er,
cam
efr
oma
reli
giou
sfa
mil
y—hi
sfa
ther
and
anol
der
brot
her
wer
em
embe
rsof
the
ulam
a.H
eth
eref
ore
had
agr
asp
ofSh
i’ite
idea
san
dpr
acti
ce, y
etm
oved
into
secu
lar
radi
cal
polit
ics.
As
ayo
ung
man
inth
e19
40s,
hetr
aine
das
ate
ache
r,an
dbe
cam
ean
activ
em
embe
rof
the
left
-w
ing
Tud
ehpa
rty.
Aft
erle
avin
gT
udeh
inon
eof
itssp
lits
,he
was
asu
ppor
ter
ofM
ossa
deq.
Aft
erth
e19
53co
up,
hele
ftpa
rty
poli
tics
and
conc
entr
ated
onli
tera
ryw
ork.
He
was
alre
ady
apr
olif
icw
rite
r,an
dco
ntin
ued
for
the
rest
ofhi
slif
eto
pour
out
shor
tst
orie
s,no
vels
, ess
ays
and
com
men
tary
oncu
lture
,re
ligio
nan
dso
ciet
y(A
l-e
Ahm
ad19
82b)
.G
harb
zade
giop
ens
wit
ha
sket
chof
East
—W
est d
ivis
ions
asa
conf
lict
betw
een
glob
alri
chan
dgl
obal
poor
,an
dm
oves
onth
roug
hse
vera
lch
apte
rson
Isla
mic
, mai
nly
Iran
ian,
hist
ory.
East
—W
est r
ival
ryis
ave
ryol
dst
ory,
Al-
eA
hmad
argu
es, b
utin
the
last
300
year
sit
has
chan
ged
char
acte
r,tu
rnin
gin
toa
rela
tion
ofdo
min
atio
n:‘N
owth
esp
irit
ofco
mpe
titi
onis
forg
otte
n.It’
sno
wbe
enre
plac
edby
afe
elin
gof
help
less
ness
and
depe
nden
ce’
(198
2a:
34).
Al-
eA
hmad
com
men
tsth
atun
der
the
Safa
vid
dyna
sty,
whi
chha
dm
ade
Shi’
iteIs
lam
the
stat
ere
ligio
n,Ir
ania
nsbe
gan
tow
ant
the
appr
oval
ofW
este
rntr
avel
lers
and
dipl
omat
s.T
his
open
sa
maj
orth
eme
ofG
harb
zade
gi,
the
criti
que
ofW
este
rnor
ient
alis
m.
Nea
rly
20ye
ars
befo
reE
dwar
dSa
id’s
fam
ous
book
onth
esu
bjec
t,A
l-e
Ahm
adsa
wW
este
rnre
sear
cher
son
Isla
mic
soci
etie
sas
key
agen
tsof
the
syst
emof
dom
inat
ion.
Com
plic
itw
ithco
rpor
atio
nsan
dgo
vern
men
ts,
the
Ori
enta
list
sga
ther
inte
llige
nce.
But
they
also
prod
uce
cultu
ral e
ffec
ts, a
sthe
irin
terp
reta
tion
sof
Iran
ian
cultu
reov
erri
deth
ein
dige
nous
ones
:‘T
hew
esto
xica
ted
man
even
desc
ribe
s,un
ders
tand
s,an
dex
plai
nshi
mse
lfin
the
lang
uage
ofor
ient
alis
ts!
..
.H
eha
spl
aced
him
self
, an
imag
ined
thin
g,un
der
the
orie
ntal
ist’
sm
icro
scop
e,an
dhe
depe
nds
onw
hat
the
orie
ntal
ist
sees
,no
ton
wha
the
is,
feel
s,
and
expe
rien
ces’
(p.
121)
.Thi
scr
itiq
ueis
diff
eren
tfr
omSa
id’s
,but
ina
way
mor
efr
ight
enin
g:W
este
rnin
tell
ectu
aldo
min
atio
nsu
stai
nsth
e
inau
then
tici
tyof
the
subj
ecti
nne
ocol
onia
lism
.
The
empt
yse
lfin
Iran
ian
mod
erni
tyis
anot
her
ofth
ece
ntra
lthe
mes
ofG
harb
zade
gi.T
hequ
otat
ion
abov
eco
mes
from
the
key
Cha
pter
7,in
whi
chA
l-e
Ahm
adof
fers
acl
ose-
uppo
rtra
itof
‘the
Wes
toxi
cate
dm
an’.
A
man
,lite
rally
,is
mea
nt.W
omen
have
little
plac
ein
the
argu
men
t,an
dat
this
poin
tA
1-e
Ahm
ad’s
acco
unt
ofW
esto
xica
tion
beco
mes
apo
rtra
itof
anal
iena
ted
and
impo
tent
form
ofm
ascu
lini
tyfo
rmed
inne
ocol
onia
l
cond
ition
s:‘a
donk
eyin
alio
n’ss
uit’
.
Thi
spo
rtra
itis
asa
tire,
but a
dist
urbi
ngon
e.T
hene
wm
en,A
l-e
Ahm
ad
indi
cate
s,ha
vea
vene
erof
Wes
tern
educ
atio
nw
itho
utha
ving
itsde
pth;
at
the
sam
eti
me,
they
have
lost
thei
rgr
ound
ing
inlo
cal
cult
ure
and
spec
ific
ally
inre
ligio
n.T
here
sult
isno
tan
anti
-rel
igio
usat
titu
de,
but
sim
ply
alie
natio
n.In
diff
eren
cem
arks
the
who
leou
tloo
kof
the
Wes
toxi
cate
del
ite:
The
usua
lpra
ctic
ein
this
coun
try
isto
conf
erpo
wer
onth
ose
who
are
root
less
and
wit
hout
pers
onal
ity,
ifno
ton
the
ruth
less
and
the
corr
upt.
..If
we’
reto
doa
good
job
offo
llow
ing
the
Wes
t,so
meo
ne
mus
tlea
dth
ena
tion
who
’sea
sily
led,
who
isn’
tgen
uine
,who
’sun
prin
—
cipl
ed,h
asno
root
s,an
dis
noto
fthe
soil
ofth
isla
nd(1
982a
:11
6).
The
situ
atio
nca
llsfo
rm
enw
hoar
eta
ctfu
l,co
mpl
iant
,fl
exib
le,w
ho
follo
wfa
shio
n,w
hoha
veno
pass
ion,
noco
mm
itm
ent
toot
hers
and
no
dept
hof
know
ledg
e.W
hatt
hey
doha
veis
fear
;des
ire
forW
este
rnm
ater
ial
good
san
da
cons
umer
lifes
tyle
;and
the
attit
ude
that
the
Aus
tral
ian
liter
ary
criti
cPh
illip
s,at
abou
tth
esa
me
time,
calle
dth
e‘c
ultu
ral
crin
ge’
tow
ards
Eur
ope.
As
Al-
eA
hmad
puts
it,th
eW
esto
xica
ted
man
follo
ws
Wes
tern
new
s,re
ads
Wes
tern
liter
atur
e,an
dev
enle
arns
abou
tE
aste
rnph
iloso
phy
from
Wes
tern
book
s.
A1-
eA
hmad
rese
rves
spec
ial
ange
rfo
rm
oder
nisi
ngse
cula
rIr
ania
n
inte
llect
uals
.Atv
ario
uspo
ints
thro
ugh
the
book
,he
criti
cise
sth
emfie
rcel
y
asag
ents
ofW
esto
xica
tion,
muc
has
al-A
fgha
niha
dcr
itici
sed
the
Alig
arh
mov
emen
tas
‘mat
eria
list
sA
1-e
Ahm
adth
inks
nobe
tter
ofth
efl
ocks
of
fore
ign
advi
sers
who
cam
ein
toIr
anun
der
the
Shah
’sre
gim
eto
prom
ote
the
mod
erni
sati
onof
the
econ
omy
and
inst
itut
ions
,esp
ecia
llyth
ose
from
UN
agen
cies
.(H
iscr
itic
ism
ofth
isgr
oup,
whi
chm
ust
have
soun
ded
22
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
and
Wes
tern
dom
inance
123
idio
sync
ratic
in19
62,p
refi
gure
dth
ew
orld
wid
ecr
itici
smof
advi
sers
from
the
IMF
and
Wor
ldB
ank
inth
e19
90s.
)T
his
cultu
rala
ndps
ycho
logi
cals
ituat
ion
isce
rtai
nly
are
sult
ofW
este
rnpo
litic
alco
ntro
l,ex
erte
dov
erIr
anbe
caus
eof
the
oil
reso
urce
s;ho
wev
er,
ther
eis
also
som
ethi
ngde
eper
goin
gon
.Am
ong
the
mos
tpow
erfu
lim
ages
ofG
harb
zade
giis
that
ofth
em
achi
ne.
The
Wes
toxi
cate
dso
ciet
yis
dom
inat
edby
mac
hine
ry.
Itis
dom
inat
edin
the
spec
ific
sens
eth
atth
eso
ciet
yis
depe
nden
ton
mac
hine
s—ra
ngin
gfr
omtr
acto
rsan
dca
rsto
tele
visi
onse
ts, r
efin
erie
san
dw
eapo
ns—
butd
oes
not k
now
how
tode
sign
,pr
oduc
eor
even
mai
ntai
nth
em.
The
mac
hine
is,f
orA
l-e
Ahm
ad,b
oth
afa
ctan
da
sym
bol.
As
fact
,it
reve
als
the
depe
nden
ceof
the
new
Iran
ian
econ
omy
onim
port
s,th
ew
eakn
ess
ofte
chni
cal
educ
atio
nan
dth
edi
srup
tion
ofol
dpr
oduc
tion
syst
ems.
Ina
vivi
dim
age,
hede
scri
bes
trav
elli
ngth
roug
hvi
llage
san
dto
wns
and
seei
nghu
ndre
dsof
still
,di
suse
dw
indm
ills
. Thi
sw
asno
tan
acci
dent
alob
serv
atio
n.A
1-e
Ahm
ad, k
now
nas
aw
rite
rof
soci
al-r
ealis
tsh
ort
stor
ies,
had
spen
tti
me
trav
elli
ngin
toth
eco
untr
ysid
eto
mak
eet
hnog
raph
icob
serv
atio
nsof
villa
gelif
e,an
dha
din
spir
edot
her
urba
nin
telle
ctua
lsto
doth
esa
me
(Mir
sepa
ssi2
000:
104)
. Ass
ymbo
l,th
em
achi
nest
ands
for
out-
of-c
ontr
olch
ange
inIr
ania
nso
ciet
y,an
dfo
rth
ede
sire
ofIr
ania
nsfo
rth
eve
ryth
ings
that
are
disr
upti
ngth
eir
soci
ety.
His
awar
enes
sof
that
desi
redi
stin
guis
hes
Al-
cA
hmad
from
mos
tco
mm
enta
tors
,th
enan
dno
w,o
ngl
obal
cult
ural
dom
inat
ion.
The
desi
reto
ente
rth
egl
obal
lydo
min
ant c
ultu
re,t
opo
sses
sits
arte
fact
s,to
follo
wits
cust
oms
and
tobe
este
emed
byits
emis
sari
es,i
sbot
hpo
wer
fula
ndpr
otea
nin
Iran
ian
soci
ety
Al-
eA
hmad
uses
the
anal
ogy
ofan
amul
etor
talis
man
—‘M
achi
nes
are
talis
man
sfo
rus
wes
toxi
cate
dfo
lk’
(198
2a:
97)—
whi
chth
eow
ner
wea
rsfo
rits
mag
ical
effe
ctiv
enes
sw
itho
utun
ders
tand
ing
how
itw
orks
.A
l-e
Ahm
adne
ver
draw
son
psyc
hoan
alyt
icid
eas,
but
inth
isac
coun
tof
desi
rean
dth
efe
tish
ism
ofpo
sses
sion
she
iscl
ose
toth
eFr
eudi
anle
ftin
the
met
ropo
le.
Gha
rbza
degi
also
cont
ains
mor
eco
nven
tion
alco
mm
enta
ryon
soci
alch
ange
,‘a
soci
ety
indi
sord
er’:
‘It’s
am
ixtu
reof
apa
stor
alec
onom
yan
da
villa
geec
onom
yw
ithth
em
anne
rsof
ane
wly
form
edur
bani
ty, r
uled
bybi
gfo
reig
nec
onom
icin
tere
sts
like
atr
ust o
r aca
rtel
. We’
rea
livin
gm
useu
mof
old
and
new
soci
alin
stit
utio
ns.W
eha
veal
lof t
his
aton
ce’
(l98
2a:
129)
.A
l-e
Ahm
adsk
etch
esch
ange
inth
eliv
esof
nom
adic
past
oral
ists
,vill
age
farm
ers,
rura
l—ur
ban
mig
rant
s,an
dso
on.
At
one
poin
the
also
note
sch
ange
inth
eliv
esof
wom
en.I
na
high
lyam
biva
lent
pass
age,
heap
pear
s
toat
tack
wom
en’s
eman
cipa
tion
aspa
rtof
Wes
toxi
catio
n,pr
oduc
ing
a‘f
eign
edlib
erat
ion’
inth
eci
ties;
but
heal
soar
gues
that
wom
enin
the
villa
ges
have
long
carr
ied
the
‘pri
mar
ybur
den
oflif
e’T
his
isco
ndes
cend
ing,
but
not
asho
stil
eas
Aya
tolla
hK
hom
eini
,who
arri
ved
onth
ena
tion
alpo
litic
alsc
ene
inth
eye
arG
harb
zade
giw
aspu
blis
hed
wit
ha
fier
ce,a
nd
succ
essf
ul,a
ttack
onw
omen
’sri
ghtt
ovo
te.
Giv
enth
eac
cum
ulat
ion
ofcu
ltur
aldi
stor
tion
san
dso
cial
prob
lem
sre
pres
ente
dby
Wes
toxi
catio
n,w
hatc
anbe
done
inre
spon
se?
Al-
eA
hmad
isre
ason
ably
optim
istic
.The
way
tode
alw
itha
mac
hine
civi
lisat
ion
isno
t
tore
ject
mac
hine
s.A
l-c
Ahm
adis
badl
ym
isre
pres
ente
dby
com
men
tato
rsw
hose
ehi
mas
anan
ti-t
echn
olog
y‘n
ativ
ist’
(e.g
.B
orou
jerd
i19
96;
for
a
conv
inci
ngcr
itiqu
e,se
ePa
rtov
i19
98).
The
poin
tis
toge
tcon
trol
ofth
em:
‘Mac
hine
sar
ea
natu
rals
prin
gboa
rdfo
rus
,one
that
we
mus
tuse
tom
ake
the
long
est
poss
ible
leap
.We
mus
tad
opt
mac
hine
s,bu
tw
em
ust
not
rem
ain
slav
esto
them
’(1
982a
:96)
.O
nly
aso
ciet
yth
atm
akes
mac
hine
s,ra
ther
than
alw
ays
impo
rtin
gth
em,
can
cont
rol
thei
rpo
wer
and
use
them
ina
labo
ur-i
nten
sive
,m
ore
appr
opri
ate
agri
cult
ure
that
wou
ldre
duce
impo
rts
and
supp
ort
the
popu
lati
on.
Toha
vea
mac
hine
-pro
duci
ngec
onom
y,ho
wev
er,
wou
ld
requ
ire
aw
orkf
orce
that
did
noty
etex
isti
nIr
an.
SoA
1-e
Ahm
adar
gued
for
mas
sive
chan
ges
ined
ucat
ion,
gett
ing
rid
ofan
irre
leva
ntac
adem
iccu
rric
ulum
and
grea
tly
expa
ndin
gte
chni
cal
educ
atio
n.S
peci
alis
tsw
ere
need
ed—
one
char
acte
rist
icof
Wes
toxi
cati
onw
asth
ela
ckof
real
spec
ialis
ts—
but
spec
ialis
tsw
ith
char
acte
r.A
cult
ural
and
psyc
holo
gica
lre
volu
tion
was
also
requ
ired
.To
Al-
eA
hmad
inth
e19
60s,
such
cult
ural
and
psyc
holo
gica
lch
ange
coul
don
lyco
me
from
relig
ion.
Isla
map
pear
ed,
inhi
ssu
rvey
ofhi
stor
yea
rly
inth
ebo
ok,
asth
eon
lyso
cial
tota
lity
that
had
effe
ctiv
ely
resi
sted
colo
nial
ism
and
Chr
isti
anit
y.T
hink
ing
abou
tIr
ania
nre
sist
ance
inth
epa
st,A
l-c
Ahm
adsa
wth
at‘a
prec
ious
jew
ella
yhi
dden
inth
ehe
arts
ofth
epe
ople
,lik
ea
seed
fora
nyup
risi
ngag
ains
tago
vern
men
tofo
ppre
ssor
san
d
the
corr
upt’
(198
2a:6
1).B
utth
eul
ama,
with
afe
wno
tabl
eex
cept
ions
,had
faile
dto
reco
gnis
eit.
Gha
rbza
degi
pict
ures
the
cler
ics
ofIr
anas
tim
id,
pass
ive,
back
war
dlo
okin
g,pr
eocc
upie
dw
ithth
etr
ivia
ofre
ligio
usri
tual
,stu
ckin
aco
coon
,
124
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
and
Wes
tern
do
min
an
ce
125
‘ape
trif
ied
foss
ilfi
tonl
yfo
ra
mus
eum
’(1
982a
:69
).In
othe
rw
ritin
g,su
chas
his
fam
ous
shor
tst
ory
‘The
Sita
r’, a
bout
apo
orm
usic
ian
who
sene
win
stru
men
t is
smas
hed
bya
self
-sat
isfi
edze
alot
, A1-
eAhm
ad(1
982b
:58—
62)
had
criti
cise
dfo
rmal
istic
relig
ion.
Her
ehe
dire
ctly
criti
cise
sth
eul
ama.
Thi
sis
very
like
al-A
fgha
ni’s
criti
cism
s80
year
sea
rlie
r.H
ard
wor
dsar
ew
ritt
enno
tbe
caus
eA
l-c
Ahm
adis
anti
-rel
igio
us,
but
beca
use,
like
al
Afg
hani
, he
thin
ksth
eul
ama
coul
dac
tdi
ffer
ently
. The
yho
lden
orm
ous
pow
erin
thei
rha
nds,
for
the
mas
sof
the
popu
lati
onke
epth
eir
relig
ious
faith
.T
heul
ama
wer
eth
eon
lysi
gnif
ican
tfo
rce
inIr
anth
atha
dre
sist
edW
esto
xica
tion.
The
refo
reth
eyar
eno
wth
eke
yto
cult
ural
and
poli
tica
lre
gene
ratio
n.A
l-c
Ahm
addo
esno
tca
rry
this
argu
men
tfu
rthe
rin
Gha
rbza
degi
, but
itbe
cam
eth
eth
eme
ofhi
sne
xtbo
ok,
onin
telle
ctua
lsan
dpo
litic
s.T
his
book
(not
yett
rans
late
d,so
Ire
lyon
seco
ndar
yac
coun
tssu
chas
Vah
dat
2002
)ex
pand
sth
ecr
itici
smof
Wes
tern
ised
inte
llect
uals
.It
deve
lops
the
idea
that
the
late
nine
teen
than
dtw
enti
eth
cent
urie
sC
Eha
dcr
eate
da
chas
mbe
twee
nse
cula
rm
oder
nise
rsan
dth
ede
fend
ers
ofIs
lam
icla
w,
whi
chno
wha
dto
bebr
idge
d.O
nly
whe
nth
etw
ogr
oups
acte
dto
geth
erdi
dre
alre
form
sw
ith
popu
lar
supp
ort
happ
enin
Iran
ian
hist
ory.
Al-
cA
hmad
thus
poin
ted
toth
eki
ndof
allia
nce
that
actu
ally
mat
eria
lise
da
deca
dela
ter
inth
eru
n-up
toth
ere
volu
tion.
But
hedi
dno
tliv
eto
see
it,dy
ing
inhi
sm
id-f
orti
esin
1969
.To
read
Gha
rbza
degi
asa
book
wit
hco
ntin
uing
impo
rtan
cefo
ran
inte
rnat
iona
lau
dien
ceis
tore
adit
agai
nst
the
grai
n.A
l-c
Ahm
adw
asob
viou
sly
wri
ting
for
his
own
tim
ean
dfo
ra
loca
l aud
ienc
ew
hoco
uld
fill
inth
ega
psfo
rth
emse
lves
.T
hew
hole
book
is,
ina
sens
e,a
sket
ch—
abr
illi
ants
ketc
hto
besu
re.
Its
argu
men
tis
part
icul
arly
trun
cate
don
the
ques
tion
ofac
tion.
Tha
tis
hard
lysu
rpri
sing
for
wri
ting
prod
uced
unde
rce
nsor
ship
. But
this
does
leav
eob
scur
ea
cruc
ial
step
inA
l-c
Ahm
ad’s
argu
men
t:th
eth
esis
ofa
relig
ious
basi
sfo
rre
sist
ance
toW
esto
xica
tion.
Tha
tis
exac
tlyth
epr
oble
mad
dres
sed
byA
liSh
aria
ti,w
hoca
me
topr
omin
ence
asA
l-c
Ahm
adpa
ssed
from
the
scen
e.
Inth
efo
ots
tep
sof
mar
tyrs
All
Shar
iati,
ten
year
syo
unge
r,w
asse
vera
l thi
ngs
Al-
cA
hmad
was
not:
asy
stem
atic
thin
ker,
aco
nsci
ous
soci
alsc
ient
ist,
are
ligio
usin
nova
tor
and
a
prea
cher
.S
hari
ati
was
apo
wer
ful
orat
oran
da
poet
,an
dat
tim
esa
hum
ouri
st.
His
use
ofor
alte
achi
ngga
vehi
ma
grea
ter
free
dom
from
cens
orsh
ip—
upto
apo
int,
sinc
ehe
was
arre
sted
seve
ralt
imes
byth
eSh
ah’s
poli
ce,
and
fina
lly
died
inex
ile.
He
seem
edto
man
ya
mar
tyr.
His
phot
ogra
phw
asca
rrie
dal
ongs
ide
pict
ures
ofA
yato
llah
Kho
mei
niin
the
mas
sde
mon
stra
tion
sth
atle
dto
the
over
thro
wof
the
Shah
in19
79,a
ndit
issa
idth
athi
sid
eas
wer
eat
that
tim
em
ore
wid
ely
circ
ulat
edan
dm
ore
infl
uent
ialt
han
Kho
mei
ni’s
own.
Sha
riat
ish
ared
wit
hA
l-c
Ahm
ad,
and
for
that
mat
ter
al-A
fgha
ni,
a
fier
ceop
posi
tion
toim
peri
alis
m,
acr
itiq
ueof
Wes
tern
cult
ure
and
econ
omy,
abe
lief
inIs
lam
icre
new
al,a
nda
conv
icti
onth
atth
ero
ots
of
rene
wal
alre
ady
exis
ted
inIs
lam
.B
utth
ere
was
apr
ofou
nddi
ffer
ence
in
inte
llec
tual
styl
eas
wel
las
poli
tica
lpr
acti
ce.
Ica
nre
adA
l-c
Ahm
ad—
adju
stin
gfo
rhi
ssp
ecif
icst
yle,
audi
ence
and
cont
ext—
asa
cult
ural
criti
c
ofa
fam
iliar
kind
.I
cann
otre
adSh
aria
tiin
that
way
.His
text
sre
quir
ea
muc
hgr
eate
ref
fort
for
anou
tsid
erto
gras
p,an
dI
rem
ain
less
cert
ain
ofu
nder
stan
din
gth
em.
Iha
veth
eref
ore
reli
edm
ore
heav
ily
on
Far
si-s
peak
ing
scho
lars
tote
stm
yin
terp
reta
tion
san
dhe
lppl
ace
his
wri
ting
inco
ntex
t.(I
have
part
icul
arly
reli
edon
the
fine
wor
kof
Abr
aham
ian
1989
;B
ayat
1990
;B
ehda
d19
94;
Rah
nem
a19
98;
and
Gha
mar
i-T
abri
zi20
04.)
Rea
ding
Sha
riat
ide
man
dsa
part
icul
aref
fort
toev
alua
teth
ete
xts.
The
yco
nsis
t mai
nly
oftr
ansc
ript
ions
ofhi
sle
ctur
es, s
ome
revi
sed
byth
e
auth
oran
dso
me
not.
Som
eci
rcul
ated
unde
rgro
und
inst
enci
lled
shee
ts,
othe
rsw
ere
form
ally
publ
ishe
d.A
frac
tion
have
been
tran
slat
edin
to
Eng
lish,
som
eby
Sha
riat
ien
thus
iast
san
dso
me
not,
and
the
qual
ity
of
the
tran
slat
ions
vari
esw
idel
y.O
neof
the
maj
orte
xts
that
has
been
tran
slat
ed,
acr
itiq
ueof
Mar
xism
,se
ems
toha
vebe
endo
ctor
edby
the
Shah
’sse
cret
polic
eto
crea
tedi
ssen
sion
amon
gth
ele
ft,a
ndit
isun
clea
r
how
muc
hit
repr
esen
tsSh
aria
ti’s
view
sat
all
(Bay
at19
90).
Itis
cert
ain
that
Sha
riat
i’s
idea
sdi
dev
olve
over
the
deca
des
ofhi
spo
liti
cal
and
inte
llect
uala
ctiv
ityIw
illfo
cus
onth
epe
riod
1968
—72
,whe
nhe
deve
lope
d
his
mos
tdi
stin
ctiv
evi
ews.
MiS
hari
ati’
sper
sona
lsto
ryha
sbee
nof
ten
told
,and
ofte
nm
ytho
logi
sed;
only
wit
hth
ere
cent
biog
raph
yby
Rah
nem
a(1
998)
did
the
deta
ilsbe
com
e
clea
r.H
egr
ewup
inth
epr
ovin
cial
city
ofM
ashh
adin
nort
heas
tern
Iran
,
the
son
ofan
acti
vist
mem
ber
ofth
eul
ama
who
crea
ted
ace
ntre
for
126
South
ern
theo
ryIs
lam
and
Wes
tern
do
min
an
ce
127
prog
ress
ive
Isla
mic
thou
ght.
Auth
usha
da
subs
tant
ial
back
grou
ndin
Shi’
itecu
lture
, wit
hout
bein
gfo
rmal
lytr
aine
din
the
relig
ious
scho
ols.
As
ayo
ung
man
hew
asin
volv
edin
the
Isla
mic
soci
alis
t circ
les
that
supp
orte
dM
ossa
deq
butk
ept c
lear
ofth
eco
mm
unis
t Tud
ehpa
rty.
At o
nepo
int,
the
Shar
iatis
, fat
her
and
son,
had
the
dist
inct
ion
ofbe
ing
arre
sted
toge
ther
ina
swee
pby
the
secu
rity
polic
e.Au
trai
ned
asa
teac
her,
and
whi
lew
orki
ngin
the
loca
lsc
hool
sal
soto
okhi
mse
lfto
univ
ersi
ty,
duri
ngth
era
pid
expa
nsio
nof
secu
lar
high
ered
ucat
ion
that
was
ake
ypa
rtof
the
regi
me’
sm
oder
nisa
tion
prog
ram
. Atg
radu
atio
nhe
won
anof
fici
alsc
hola
rshi
pto
doa
high
erde
gree
abro
ad, a
ndso
wen
t to
Pari
s.B
esid
esge
tting
ase
cula
rhi
gher
educ
atio
nan
dpr
actic
alex
peri
ence
inop
posi
tion
polit
ics,
AuS
hari
ati
also
deep
ened
his
relig
ious
educ
atio
n,in
the
hete
rodo
xSu
fitr
adit
ion.
Ove
rhi
sli
feti
me,
peri
ods
ofpo
liti
cal
enga
gem
ent
alte
rnat
edw
ith
peri
ods
ofm
ysti
cal
reli
giou
sex
peri
ence
.D
urin
gth
ese
times
hew
ithd
rew
from
polit
ics—
inde
ed, f
rom
mos
tso
cial
life.
He
also
suff
ered
from
bout
sof
depr
essi
on;
heca
nnot
have
been
easy
toliv
ew
ith.
But
whe
nhe
did
com
eba
ckto
polit
ics,
itw
asw
ithre
ligio
usco
nvic
tions
grou
nded
inpe
rson
alex
peri
ence
ofth
edi
vine
—th
eref
ore
not
easi
lysh
aken
.
InPa
ris
for
five
year
sfr
om19
59—
1964
, Sha
riat
ica
me
into
cont
actw
ithth
eFr
ench
inte
llect
ual l
eft,
espe
cial
lyG
urvi
tch’
sre
visi
onof
Mar
xism
and
Sartr
e’s
activ
ist e
xist
entia
lism
, and
with
the
Afr
ican
antic
olon
ial m
ovem
ent,
espe
cial
lyFa
non.
Rec
ently
mar
ried
,Sh
aria
tist
arte
da
fam
ily, a
ndbe
cam
ein
volv
edin
over
seas
stud
entp
oliti
cs. R
etur
ning
toIr
anhe
was
arre
sted
atth
ebo
rder
, and
deni
edem
ploy
men
tas
ale
ctur
er. A
job
atM
ashh
adU
nive
rsity
was
final
lyop
ened
tohi
m, a
ndhe
bega
nto
teac
hIs
lam
ichi
stor
yan
dso
ciol
ogy.
His
lect
ures
wer
ein
crea
sing
lypo
pula
r;he
spok
eat
cam
puse
sar
ound
the
coun
try,
and
by19
71w
orri
edth
ere
gim
eso
muc
hth
atSA
VA
Kha
dhi
msa
cked
from
his
univ
ersi
tyjo
b.B
uthe
was
alre
ady
lect
urin
gat
are
form
Isla
mic
cent
rein
Teh
ran,
the
Hos
sein
iyeh
Ers
had,
whi
chth
ego
vern
men
t did
not
dire
ctly
cont
rol,
and
in19
71—
72be
cam
eth
eir
mai
nle
ctur
er.
His
rein
terp
reta
tion
ofIs
lam
beca
me
enor
mou
sly
popu
lar
wit
hyo
unge
rin
telle
ctua
lsin
the
capi
tal,
and
larg
ecr
owds
cam
eto
his
lect
ures
. Tap
esan
dtr
ansc
ript
sci
rcul
ated
unde
rgro
und,
evad
ing
cens
orsh
ip. F
ierc
ecr
itici
smar
ose
from
the
orth
odox
ulam
aat
Shar
iati’
spo
litic
isat
ion
ofre
ligio
n.A
tthi
sti
me,
arm
edre
sist
ance
had
brok
enou
t,w
ith
both
Mar
xist
and
Isla
mic
guer
rill
agr
oups
inac
tion.
The
regi
me
even
tual
lyco
nclu
ded
that
Hos
sein
iyeh
Ers
had
was
agu
erri
lla-
recr
uiti
ngce
ntre
and
clos
edit
dow
n.Sh
aria
tiw
entu
nder
grou
nd;
som
em
onth
sla
ter
hega
vehi
mse
lfup
inan
atte
mpt
tosa
vehi
sag
eing
fath
er,
who
mth
ere
gim
eha
dar
rest
edas
aho
stag
e.A
liS
hari
ati
was
impr
ison
edw
itho
uttr
ial
for
sixt
een
mon
ths,
and
repe
ated
lyin
terr
ogat
edby
the
secu
rity
serv
ices
;he
may
not
have
been
tort
ured
,but
hew
ashe
ldin
ano
tori
ous
pris
onw
here
man
yot
hers
wer
e.O
nre
leas
ehe
was
ill,
depr
esse
dan
djo
bles
s.In
1977
hees
cape
dfr
omth
eco
untr
y,bu
tpa
rtof
his
fam
ilyw
astr
appe
d.T
hem
onth
afte
rle
avin
gIr
an,
Sha
riat
iw
asde
adof
ahe
art
atta
ck.
Rum
ours
flew
that
heha
dbe
enm
urde
red
bySA
VA
K. P
roba
bly
itw
asth
ecu
mul
ativ
eef
fect
ofpr
ison
, fea
r,he
avy
smok
ing
and
acut
est
ress
.Ind
irec
tly,p
erha
ps, S
AV
AK
kille
dhi
m.
Iw
illst
art
toco
nsid
erSh
aria
ti’s
soci
olog
yno
tw
ith
his
conc
eptu
alst
atem
ents
,bu
tw
ith
ate
xtth
atgi
ves
ase
nse
ofw
hyhe
was
buil
ding
anin
telle
ctua
l sys
tem
(Sha
riat
i19
86b)
.One
ofth
em
ajor
even
tsof
the
Shi’i
teca
lend
aris
the
anni
vers
ary
ofth
ede
ath
ofth
eIm
amH
osse
in,g
rand
son
ofth
eP
roph
et,k
illed
atK
arba
la(i
nw
hat i
sno
wIr
aq)
byth
etr
oops
ofth
eth
enC
alip
h.O
nth
isan
nive
rsar
y,Sh
aria
tiga
vea
lect
ure
atth
eH
osse
iniy
ehE
rsha
don
the
subj
ect o
f‘m
arty
rdom
Not
long
befo
re,s
ome
mem
bers
ofth
ere
sist
ance
, inc
ludi
ngtw
oof
Shar
iati’
sst
uden
ts, h
adbe
enca
ptur
edan
dco
ndem
ned
tode
ath
byth
ego
vern
men
t.Sh
aria
ti’s
text
isa
long
expo
siti
onof
the
mea
ning
ofm
arty
rdom
,ce
ntri
ngon
the
stor
yof
Hos
sein
.T
heT
hird
Imam
isa
cent
ral
sym
bolic
figu
refo
rth
eSh
i’a,
and
this
anni
vers
ary
isa
grea
toc
casi
onfo
rri
tual
mou
rnin
g.Sh
aria
tigi
ves
the
fam
iliar
stor
ya
radi
cal r
eadi
ng.H
epo
rtra
ysth
efi
rst
60ye
ars
ofIs
lam
ichi
stor
yas
the
stor
yof
aso
cial
revo
lutio
n,se
tin
mot
ion
byth
eP
roph
ethi
mse
lfon
divi
nepr
inci
ples
ofso
cial
just
ice—
asex
plai
ned
inth
eep
igra
phto
this
chap
ter.
Thi
sre
volu
tion
was
grad
uall
yco
rrup
ted,
asth
eM
uslim
sbe
cam
ea
wor
ldpo
wer
and
the
Um
may
idcl
anto
okco
ntro
l and
setu
pa
mon
arch
y.In
the
seco
ndge
nera
tion
afte
rth
ePr
ophe
t’s
deat
h,H
osse
inw
asth
eon
lyre
mai
ning
repr
esen
tati
veof
the
orig
inal
Isla
mic
mov
emen
t,bu
tha
dne
ithe
rpo
wer
nor
reco
gnit
ion.
He
open
lyde
clar
edop
posi
tion
toth
eru
ling
regi
me
and
face
dde
ath,
not
inre
sign
edsu
bmis
sion
toG
od’s
will
but a
san
activ
istg
estu
re. T
hem
essa
gehe
sent
outt
oth
ew
orld
did
inde
edga
lvan
ise
atr
adit
ion
ofre
sist
ance
that
plac
esa
‘mar
kof
canc
ella
tion’
onal
lgo
vern
men
ts.
Sha
riat
iar
gues
that
stru
ggle
agai
nst
oppr
essi
onan
d
128
South
ern
theo
ryis
lam
and
Wes
tern
do
min
an
ce
129
inju
stic
e—ev
ento
the
deat
h,ev
enag
ains
tov
erw
helm
ing
pow
er—
isin
here
ntin
Isla
m.
Eve
nin
tran
slat
ion,
this
isa
very
mov
ing
text
,an
dits
impa
ctin
the
orig
inal
isno
thar
dto
unde
rsta
nd. I
npl
ace
ofth
efo
ssii
sed
offi
cial
relig
ion
that
al-A
fgha
nian
dA
l-e
Ahm
adha
dde
noun
ced
inth
eir
times
,Sh
aria
tiev
okes
from
the
mos
tor
thod
oxso
urce
s,Q
ur’a
nic
text
san
dfa
mil
iar
trad
ition
s,a
dyna
mic
Isla
mco
mm
itted
toju
stic
ean
dso
cial
tran
sfor
mat
ion.
From
atr
adit
iona
l fig
ure
ofso
rrow
and
defe
at, h
eev
okes
am
odel
ofhe
roic
activ
ism
, giv
ing
deep
relig
ious
sign
ific
ance
toth
esa
crif
ice
mad
eby
youn
gm
ilita
nts
inth
epr
esen
t.Fu
rthe
r,S
hari
ati
find
sin
this
anci
ent
stor
yce
rtai
npa
tter
nsof
soci
alre
lati
ons
that
have
muc
hw
ider
sign
ific
ance
.S
hari
ati
does
not
erec
ta
syst
emof
soci
olog
yon
som
eax
iom
atic
base
ofre
ligi
ous
‘val
ues’
.T
here
lati
onis
muc
hm
ore
inti
mat
e:he
find
sso
ciol
ogic
alpr
inci
ples
inth
ere
ligio
n.W
hile
the
idea
ofre
adin
gth
eQ
ur’a
nas
aso
urce
book
onso
cial
dyna
mic
sm
ight
dist
urb
conv
entio
nal M
uslim
thin
kers
(and
Wes
tern
soci
alsc
ient
ists
too)
,it
seem
edth
em
ost
natu
ral
thin
gin
the
wor
ldto
Shar
iati.
The
pass
age
quot
edin
the
epig
raph
, for
inst
ance
, evo
kes
ade
fini
teth
eory
ofcl
ass
asw
ell a
san
ethi
cof
soci
aleq
ualit
yan
dan
ti-r
acis
m.
Shar
iati’
sth
eory
ofcl
ass,
thou
ghof
ten
calle
dM
arxi
st, i
son
lyth
atin
the
loos
est
sens
e;its
Eur
opea
nan
alog
ues
wou
ldin
clud
eB
akun
in’s
anar
chis
man
dM
osca
’sel
iteth
eory
asw
ell.
Inse
vera
lte
xts,
incl
udin
g‘M
arty
rdom
Shar
iati
evok
esa
stru
ctur
eof
slav
ean
dm
aste
r,ex
ploi
ter
and
expl
oite
d,th
atha
sex
iste
dth
roug
hout
hist
ory
sinc
eth
etr
ansi
tion
from
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
toag
ricu
ltur
also
ciet
y.In
alo
ngch
apte
rof
his
1969
book
Isla
mol
ogy
(his
mos
t im
port
anta
cade
mic
publ
icat
ion,
aco
urse
ofle
ctur
eson
Isla
mic
stud
ies)
,he
uses
the
Mus
lim
vers
ion
ofth
eC
ain-
and-
Abe
lle
gend
todr
amat
ise
the
crea
tion
ofcl
ass
soci
ety:
Cai
nis
not i
nher
ently
evil
..
.W
hat m
akes
Cai
nev
ilis
anan
ti-h
uman
soci
alsy
stem
,a
clas
sso
ciet
y,a
regi
me
ofpr
ivat
eow
ners
hip
that
culti
vate
ssl
aver
yan
dm
aste
ryan
dtu
rns
men
into
wol
ves,
foxe
sor
shee
p.It
isa
sett
ing
whe
reho
stil
ity,
riva
lry,
crue
lty
and
vena
lity
flou
rish
;hu
mil
iati
onan
dlo
rdsh
ip—
the
hung
erof
som
ean
dth
egl
utto
nyof
othe
rs, g
reed
, opu
lenc
ean
dde
cept
ion:
ase
tting
whe
reth
eph
iloso
phy
oflif
eis
foun
ded
onpl
unde
ring
, exp
loita
tion,
ensl
avem
ent,
cons
umin
gan
dab
usin
g,ly
ing
and
flat
teri
ng
...w
here
all
thin
gs
revo
lve
arou
ndeg
oism
and
the
sacr
ific
eof
allt
hing
sto
the
ego,
avi
le,
crud
ean
dav
aric
ious
ego
(Sha
riat
i19
79:
107)
.
Thi
sw
asth
est
ruct
ure
that
the
Pro
phet
face
d,an
dov
erca
me,
inhi
sda
y;
this
was
the
stru
ctur
eth
atth
eU
mm
ayid
sre
stor
ed,a
ndH
osse
inch
alle
nged
.
Thi
sis
also
,Ith
ink,
inte
nded
asa
desc
ript
ion
oflif
ein
the
Shah
’sIr
an.
Inth
efo
llow
ing
chap
ter
ofIs
lam
olog
y,S
hari
ati
offe
rsa
crit
icis
mof
Mar
x’s
theo
ryof
mod
esof
prod
ucti
on,
sugg
estin
gth
atth
eun
derl
ying
stru
cture
ofcl
ass
rela
tion
sre
mai
nsco
nsta
ntth
rough
chan
ges
in
prod
ucti
onre
lati
ons;
and
elab
orat
eshi
sow
nm
odel
ofth
eru
ling
clas
s
cent
red
onfo
rms
ofpo
wer
.An
orig
inal
sing
lepo
wer
has
evol
ved
thro
ugh
hist
ory
into
ath
ree-
part
syst
emof
dom
inat
ion,
wit
ha
poli
tica
l,an
econ
omic
and
are
ligio
usm
anif
esta
tion—
the
stat
e,th
eow
ners
ofpr
oper
ty
and
the
offi
cial
cler
gy.
Aga
inhe
find
sa
Qur
’ani
cba
sis
for
thes
eid
eas
(197
9:11
5).T
hesc
anda
lous
part
ofth
ism
odel
isSh
aria
ti’s
iden
tifi
cati
on
ofth
ecl
ergy
asa
full
com
pone
ntof
the
dom
inan
t cla
ss;t
his
conn
ects
wit
h
his
anal
ysis
ofre
ligio
ushi
stor
y,to
whi
chI
shal
lre
turn
.
Shar
iati
acce
pts
aco
nven
tiona
lM
arxi
stvi
ewof
bour
geoi
sso
ciet
yan
d
indu
stri
alca
pita
lism
asth
eco
ntem
pora
ryfo
rmof
clas
sdo
min
atio
nin
the
Wes
t,bu
the
adds
acr
itiqu
eth
atis
clos
erto
the
Wes
tern
coun
ter-
cult
ure
ofhi
sda
y.In
ale
ctur
egi
ven
inth
eoi
lcity
ofA
bada
n,he
rem
arks
that
‘the
spir
itdo
min
atin
gth
ene
wcu
lture
and
civi
lizat
ion
isbo
urge
ois:
the
spir
it
ofm
oney
-mak
ing,
busi
ness
,pow
er-s
eeki
ng,
tool
-mak
ing,
cons
umpt
ion
and
hedo
nism
’(S
hari
ati
1981
:25
).H
ecr
itic
ises
the
loss
,in
mod
ern
Eur
opea
nhi
stor
y,of
relig
ious
cultu
rean
dof
fund
amen
tald
imen
sion
sof
hum
anna
ture
:lo
ve,i
deal
ism
,val
ues
and
exis
tent
ials
igni
fica
nce.
Lik
em
ost
Thi
rdW
orld
radi
cals
ofhi
sge
nera
tion
,S
hari
ati
sees
neoc
olon
ialis
mas
anex
tens
ion
ofm
etro
poli
tan
capi
talis
m.I
nno
neof
the
text
sI
have
read
,or
read
abou
t,do
esS
hari
ati
disc
uss
the
spec
ific
mec
hani
sms
prod
ucin
gim
peri
alis
mas
asy
stem
ofgl
obal
pow
er.B
uthe
has
alo
t to
say
onth
em
echa
nism
sth
roug
hw
hich
impe
rial
ism
oper
ates
inth
e
colo
nise
dw
orld
.A
sw
ith
al-A
fgha
nian
dA
1-e
Ahm
ad,
the
core
ofhi
s
argu
men
tco
ncer
nscu
ltur
aldo
min
atio
n.
Sinc
eth
eba
sis
ofno
n-ca
pita
list
cult
ures
lies
inth
eir
reli
gion
,th
e
colo
nial
ists
logi
cally
atte
mpt
tode
stro
yor
tone
utra
lise
relig
ion.
Thi
sw
ill
dest
roy
the
cultu
rali
dent
ity
or‘s
elfh
ood’
whi
chpr
ovid
esth
eal
tern
ativ
eto
capi
talis
tsoc
ialr
elat
ions
.Ove
rthe
top
isla
ida
mod
erni
tyin
whi
chW
este
rn
130
South
ern
theo
ry
styl
esof
thin
king
, bel
iefs
and
even
artis
ticta
stes
are
impo
sed,
and
Wes
tern
-st
yle
cons
umpt
ion
can
bein
trod
uced
.In
this
task
the
impe
rial
ists
have
impo
rtan
tal
lies
wit
hin
the
colo
nise
dso
ciet
y.In
the
long
text
‘Wha
tis
tobe
Done?
base
don
aH
osse
iniy
ehE
rsha
dle
ctur
efr
omhi
sm
ost
mil
itan
tpe
riod
,Sh
aria
tj(1
986a
)id
entif
ies
two
grou
psin
part
icul
ar.
The
firs
tco
mpr
ises
the
Wes
tern
isin
gse
cula
rin
telle
ctua
lsw
ho, i
nth
ena
me
oflib
eral
refo
rm, a
repl
ayin
gth
eco
loni
alis
ts’
gam
eof
cult
ural
disr
upti
on. T
hese
cond
cons
ists
ofth
etr
adit
iona
l cle
rica
lin
telle
ctua
ls, w
hoha
vecl
oser
touc
hw
ithth
em
asse
sbu
t dec
eive
them
with
afo
ssil
ised
reli
gion
that
enco
urag
eson
lypa
ssiv
ity.
The
resu
ltis
aco
ntra
dict
ory
situ
atio
nfo
ryo
uth
inpa
rtic
ular
,w
hich
Sha
riat
isk
etch
essy
mpa
thet
ical
lyin
Isla
mol
ogy_
-bro
ught
upin
touc
hw
ithlo
cal c
ultu
rean
dre
ligio
n,ye
t pro
cess
edth
roug
ha
Wes
tern
educ
atio
nsy
stem
refl
ectin
gid
eas
that
have
nolo
cal r
oots
.A
nin
terp
reta
tion
ofIs
lam
isce
ntra
lto
this
com
plex
ofid
eas.
Al
Afg
hani
’sre
ligio
usvi
ews w
ere
enig
mat
ican
dA
1-e A
hmad
’son
lysu
mm
arily
stat
ed, b
utSh
aria
ti’s
are
out
ina
blaz
eof
sunl
ight
. He
did,
afte
ral
l,te
ach
and
publ
ish
aw
hole
cour
seof
stud
yon
Isla
m, w
rote
abo
okon
his
mys
tical
expe
rien
ces,
and
lost
few
oppo
rtun
itie
sto
disc
uss
relig
ious
ques
tions
. As
Gha
maj
-j-T
abrj
zi(2
004)
puts
it,Sh
aria
ti’s
isa
publ
icre
ligio
n.I d
on’t
clai
mto
unde
rsta
ndth
efu
llsp
ectr
umof
his
relig
ious
thou
ght,
but
the
poin
tscl
oses
t to
soci
alan
alys
isar
ecl
ear
enou
gh.
Of t
hese
, the
mos
t str
ikin
gis
his
view
ofIs
lam
asa
this
-wor
ldly
, soc
ially
enga
ged
relig
ion.
Toqu
ote
one
ofm
any
such
stat
emen
ts, i
n‘W
hat i
sto
beD
one?
’Sh
aria
tide
clar
es:
Isla
mis
are
alis
ticre
ligio
nan
dlo
ves
natu
re, p
ower
, bea
uty,
wea
lth,
affl
uenc
e,pr
ogre
ss,
and
the
fulf
ilm
ent
ofal
lhu
man
need
s.
..
Its
Pro
phet
isa
man
oflif
e,po
litic
s,po
wer
,an
dev
enbe
auty
. Its
book
,m
ore
than
bein
gco
ncer
ned
wit
hm
etap
hysi
csan
dde
ath,
spea
ksab
out
natu
re,
life,
wor
ld,
soci
ety
and
hist
ory.
..It
invi
tes
peop
leto
subm
itth
emse
lves
toG
od,
and
urge
sre
volt
agai
nst
oppr
essi
on,
inju
stic
e,ig
nora
nce
and
ineq
uali
ty.
..It
shi
stor
yha
sbe
enw
ritt
enw
ith
rebe
llio
nan
dst
rugg
leag
ains
tdi
stor
tion
ofre
ality
,as
wel
las
agai
nst o
ppre
ssio
nof
the
mas
ses
(Sha
riat
i1 9
86a:
43—
44).
Thi
sis
apo
siti
onS
hari
ati
may
not
alw
ays
have
held
—in
his
Sufi
infl
uenc
edpe
riod
sof
mys
ticis
mhe
seem
sto
have
prac
tise
da
relig
ion
of
Isla
man
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
131
wit
hdra
wal
—bu
tin
the
text
sof
1968
—72
thes
eid
eas
are
put
forw
ard
pow
erfu
lly.
The
yar
epl
ainl
ydi
rect
edag
ains
tth
eIs
lam
ofri
tual
and
resi
gnat
ion
whi
chSh
aria
tisa
was
the
mai
nco
nten
t of
orth
odox
Shi’
ism
.
Inth
iscr
itiqu
eof
back
war
d-lo
okin
gre
ligio
n,Sh
aria
tiw
asno
talo
ne. A
sim
ilar
idea
ofra
dica
lIsl
amw
asde
velo
ped
byth
eea
rly
Moj
ahed
inin
the
year
sbe
fore
thei
rar
med
stru
ggle
agai
nst
the
Shah
bega
n(A
brah
amia
n
1989
).T
here
isev
ensi
gnif
ican
tove
rlap
with
the
idea
ofan
activ
ist r
elig
ion
held
byA
yato
llah
Kho
mei
ni, t
houg
hhe
and
the
Moj
ahed
inla
ter
beca
me
bitte
r ene
mie
s(V
ahda
t 200
2:15
3ff)
. Sha
riat
idev
elop
sth
eid
eain
dist
inct
ive
way
s.S
hari
ati
insi
sts
that
Isla
mis
not
just
soci
ally
invo
lved
,bu
tis
spec
ific
ally
are
volu
tiona
ryre
ligio
n,co
mm
itte
dfr
omth
est
art
toso
cial
equa
lity,
and
com
mit
ted
agai
nst
pow
erst
ruct
ures
ofal
lki
nds.
He
find
s
Qur
’ani
cte
xts
tosu
ppor
tth
is.
He
dedu
ces
itfr
omIs
lam
icth
eolo
gica
l
prin
cipl
es, s
peci
fica
llyta
whi
d,th
eab
solu
teun
ity
ofG
od,w
hich
has
asits
coro
llary
the
unit
yan
dth
eref
ore
equa
lity
ofhu
man
kind
.
Thi
spr
inci
ple
ofeq
ualit
yex
tend
sto
wom
en. S
hari
ati
argu
es, i
nm
any
plac
esan
dci
ting
Qur
’ani
cte
xts,
that
wom
enan
dm
enar
ecr
eate
dw
ithth
e
sam
ena
ture
,an
dha
veth
esa
me
enti
tlem
ent
tore
spec
t.H
eis
shar
ply
criti
cal o
fthe
veil,
whi
chhe
rega
rds
asa
dero
gato
ryno
n-Is
lam
ictr
adit
ion,
and
also
ofth
ese
clus
ion
ofw
omen
.H
ede
fend
sw
omen
’sed
ucat
ion
and
polit
ical
part
icip
atio
n—th
epr
esen
ceof
wom
enat
his
Hos
sein
iyeh
Ers
had
lect
ures
was
one
ofth
etr
aditi
onal
ists
’ com
plai
nts
agai
nst h
im.N
ever
thel
ess,
ina
1971
lect
ure
onth
elif
eof
Fatim
a,da
ught
erof
the
Pro
phet
and
mot
her
ofH
osse
in, h
eho
lds
upan
Isla
mic
idea
l of w
oman
hood
whi
chis
still
base
d
onw
omen
’sse
rvic
esto
men
inth
efa
mily
. He
defe
nded
wom
en’s
educ
atio
n
beca
use
itw
ould
mak
eth
embe
tter
mot
hers
;an
d,lik
ehi
sco
nser
vativ
e
oppo
nent
s,he
seem
sto
have
been
afra
idof
wom
en’s
inde
pend
ents
exua
lity
(Fer
dow
s19
83).
As
wit
hso
man
yra
dica
lm
enof
his
gene
rati
onar
ound
the
wor
ld,t
hera
dica
lism
beca
me
ambi
guou
sin
the
real
mof
gend
er.
Inot
herr
espe
cts,
Shar
iati
sees
atr
adit
ion
ofst
rugg
leag
ains
tdom
inat
ion
asth
eco
reof
reli
giou
shi
stor
y,at
leas
tin
the
‘Abr
aham
ic’
prop
heti
c
relig
ions
:Is
lam
,C
hris
tian
ity
and
Juda
ism
. Thi
sco
nnec
tsto
his
mod
elof
clas
s:ov
erag
ains
tth
est
ruct
ure
ofpo
wer
,th
ere
isa
mas
sup
onw
hom
pow
eris
exer
cise
d.It
isin
the
relig
ious
doct
rine
that
apo
sitiv
em
eani
ng
for
this
mas
sis
foun
d.In
Isla
mol
ogy,
Shar
iati
(197
9:11
6ff)
disc
usse
sth
e
Qur
’ani
cco
ncep
tof
al-n
as,
the
peop
le,
who
mhe
trea
tsvi
rtua
lly
as
the
pres
ence
ofG
odon
eart
h,an
dth
eco
ncep
tof
umm
a,th
eIs
lam
ic
132
South
ern
theo
ry
com
mun
ity, w
hich
hede
scri
bes
asa
soci
ety
inm
oti
on
tow
ards
aco
mm
ongo
al.
Ido
n’t
thin
kth
ere
isco
mpl
ete
cons
iste
ncy
amon
ghi
sle
ctur
es, b
utth
ere
isno
doub
t of h
isge
nera
l int
enti
onto
valo
rise
the
mas
sof
the
peop
leas
the
cent
ral
conc
ern
ofbo
thtr
uere
ligio
nan
dso
cial
refo
rm.
Itis
the
ulam
a’s
mis
use
ofth
eir
cont
act w
ithth
em
asse
sth
atis
the
basi
sof
Shar
iati’
san
ger
agai
nst t
hem
. Lik
eA
l-e
Ahm
ad,
hese
esth
ecr
eatio
nof
offi
cial
Shi’
ism
unde
rth
eSa
favi
ddy
nast
yas
are
ligi
ous
disa
ster
;bu
tSh
aria
tifu
rthe
rse
esth
eal
ignm
ent o
f cle
rgy
and
stat
epo
wer
asa
recu
rren
tpa
tter
nin
relig
ious
hist
ory,
foun
din
earl
yIs
lam
, in
med
iaev
alC
hris
tiani
tyan
del
sew
here
.H
egi
ves
this
patt
ern
ash
arp
theo
logi
cal
inte
rpre
tati
on:
revo
luti
onar
yre
ligio
nis
mon
othe
isti
c;or
thod
oxst
ate-
alig
ned
relig
ion
ispo
lyth
eist
ican
dps
eudo
-Isl
amic
.T
hest
rugg
leag
ains
t the
wor
ship
offa
lse
gods
isa
cent
ral t
hem
ein
the
Qur
’an,
asit
isin
the
Bib
le. S
hari
ati i
she
rede
fini
ngor
thod
oxSh
i’is
mas
afr
aud
that
subs
titu
tes
for
Isla
m.
No
won
der
his
cler
ical
oppo
nent
sw
ere
upse
t.S
hari
ati
was
subj
ect,
duri
nghi
slif
ean
daf
ter
his
deat
h,to
very
host
ileat
tack
sfr
omco
nser
vativ
ecl
eric
san
dth
eir
supp
orte
rs.
The
rew
asal
som
ore
mea
sure
dcr
itic
ism
from
Isla
mic
scho
lars
,w
hopo
inte
dto
Shar
iati’
sla
ckof
trai
ning
inIs
lam
icju
risp
rude
nce,
his
inac
cura
teus
eof
Isla
mic
hist
ory,
and
theo
logi
cal p
robl
ems
inhi
spo
siti
ons
onre
ason
and
prop
heth
ood.
As
his
infl
uenc
esp
read
,so
me
ofth
eA
yato
llahs
took
the
seri
ous
form
alst
epof
issu
ing
advi
ceto
the
faith
ful
(fat
was
)no
tto
goto
his
lect
ures
nor
read
his
book
s(R
ahne
ma
1998
: 206
—9,
266—
76).
Yet
Shar
iati’
sar
gum
ent
onpo
lyth
eism
isno
tso
muc
hse
ctar
ian
asso
ciol
ogic
al. A
clas
sso
ciet
ypr
oduc
esal
iena
tion
that
take
sa
relig
ious
form
.In
ale
ctur
ede
liver
edon
the
road
inA
bada
n,Sh
aria
tiar
gues
that
aso
ciet
yba
sed
onso
cial
divi
sion
gene
rate
sin
the
expe
rien
ceof
itsm
embe
rsa
relig
ion
with
mul
tipl
edi
vini
ties,
whi
chin
turn
prov
ides
aju
stif
icat
ion
for
the
divi
ded
soci
alor
der:
Itis
the
eart
h’s
pict
ure
refl
ecte
dup
onth
esk
y,th
atis
, the
rulin
gcl
ergy
byju
stif
ying
the
poly
thei
stic
-lik
em
onot
heis
mju
stif
ies
the
chan
gefr
omra
cial
clas
sm
onot
heis
mto
raci
alcl
ass
poly
thei
sm.
..W
hen
man
’sin
trin
sic
unit
yis
chan
ged
tom
an’s
inhe
rent
plur
ality
,G
od’s
intr
insi
cun
ity
wil
lal
soch
ange
toin
here
ntpl
ural
ity
whi
chis
poly
thei
stic
orde
r(S
hari
ati
1981
: 21)
.
Isla
man
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
133
Inan
othe
rve
rsio
nof
the
argu
men
t,at
the
Hos
sein
iyeh
Ers
had:
‘The
peop
lear
eha
bitu
ated
toa
life
ofin
fatu
atio
nw
ithth
eid
eaof
the
here
afte
r,
whi
lefo
rget
ting
thei
row
npr
esen
tco
ndit
ion
asw
ell
asth
atof
thei
r
enem
ies.
Isla
mis
turn
edin
toa
tool
byw
hich
Mus
lims
are
dist
ract
edfr
om
thei
rfa
te’
(Sha
riat
i19
86a:
39—
40).
Inm
akin
gsu
char
gum
ents
,Sh
aria
tiis
blun
tly
cont
estin
gth
eul
ama’
s
mon
opol
yof
relig
ious
know
ledg
e.It
isno
tsu
rpri
sing
that
heso
met
imes
appe
als
toth
em
odel
ofth
epr
otes
tant
refo
rmat
ion
inE
urop
e,an
dto
the
prec
eden
t ofM
oham
med
Abd
uh, a
nE
gypt
ian
follo
wer
ofal
-Afg
hani
who
very
infl
uent
ially
prom
oted
are
turn
topo
pula
run
ders
tand
ing
ofth
ete
xt
ofth
eQ
ur’a
nits
elf.
Sha
riat
iis
also
taki
nga
stro
ngpo
siti
onon
the
ques
tion
ofijt
ihad
,
judg
men
t or
inte
rpre
tati
on. W
heth
erth
e‘d
oor
ofijt
ihad
’ is
now
clos
ed—
that
is,w
heth
erth
em
ain
doct
rine
sof
faith
and
juri
spru
denc
eha
vebe
en
settl
ed—
isa
vexe
dqu
esti
onam
ong
scho
ols
ofIs
lam
icth
ough
t.Sh
i’ite
trad
itio
nha
sge
nera
llym
aint
aine
dth
edo
oris
still
open
,but
the
proc
edur
e
isre
stri
cted
(Col
e19
83).
Shar
iati
ifin
gsth
edo
orop
enas
wid
eas
itca
ngo
.
Ina
rem
arka
ble
docu
men
t of
1971
that
spel
lsou
this
plan
forH
osse
iney
eh
Ers
had
asan
inte
rnat
iona
lre
sear
chce
ntre
,S
hari
ati
trea
tsij
tiha
das
a
prin
cipl
eof
free
dom
ofth
ough
tan
dsc
ient
ific
adve
ntur
ousn
ess,
asw
ella
s
Isla
mic
rene
wal
.On
this
basi
she
proj
ects
ane
win
telle
ctua
l era
:
Ane
wbr
eed
ofM
uslim
scie
ntis
tsw
illta
keov
er, w
hofe
elIs
lam
inth
eir
hear
tsan
dm
inds
, who
have
scie
ntif
icfa
mili
arity
with
Isla
mic
cultu
re,
civi
lizat
ion,
and
scho
ols
ofth
ough
t,w
hokn
owsc
ient
ific
rese
arch
met
hodo
logy
,kn
owth
epr
ogre
ssof
scie
nces
inth
eco
ntem
pora
ry
wor
ld,a
ndin
shor
t,kn
owbo
thcu
lture
s(1
986a
:11
4).
Ass
umin
gSh
aria
tisa
whi
mse
lfas
one
ofth
e‘n
ewbre
edw
em
ayin
fer
that
tokn
owbo
thcu
ltur
esm
eans
not
tokn
owth
emse
para
tely
, but
to
deve
lop
anal
yses
that
oper
ate
orga
nica
llyin
both
. Sha
riat
isou
ghta
unif
ied
herm
eneu
tic, a
ndw
esh
ould
read
his
repe
ated
invo
catio
nof
Qur
’ani
cte
xts
and
Isla
mic
trad
itio
nsin
this
light
.H
ere
Shar
iati
coul
ddr
awon
aSh
i’ite
trad
itio
nab
out t
hein
fini
teri
chne
ssof
the
divi
nem
essa
ge:‘
unde
rsta
ndin
g
the
mul
ti-d
imen
sion
alla
ngua
geof
the
Qur
’an
and
disc
over
ing
the
inne
r
mea
ning
ofth
eQ
ur’a
nw
hich
,lik
ena
ture
,ha
sdi
ffer
ent
aspe
cts
whe
n
look
edup
onfr
omdi
ffer
ent
angl
es’
(198
6a:
110)
. He
was
not
just
givi
ng
relig
ious
illu
stra
tion
sof
cont
empo
rary
argu
men
ts,b
uttr
ying
todi
scov
er
r I
134
South
ern
theo
ry
com
mon
stru
ctur
esin
the
two
dom
ains
,an
dth
eref
ore
find
valid
con
tem
pora
rym
eani
ngs
inan
cien
tte
xts
and
stor
ies.
Hen
ce, f
orin
stan
ce, h
isce
lebr
atio
nof
Abu
Zar
r,a
com
pani
onof
the
Pro
phet
, who
sebi
ogra
phy
Shar
iati
had
tran
slat
edas
ayo
ung
man
, and
who
mhe
cont
inue
dto
find
ash
inin
gm
odel
ofIs
lam
iceg
alita
rian
ism
.W
eal
soha
veto
unde
rsta
ndS
hari
ati’
sar
gum
ents
inte
rms
ofth
eco
nflic
tsin
whi
chhe
was
enga
ged.
In19
68—
72,
Sha
riat
iw
asde
fend
ing
Isla
mag
ains
t the
risi
ngtid
eof
athe
istic
Mar
xism
amon
gth
eyo
ung;
hew
asde
fend
ing
activ
ist
Isla
man
dre
volu
tion
agai
nst
the
cons
erva
tism
ofth
eul
an2a
;he
was
defe
ndin
gso
cial
ism
and
equa
lity
agai
nst
capi
tali
stde
velo
pmen
t;he
was
defe
ndin
gal
l of t
hese
agai
nst t
heSh
ah’s
dict
ator
ship
;an
dhe
was
defe
ndin
gth
eT
hird
Wor
ldag
ains
t Wes
tern
impe
rial
ism
and
cultu
ral
cont
rol.
Muc
hof
his
wri
ting,
ther
efor
e,is
emba
ttled
, and
itis
hard
lysu
rpri
sing
that
ago
odde
alof
his
conc
eptu
alis
atio
nis
sket
chy.
The
urge
ncy
inhi
ste
xts
ispa
lpab
le. H
ew
asliv
ing
ina
turb
ulen
t soc
iety
; som
eof
his
stud
ents
wer
ebe
com
ing
invo
lved
inan
arm
edup
risi
ng;
and
hew
asliv
ing
ona
knif
e-ed
geof
tole
ranc
efr
oma
viol
ent
regi
me-
_whi
chsi
lenc
edhi
svo
ice
soon
enou
gh. N
oton
lyth
eju
stif
icat
ion
ofch
ange
, but
also
the
stra
tegy
ofch
ange
, was
ace
ntra
l pro
blem
inhi
sth
ough
t.H
ere,
acco
rdin
gto
his
biog
raph
er, t
here
are
two
Shar
iatis
—.o
r per
haps
one
Sha
riat
iw
hose
judg
men
tab
out
the
hist
oric
alm
omen
tch
ange
ddr
amat
ical
ly. A
tth
eti
me
hew
rote
Isla
mol
ogy,
hebe
lieve
dth
atth
ere
was
still
ava
stta
skof
cult
ural
prep
arat
ion
for s
ocia
l cha
nge
tobe
done
. The
reha
dto
bea
criti
cal a
ppro
pria
tion
ofW
este
rncu
lture
whi
leIs
lam
urge
ntly
need
edre
new
alfr
omits
own
reso
urce
s.T
his
wor
kha
dto
bedo
nein
all
coun
trie
sdo
min
ated
byim
peri
alis
m.
Ifdo
min
atio
nw
orke
dby
cult
ural
cont
rol,
then
resi
stan
cem
ust
invo
lve
cult
ural
cont
esta
tjon
and
the
redi
scov
ery
oflo
cal
iden
tity
orse
lfho
od,
cont
esti
ngth
e‘f
utili
ty’
that
resu
lted
from
the
impo
siti
onof
bour
geoi
scu
lture
. It w
asth
isdi
men
sion
hece
lebr
ated
inth
epo
litic
sof
othe
rT
hird
Wor
ldin
telle
ctua
ls, f
rom
Fano
nan
dK
enya
ttato
Gan
dhi a
ndT
agor
e—an
din
the
Isla
mic
wor
ld, a
l-A
fgha
nian
dA
bduh
.T
heam
biti
ous
scop
eof
Isla
mol
ogy,
and
the
vast
agen
daof
rese
arch
and
popu
lar
educ
atio
nth
atSh
aria
tipl
anne
dfo
rth
eH
osse
iney
ehE
rsha
d,sh
owth
esc
ale
ofth
ista
skof
reco
very
and
crea
tive
deve
lopm
ent.
But
byth
eti
me
Shar
iati
wro
teth
ela
tter
docu
men
t,th
ear
med
stru
ggle
had
begu
nan
da
polit
ical
cris
isw
asbu
ildin
g.It
seem
she
beca
me
pers
uade
d
that
are
volu
tion
ary
situ
atio
nha
dap
pear
ed, a
ndhi
sle
ctur
esin
1972
are
virt
ually
inci
tem
ents
toin
surr
ecti
on.
He
was
out
byon
lya
few
year
s.H
e
bega
nto
see
the
Shi’
iteco
mm
unit
yas
ava
stso
cial
mov
emen
the
adin
g
tow
ards
the
over
thro
wof
the
regi
me
and
the
crea
tion
ofa
new
orde
r,a
revo
lutio
nary
part
yin
itsow
nri
ght.
The
task
ofbu
ildi
nga
tran
sfor
mat
ive
cultu
rew
asde
fine
dby
Shar
iati
asth
eta
skof
crea
ting
an‘i
deol
ogy
His
conc
ept o
fide
olog
yis
very
diff
eren
t
from
the
Mar
xist
:it
iscl
oser
toM
annh
eini
’sco
ncep
t of‘
utop
ia’
Itm
eans
ady
nam
icsy
stem
ofid
eas
capa
ble
ofch
angi
ngth
ew
orld
.As
Shar
iati
put
itin
ale
ctur
eon
ideo
logy
: ‘Ea
chid
eolo
gue,
then
, is
resp
onsi
ble
toch
ange
the
stat
usqu
ore
lativ
eto
his
idea
lsan
dco
nvic
tions
’(S
hari
ati
1981
:85
).
Cle
arly
, are
ligio
nca
nbe
anid
eolo
gy, a
ndSh
aria
tisa
wIs
lam
inth
islig
ht.
He
saw
his
own
task
ascr
eatin
gan
Isla
mic
ideo
logy
for
the
cond
itio
nsof
the
pres
ent.
Thi
sw
asno
thi
sta
skal
one;
rath
er,i
twas
the
task
ofa
cert
ain
kind
of
inte
llect
ual.
One
ofth
em
osti
nter
esti
ngpa
rts
ofSh
aria
ti’s
thou
ght
ishi
s
soci
olog
yof
inte
llec
tual
s.I
have
alre
ady
men
tion
edho
whe
saw
the
cons
erva
tive
cler
gyas
anin
telle
ctua
l win
gof
the
rulin
gcl
ass.
Inth
esp
ecif
ic
cond
ition
sof
neoc
olon
ial
Iran
,Sha
riat
isaw
the
cler
ical
inte
llect
uals
bein
g
chal
leng
edby
anas
cend
ant
grou
pof
secu
lar,
Wes
tern
isin
gin
telle
ctua
ls.
Thi
sgr
oup
incl
uded
scie
ntis
tsan
dte
chno
logi
sts,
and
had
aba
sein
the
secu
lar e
duca
tion
syst
em. B
oth
grou
psco
llude
din
impe
rial
ist d
omin
atio
n,
asw
eha
vese
en.
Thi
sis
notf
arfr
omA
l-e
Ahm
ad’s
pict
ure
inG
harb
zade
gi,b
utSh
aria
ti
com
plic
ates
itw
ithth
edi
men
sion
ofid
eolo
gyO
ver a
gain
stth
ese
grou
ps—
thou
ghdr
awn
inpa
rtfr
ombo
thof
them
—th
ere
exis
tth
inke
rsw
ho
perf
orm
afu
ncti
onof
cult
ural
tran
sfor
mat
ion.
The
sehe
calls
rush
anfe
kr,
anot
her
Fars
i ter
mth
atse
ems
alm
osti
mpo
ssib
leto
tran
slat
e:‘e
nlig
hten
ed
soul
s’an
d‘f
ree
thin
kers
’ar
eam
ong
the
atte
mpt
s.Sh
aria
tide
scri
bes
this
grou
pdi
ffer
ently
indi
ffer
ent l
ectu
res,
buth
isge
nera
l int
enti
onis
clea
r.H
e
has
inm
ind
thin
kers
who
perf
orm
apr
ophe
tic
func
tion
,w
itho
ut
them
selv
esbe
ing
prop
hets
.In
a19
71le
ctur
ehe
disc
usse
sru
shan
fekr
at
leng
th, a
ndca
llsth
em‘t
hose
who
have
ase
nse
ofre
spon
sibi
lity
with
rega
rd
toth
eir
tim
ean
dso
ciet
yan
dw
ish
todo
som
ethi
ngab
out
it’(1
986a
:4)
.
Thi
sis
aca
refu
lfo
rmul
atio
nan
dev
ery
phra
sem
atte
rs.
Firs
t,su
ch
peop
lear
ede
fine
dno
tby
thei
rte
chni
calk
now
ledg
e,bu
tby
thei
rse
nse
of
ala
rge
resp
onsi
bilit
y;th
eyar
epe
ople
who
give
ale
adto
othe
rs, w
hoth
ink
Is’a
man
dW
este
rnd
om
inan
ce
135
isla
mand
Wes
tern
dom
inance
137
136
South
ern
theo
ry
forw
ard
and
defi
nedi
rect
ions
ofch
ange
for
the
soci
ety.
The
ym
ayco
me
from
the
inte
llige
ntsi
abu
tth
eyal
soco
me
from
the
mas
ses.
Seco
nd, t
hey
have
are
spon
sibi
lity
for
asp
ecif
icti
me
and
soci
ety.
The
irro
leis
not
topr
oduc
eun
iver
sal t
ruth
s,bu
t to
unde
rsta
ndth
eco
ncre
tesi
tuat
ion
ofth
eir
own
soci
ety,
togr
asp
itsin
ner
trut
h,an
dto
spre
adth
atun
ders
tand
ing
toot
hers
. The
prob
lem
sof
Eur
ope
are
not t
hesa
me
asth
epr
oble
ms
ofA
sia,
and
the
solu
tions
will
ther
efor
edi
ffer
.(S
hari
ati m
akes
ago
odjo
keou
tof
ahy
poth
etic
alfo
llow
erof
Sar
tre
atte
mpt
ing
tosp
read
exis
tent
iali
smam
ong
the
poor
inIn
dia.
)T
hird
,the
yw
ish
todo
som
ethi
ngab
out
it;it
isno
t eno
ugh
toha
veth
ein
sigh
ts. T
here
fore
, enl
ight
ened
thin
kers
mus
t hav
eco
ntac
tw
ith
the
peop
le,
and
mus
tbe
trus
ted
byth
em,
tom
ake
the
tran
sfor
mat
ion
ofco
nsci
ousn
ess
poss
ible
.T
his
isno
t the
mod
elof
aL
enin
ist v
angu
ard.
Shar
iati
iscl
ear
abou
t the
dang
erof
such
peop
lecl
aim
ing
posi
tion
sof
polit
ical
lead
ersh
ip, a
ndgi
ves
dire
exam
ples
from
anti
-col
onia
l mov
emen
tsin
Nor
thA
fric
a.‘T
heir
sole
job
isto
best
owaw
aren
ess
onth
em
asse
s,th
at’s
all.
..to
retu
rnth
eal
iena
ted
soci
ety
toits
real
self
’(1
981:
110)
.It
issp
ecif
ical
lya
role
ofcu
ltur
alle
ader
ship
,w
ith
ast
rong
impl
icat
ion
ofen
ergy
and
crea
tivity
.H
owsu
chpe
ople
are
gene
rate
d,Sh
aria
tido
esno
tsa
y;at
times
heal
mos
tsu
gges
tsth
eyar
eap
poin
ted
byG
od—
and
that
may
real
lybe
wha
the
thou
ght.
The
conc
ept o
fru
shan
fekr
thus
qual
ifie
sSh
aria
ti’s
othe
rwis
eve
ryhe
avy
acco
unt
ofcu
ltur
aldo
min
atio
nof
the
Thi
rdW
orld
byim
peri
alis
m,
and
ofIr
ania
nso
ciet
yby
imita
tive
bour
geoi
scu
lture
and
cons
erva
tive
relig
ion.
The
term
isto
ofr
ee-f
loat
ing
tobe
give
na
clea
rso
cial
defi
niti
on.
But
itce
rtai
nly
sym
bolis
edto
Shar
iati’
sau
dien
ces
the
vuln
erab
ilit
yof
syst
ems
ofdo
min
atio
n,th
epe
rman
ent
poss
ibil
ity
ofag
ency
,op
posi
tion
and
chan
ge.
Wit
hS
hari
ati,
mor
eth
anm
ost
inte
llec
tual
s,th
eat
tem
ptto
crea
tea
theo
retic
alge
omet
ry; a
form
alde
duct
ive
syst
emof
‘Sha
riati’
sso
cial
theo
ryis
doom
edto
failu
re.
(For
such
anat
tem
pt, s
eeA
ithav
i19
83.)
And
yet h
ew
asa
syst
emat
icth
inke
rin
anot
her
sens
e,fo
llow
ing
alo
gic
grou
nded
inth
ene
ocol
onia
lsi
tuat
ion,
inhi
sre
adin
gof
Isla
m, a
ndin
the
dem
ands
ofso
cial
actio
n.It
seem
sth
athi
slo
gic
had
apo
wer
ful
impa
ct, a
tle
ast o
nth
eyo
unge
rur
ban
gene
ratio
nin
the
1970
s.A
fter
the
revo
lutio
n,th
est
ory
was
diff
eren
t.In
viol
ent s
trug
gles
over
the
dire
ctio
nof
the
revo
lutio
n,th
ose
mov
emen
ts
clos
estt
oSh
aria
ti’S
radi
calis
mw
ere
defe
ated
.An
arm
edco
nfro
ntat
ion
in
1981
was
won
byth
eco
nser
vativ
efo
rces
arou
ndK
hom
eini
.Mor
eth
ante
n
thou
sand
Moj
ahed
inac
tivis
tsan
dot
her
diss
iden
tsw
ere
kille
dan
dth
e
oppo
sitio
nle
ader
ship
fled
into
exile
.
The
vict
orio
usre
ligio
usle
ader
ship
defe
nded
priv
ate
prop
erty
,cl
osed
dow
nge
nder
refo
rman
dpu
rged
the
univ
ersi
ties.
The
long
-ter
mre
sult
is
ahi
ghly
uneq
uals
ocie
tyin
whi
chm
ovem
ents
ofpo
litic
alre
form
alte
rnat
e
with
the
asse
rtio
nof
cons
erva
tive
reli
giou
sau
thor
ity.
New
form
sof
Wes
toxi
catio
nfo
rthe
affl
uent
filte
rin
,whi
lew
orki
ng-c
lass
inco
mes
seem
toha
vefa
llen
(McG
eoug
h20
06).
AuSh
aria
ti’s
wif
ew
asqu
oted
inth
e
1980
sas
sayi
ngth
atif
hew
ere
aliv
eth
en,h
ew
ould
bein
pris
on.B
utif
he
held
toth
eke
yid
eas
ofhi
scl
assi
cw
ork,
hew
ould
thin
kth
atSh
i’ite
auth
orit
aria
nism
too
had
itsvu
lner
abii
ties
,its
poss
ibili
ties
for
popu
lar
oppo
siti
onan
dch
ange
.
7D
epen
den
cy,
auto
nom
yan
dcu
ltur
eA
nin
tell
igen
tkn
owle
dge
of
the
idea
sof
oth
ers
mus
tno
tbe
confu
sed
with
that
men
tal
subje
ctio
nto
them
from
whi
chw
e
are
slow
lyle
arni
ngto
free
ours
elve
s.
—R
aüI
Pre
bisc
h(1
950)
140
South
ern
theo
ry
Lat
inA
mer
ica
was
the
firs
tla
rge
regi
onof
the
wor
ldto
beco
ntro
lled
byE
urop
ean
inva
ders
. As
AnI
bal
Qui
jano
(200
0)ob
serv
es,
500
year
sof
colo
nial
ism
and
neoc
olon
iali
smha
veem
bedd
eda
pow
erfu
l ori
enta
tion
toE
urop
eam
ong
Lat
inA
mer
ican
inte
llec
tual
s.T
heli
nkis
emot
iona
las
wel
las
conc
eptu
al.
Whe
nth
egr
eat
Chi
lean
poet
Gab
riel
aM
istr
alhe
ard
of
the
outb
reak
ofw
arin
Eur
ope,
she
wro
tem
ovin
gly
ofth
e‘O
ldM
othe
r’w
hosh
elte
red
us,
now
burn
ing
inw
ar(M
istr
al20
03:
285)
.A
grea
t dea
l of L
atin
Am
eric
anso
cial
scie
nce
show
sth
epa
tter
nw
eha
vese
enin
Aus
tral
iaan
dA
fric
a—im
port
edco
ncep
tsan
dm
etho
dsap
plie
dto
the
raw
mat
eria
lsof
loca
lso
ciet
y.D
efer
ence
toth
eth
eori
sts
ofth
em
etro
pole
find
sre
mar
kabl
eex
pres
sion
ina
rece
ntbo
okca
lled
The
Oth
erM
irro
r:G
rand
The
ory
thro
ugh
the
Len
sof
Lat
inA
mer
ica.
The
edit
ors,
Mig
uel
Ang
elC
ente
noan
dF
erna
ndo
Lóp
ez-A
lves
(200
1:3)
, anx
ious
lysp
ecif
yth
atth
ey‘a
reno
t pro
posi
nga“
Lat
inA
mer
ican
”th
eory
tosu
ppla
nta
“Eur
opea
n”one
Rat
her,
they
‘off
er’
Lat
inA
mer
ica
toth
eEn
glis
h—sp
eaki
ngre
ader
asan
othe
rca
sere
flec
ting
new
vari
atio
nsof
mai
nstr
eam
soci
alsc
ienc
eth
emes
.N
orth
ern
theo
ryw
ritt
enin
the
Sou
thca
nce
rtai
nly
beim
pres
sive
.A
good
exam
ple
isJo
séJo
aqui
nB
rünn
er’s
Glo
bali
zaci
óncu
ltur
aly
posm
oder
nida
d(1
998)
,a
Chi
lean
contr
ibuti
on
toth
ede
bate
ongl
obal
isat
ion
whi
chca
nst
and
wit
han
yof
the
met
ropoli
tan
text
sdi
scus
sed
inC
hapt
er3.
Inde
ed,
itsh
ares
mos
tof
that
lite
ratu
re’s
assu
mpt
ions
and
lang
uage
,se
eing
cult
ural
glob
alis
atio
nas
com
pose
dof
post
mod
erni
ty, p
osti
ndus
tria
lca
pita
lism
, lib
eral
dem
ocra
cyan
dth
eco
mm
unic
atio
nsre
volu
tion
.M
ost
ofth
eli
tera
ture
that
BrU
nner
cite
sis
the
mod
ern
met
ropo
lita
nca
non—
Gid
dens
,H
aber
mas
,B
audr
illa
rd,
Dah
rend
orf.
Whe
nhe
wri
tes
abou
tin
equa
liti
eshe
does
soin
the
sam
ew
ayth
atE
urop
eans
do, b
yci
ting
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
stat
istic
s.T
owar
dsth
een
dof
the
book
,he
disc
usse
sce
ntre
—pe
riph
ery
rela
tion
san
das
sert
sth
atcu
ltur
esin
the
peri
pher
yar
efl
ouri
shin
g.T
hese
poin
tsw
ould
beex
cept
iona
lin
am
etro
poli
tan
text
ongl
obal
isat
ion
from
the
1 990
s.Y
et,
over
all,
Bru
nner
’sbo
okis
wri
tten
from
the
poin
tof v
iew
ofa
gene
ralis
edW
este
rncu
ltur
e.H
ism
ain
conc
eptu
al, p
olit
ical
and
hist
oric
alpo
ints
ofre
fere
nce
are
Eur
opea
n.B
utw
esh
ould
rem
embe
rth
atL
atin
Am
eric
aw
asal
soth
efi
rst p
art
ofth
ew
orld
tobr
eak
Eur
opea
nco
loni
alco
ntro
lon
aco
ntin
enta
lsc
ale.
The
Dep
endef
lCY
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
141
sear
chfo
rin
telle
ctua
lind
epen
denc
eha
sle
din
man
ydi
rect
ions
,fro
mth
e
reco
nsid
erat
ion
ofth
elo
cal
past
inO
ctav
ioPa
z’s
fam
ous
med
itat
ion
on
Mex
ico,
The
Lab
yrin
thof
Solit
ude
(195
0),
toth
ede
pend
ency
scho
ol’s
reth
inki
ngof
the
stru
ctur
eof
the
wor
ldec
onom
y.
Ica
nnot
map
this
who
letr
adit
ion
ofth
ough
tin
one
chap
ter.
1ho
pe,
rath
er,t
ofo
llow
asi
gnif
ican
tthr
ead
wit
hin
it—a
disc
ussi
onof
auto
nom
y
and
pow
erw
hich
,ove
ra50
-yea
rper
iod,
star
ted
wit
hec
onom
ics
and
ende
d
with
cult
ure
whi
leco
ntin
uous
lyqu
esti
onin
gpo
liti
cal
stra
tegi
esfo
r
chan
ge.
Cen
tre
and
per
ipher
yIb
egin
with
ado
cum
entt
hati
slitt
lere
adno
wad
ays,
buth
asa
clai
mto
be
one
ofth
em
ost
import
ant
stat
emen
tsin
twen
tiet
hce
ntur
yso
cial
scie
nce.
In19
49,a
rece
ntly
crea
ted
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
body
,the
Eco
nom
icC
om
mis
sion
for
Lat
inA
mer
ica
(CEP
AL)
,was
wor
king
ona
gene
ral
surv
eyof
econ
omic
affa
irs
inth
ere
gion
.Are
gion
albo
dyw
asex
cept
iona
lin
the
UN
fram
ewor
kat
the
tim
e,an
dC
EPA
L’s
crea
tion
had
been
oppo
sed
byth
e
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
Tow
rite
the
intr
oduc
tion
toth
est
atis
tica
lre
port
,a
cons
ulta
ntw
asbr
ough
tin
,an
Arg
entin
eec
onom
ist
calle
dR
aálP
rebi
sch.
Preb
isch
had
star
ted
asan
orth
odox
econ
omis
t,w
orki
ngas
anac
adem
ic
and
sim
ulta
neou
sly
asa
publ
icse
rvan
tin
Bue
nos
Air
es.
Und
erth
e
cons
erva
tive
regi
me
ofth
e19
30s,
hebe
cam
ege
nera
lm
anag
erof
the
Cen
tral
Ban
kof
Arg
entin
a,un
tilh
ew
assa
cked
afte
ra
coup
in19
43.O
ver
the
next
few
year
s,he
deve
lope
da
criti
que
both
ofor
thod
oxec
onom
ics,
obse
ssed
wit
heq
uili
bria
,an
dof
Key
nes,
who
mhe
saw
asin
suff
icie
ntly
real
istic
.Pre
bisc
hw
asco
ncer
ned
with
the
dyna
mis
mof
econ
omic
syst
ems,
oper
atin
gth
roug
hec
onom
iccy
cles
,and
incr
easi
ngly
wit
hth
edi
ffer
ence
s
betw
een
the
econ
omie
sth
atw
ere
‘cyc
lical
cent
res’
and
the
econ
omie
sof
the
peri
pher
y.H
isaw
aren
ess
ofal
tern
ativ
est
rate
gies
was
also
shap
edby
the
prac
tica
lex
peri
ence
ofth
ose
Lat
inA
mer
ican
coun
trie
sth
atha
d
resp
onde
dto
the
Dep
ress
ion
ofth
e19
30s
and
the
trad
ecr
isis
inW
orld
War
IIby
incr
easi
nglo
cal
man
ufac
ture
s(L
ove
1986
;D
osm
an20
01;
Mal
lorq
uIfl
2006
).W
ith
this
back
grou
nd,
Pre
bisc
hw
rote
ast
rong
text
whi
chca
used
som
ethi
ngof
ase
nsat
ion
atth
eC
EPA
Lco
nfer
ence
inH
avan
ain
1949
.
Hop
ing
toda
mp
dow
nan
yre
acti
on,U
Nof
fici
als
sepa
rate
dit
from
the
rI
p14
2S
outh
ern
theo
ry
offi
cial
surv
eyan
dpu
blis
hed
itas
anin
divi
dual
essa
yca
lled
The
Eco
nom
icD
evel
opm
ent o
f Lat
inA
mer
ica
and
itsPr
inci
pal P
robl
ems.
The
tact
icba
ckfi
red
spec
tacu
larl
y.Pr
ebis
ch’s
pers
onal
fam
ero
cket
edan
dth
ees
say
was
haile
das
ake
yst
atem
ento
f str
ateg
yfo
rde
velo
ping
coun
trie
s.By
the
end
of19
50,h
eha
dbe
enap
poin
ted
exec
utiv
ese
cret
ary
ofC
EPA
L,ba
sed
inSa
ntia
gode
Chi
le. H
ere
hew
asab
leto
brin
gto
geth
er, o
na
perm
anen
tbas
is,a
tale
nted
grou
pof
econ
omic
and
soci
alre
sear
cher
s—w
hatw
em
ight
now
call
athi
nk-
tank
for
deve
lopm
ents
trat
egy
(Dos
man
2001
; Toy
ean
dTo
ye20
04).
Preb
isch
’sin
tere
stin
such
ast
rate
gyfl
owed
from
his
conv
icti
onth
atac
tion
was
beco
min
gur
gent
,and
lais
sez-
fair
eec
onom
ics
coul
dno
tpro
duce
aso
luti
on.
For
the
next
two
deca
des,
CE
PAL
stro
ngly
advo
cate
dth
est
rate
gyof
‘im
port
subs
titu
tion
indu
stri
alis
atio
nto
redu
cede
pend
ence
onim
port
edm
anuf
actu
res
and
todi
vers
ify
expo
rts.
Whe
ther
due
toth
isad
voca
cyor
not,
the
poli
cyw
asw
idel
yad
opte
din
Lat
inA
mer
ica
(and
som
eot
her
part
sof
the
peri
pher
y,in
clud
ing
Aus
tral
ia)
from
the
1940
sto
the
1970
s.B
yan
dla
rge,
the
stra
tegy
wor
ked,
prod
ucin
ghi
gher
grow
thra
tes
and
prod
ucti
vity
—th
ough
ital
sofa
ced
prob
lem
sof
infl
atio
nan
den
coun
tere
dlim
itsto
indu
stri
alis
atio
n(K
ay19
89; V
ellin
ga20
02).
By
the
earl
y19
60s,
the
Col
dW
arco
nfro
ntat
ion
betw
een
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esan
dth
eSo
viet
Uni
onha
dea
sed
alit
tle,
and
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
beca
me
the
scen
eof
ane
wco
nfig
urat
ion
ofin
tern
atio
nalp
oliti
cs. C
ount
ries
ofth
egl
obal
Sou
thbe
gan
tose
eth
emse
lves
asha
ving
com
mon
inte
rest
sw
hich
wer
ebl
ocke
dby
the
pow
erof
the
glob
alN
orth
—in
man
yca
ses,
thei
rfo
rmer
colo
nial
mas
ters
—an
dbe
gan
topr
ess
for
econ
omic
conc
essi
ons.
Thi
sca
me
toa
head
atth
efi
rstU
NC
onfe
renc
eon
Tra
dean
dD
evel
opm
ent
(UN
CT
AD
)in
1964
,w
hose
agen
daw
asdo
min
ated
bya
grou
pof
77de
velo
ping
coun
trie
s,th
eG
77.
Raü
lPr
ebis
chw
asap
poin
ted
secr
etar
y-ge
nera
lof
the
conf
eren
ce,
and
his
open
ing
repo
rt,
Tow
ards
aN
ewT
rade
Polic
yfo
rD
evel
opm
ent—
wri
tten
afte
rex
tens
ive
cons
ulta
tion
sin
Eur
ope,
Asi
aan
dth
ePa
cifi
c—w
asa
pow
erfu
lsta
tem
ent o
fthe
deve
lopi
ngco
untr
ies’
case
for
trad
ere
form
.A
fter
revi
ewin
gth
ehi
stor
yof
the
inte
rnat
iona
leco
nom
y,it
look
edat
the
prob
lem
sof
deve
lopm
ent,
patt
erns
oftr
ade
and
the
role
ofde
velo
ped
coun
trie
s.It
ende
dw
ith
apl
eafo
rm
utua
lai
d:‘T
hese
page
sar
eth
eref
ore
anac
tof
faith
’(P
rebi
sch
1964
:12
3)—
esse
ntia
lly,f
aith
inin
tern
atio
nal
coop
erat
ion.
Inth
eaf
term
ath
ofth
eco
nfer
ence
,w
ith
pres
sure
from
the
G77
,U
NC
TA
Dw
asm
ade
ape
rman
ent
agen
cyof
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
and
Dep
en
den
cy
.auto
nom
yan
dcu
lture
143
Preb
isch
was
mad
eits
secr
etar
y-ge
nera
l.H
eno
wha
da
glob
alau
dien
cean
da
mea
nsof
actio
n,as
hetr
ied
tom
ake
UN
CT
AD
anef
fect
ive
foru
mfo
rtr
ade
nego
tiat
ions
and
inte
rnat
iona
ldev
elop
men
tpol
icie
sth
atw
ould
actu
ally
shif
tres
ourc
esto
war
dsth
eSo
uth.
Not
muc
hin
tern
atio
nal
coop
erat
ion
was
fort
hcom
ing.
Preb
isch
’sag
enda
met
heav
yre
sist
ance
from
the
rich
coun
trie
sle
dby
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es.T
heG
77be
gan
tobr
eak
apar
t,an
dN
orth
—So
uth
tens
ions
rose
.P
rebi
sch,
trav
elli
ngen
dles
sly,
stru
ggle
dw
ith
litt
lesu
cces
sto
get
inte
rnat
iona
lco
mm
odit
yag
reem
ents
,or
anin
tern
atio
nal
fina
ncia
lsy
stem
tosu
ppor
tde
velo
ping
coun
trie
s.H
eha
da
maj
orsu
cces
son
one
poin
t,ge
ttin
gag
reem
ent
onta
riff
pref
eren
cefo
rth
ein
dust
rial
expo
rts
ofde
velo
ping
coun
trie
s—a
key
com
plem
ent
toth
eC
EPA
Lin
dust
rial
-dev
elop
men
tst
rate
gy(T
oye
and
Toy
e20
04;
Pol
lock
etal
.20
06).
In19
68,a
fter
seei
ngU
NC
TA
Dth
roug
hits
seco
ndge
nera
lcon
fere
nce,
Preb
isch
retir
ed—
hew
asov
erlo
aded
and
ill,a
ndhi
sm
arri
age
was
show
ing
the
stra
in—
and
retu
rned
toa
Lat
inA
mer
ican
base
and
toth
eore
tical
wor
k.Fo
rso
me
year
s,ne
vert
hele
ss,
Pre
bisc
hha
dbe
enth
efo
cus
ofth
efi
rst
cohe
rent
,wor
ld-l
evel
arti
cula
tion
ofec
onom
icid
eas
and
soci
oeco
nom
icst
rate
gies
from
the
view
poin
tof
the
glob
alSo
uth.
The
rear
efe
wso
cial
scie
ntis
tsw
hoha
veev
erpl
ayed
sopi
vota
laro
le.
The
Eco
nom
icD
evel
opm
ento
fLat
inA
mer
ica
and
itsP
rinc
ipal
Prob
lem
s
isas
muc
han
inte
llec
tual
agen
daas
apo
licy
pres
crip
tion
.(T
here
isa
stor
yth
atth
ew
hole
thin
gw
asw
ritt
enin
thre
eda
ysan
dth
ree
nigh
ts.)
Indust
rial
isat
ion
was
alre
ady
happ
enin
gin
som
eL
atin
Am
eric
anco
untr
ies;
Preb
isch
prov
ided
ath
eore
tica
ljus
tifi
cati
onfo
rit,
and
show
edho
wth
epr
oces
sco
uld
besu
stai
ned.
The
cruc
ial
poin
tw
asth
at‘t
hera
isin
gof
the
stan
dard
ofliv
ing
ofth
em
asse
s’—
whi
chre
mai
ned
the
ulti
mat
ego
alin
allP
rebi
sch’
sw
ork—
coul
dno
tbe
achi
eved
byth
egr
owth
ofag
ricu
ltur
eal
one.
Pre
bisc
hga
vese
vera
lre
ason
sfo
rth
is,
the
mos
tfa
mou
sbe
ing
his
thes
isth
at,o
ver
the
long
run,
the
term
sof
trad
em
ove
agai
nst
expo
rter
sof
agri
cult
ural
prod
ucts
infa
vour
ofex
port
ers
ofin
dust
rial
prod
ucts
.T
here
sult
isa
mas
sive
glob
alin
equa
lity
inth
ebe
nefi
tsof
econ
omic
grow
th:‘
Inot
her
wor
ds,w
hile
the
cent
res
kept
the
who
lebe
nefi
tof
the
tech
nica
lde
velo
pmen
tof
thei
rin
dust
ries
,th
epe
riph
eral
coun
trie
str
ansf
erre
dto
them
ash
are
ofth
efr
uits
ofth
eir
own
tech
nica
lpro
gres
s’(P
rebi
sch
1950
:10
).
144
South
ern
theo
ry
As
this
pass
age
show
s,P
rebi
sch
mad
ea
fund
amen
tal
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
the
econ
omie
sof
the
‘cen
tre’ a
ndth
eec
onom
ies
ofth
e‘p
erip
hery
’.H
edi
dno
t inv
entt
hese
term
s,bu
t he
cert
ainl
ypo
pula
rise
dth
em—
inde
ed,
mad
eth
emes
sent
ial
idea
sin
disc
ussi
ons
ofw
orld
deve
lopm
ent.
Cen
tre
and
peri
pher
yha
ddi
ffer
ent
econ
omic
stru
ctur
es,
diff
eren
tec
onom
ic
prob
lem
s,an
dth
eref
ore
need
eddi
ffer
ent
econ
omic
polic
ies.
Thi
sdi
dno
tm
ean
they
coul
dbe
sepa
rate
d.Pr
ebis
chsa
wth
egl
obal
econ
omy
asa
nece
ssar
ilyin
terl
inke
dsy
stem
. Thi
sbe
cam
ea
key
poin
t tha
tdi
vide
d‘C
EPA
L-is
m’ f
rom
the
Mar
xist
unde
r-de
velo
pmen
t the
oris
tsof
the
1960
san
d19
70s,
nota
bly
Fra
nkan
dA
min
,w
hopr
opos
edde
link
ing
peri
pher
alec
onom
ies
from
glob
alca
pita
lism
. To
Preb
isch
, the
cent
rew
asa
vita
l sou
rce
oftr
ade,
capi
tal a
ndte
chno
logy
for t
hepe
riph
ery.
Itw
asal
soa
sour
ceof
dire
econ
omic
prob
lem
s,in
clud
ing
boom
and
bust
cycl
es(t
hew
ayth
e19
30s
colla
pse
had
been
expo
rted
toL
atin
Am
eric
aw
asm
uch
inPr
ebis
ch’s
min
d), a
ndof
cour
seth
ete
rms
oftr
ade
prob
lem
.O
neof
the
mos
t str
ikin
gfe
atur
esof P
rinc
ipal
Prob
lem
sis
the
atte
ntio
nPr
ebis
chde
vote
sto
anal
ysin
gth
ece
ntre
,es
peci
ally
the
US
econ
omy
and
the
US
dolla
r,w
hich
take
uptw
oof
the
seve
nch
apte
rs.I
n19
49, P
rebi
sch
was
wri
ting
atth
ehi
ghti
deof
US
econ
omic
and
mil
itar
ypo
wer
, bef
ore
the
Ger
man
Wir
tsch
afts
wun
der
orth
eJa
pane
sebo
om.
He
real
istic
ally
saw
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es—
asco
nsum
er, p
rodu
cer,
inno
vato
r,in
vest
oran
dco
ntro
ller o
f the
wor
ld’s
rese
rve
curr
ency
—as
havi
ngen
orm
ous
impo
rtan
cefo
rL
atin
Am
eric
ande
velo
pmen
t.T
heli
nkco
uld
not
bebr
oken
,bu
tit
coul
dbe
resh
aped
,if
Lat
in
Am
eric
ango
vern
men
tsw
ould
get
dow
nto
the
job.
Pre
bisc
has
sum
edca
pita
list d
evel
opm
ent,
nota
Sovi
et-s
tyle
econ
omy,
but h
eal
soas
sum
eda
high
lyin
terv
entio
nist
stat
e.T
hest
ate
wou
ldw
ork
thro
ugh
tari
ffs,
exch
ange
cont
rols
,ta
xes,
deve
lopm
ent
plan
ning
,an
ti-cy
clic
alpo
licy,
and
soon
,to
prod
and
cajo
leth
eec
onom
yto
war
dssu
stai
ned
grow
th.
For
inst
ance
, ake
ypr
oble
mw
asth
esh
orta
geof
capi
tal t
oal
low
high
erte
chno
logy
and
risi
ngpr
oduc
tivity
.T
hein
com
esof
the
Lat
inA
mer
ican
mas
ses
wer
eal
read
yso
low
that
very
little
mor
eco
uld
besq
ueez
edou
tof
them
. The
high
erin
com
egr
oups
,who
coul
dbe
savi
ng, i
nste
adsp
ent m
uch
ofth
eir
inco
me
onim
port
edco
nsum
ergo
ods,
tryi
ngto
sust
ain
the
lifes
tyle
that
they
saw
inth
ede
velo
ped
coun
trie
s.T
his
irre
spon
sibi
lity
ofL
atin
Am
eric
anel
ites,
asPr
ebis
chob
viou
sly
saw
it—
heca
llsth
eir
beha
viou
r‘i
mpr
oper
’(1
950:
37),
whi
chgi
ven
his
gene
ral
styl
eis
equi
vale
ntto
a
Dependency,
auto
nom
yand
cu[I
ure
145
char
geof
danc
ing
atm
idni
ght
wit
hde
mon
s—bo
thhi
nder
edca
pita
l
form
atio
nan
dw
orse
ned
the
prob
lem
offi
nanc
ing
usef
ulim
port
s.
Ato
ugh-
min
ded
deve
lopm
enta
listg
over
nmen
t cou
ldfix
that
.
Att
heen
dof
the
day,
Preb
isch
’sst
rate
gies
depe
nded
ona
chan
geof
cons
ciou
snes
sam
ong
inte
llec
tual
san
dpo
licy
-mak
ers
inth
epe
riph
ery.
Thi
sle
dhi
m,i
nse
vera
lbri
efpa
ssag
esof
Prin
cipa
lPro
blem
s,to
ast
riki
ng
soci
olog
y-of
-kno
wle
dge
view
ofec
onom
ics.
Cla
ssic
alfr
ee-m
arke
t
econ
omic
s,he
argu
ed,
refl
ecte
dth
ehi
stor
ical
expe
rien
ceof
the
glob
al
cent
re,n
otth
ere
aliti
esof
the
peri
pher
y:
One
ofth
em
ost
cons
picu
ous
defi
cien
cies
ofge
nera
lec
onom
ic
theo
ry,
from
the
poin
tof
view
ofth
epe
riph
ery,
isits
fals
ese
nse
of
univ
ersa
lity.
Itco
uld
hard
lybe
expe
cted
that
the
econ
omis
tsof
the
grea
tco
untr
ies,
abso
rbed
byse
riou
spr
oble
ms
ofth
eir
own,
shou
ld
devo
tepr
efer
enti
alat
tent
ion
toa
stud
yof
thos
eof
Lat
inA
mer
ica.
The
stud
yof
Lat
inA
mer
ica’
sec
onom
iclif
eis
prim
aril
yth
eco
ncer
n
ofits
own
econ
omis
ts.O
nly
ifth
isre
gion
alec
onom
yca
nbe
expl
aine
d
ratio
nally
and
wit
hsc
ient
ific
obje
ctiv
ity,c
anef
fect
ive
prop
osal
sfo
r
prac
tical
actio
nbe
achi
eved
(195
0:7)
.
Not
that
the
econ
omis
tsof
the
cent
reco
uld
beig
nore
d.W
ithto
ngue
inch
eek,
Pre
bisc
hqu
otes
Key
nes
inde
fenc
eof
the
‘tru
ths
ofgr
eat
sign
ific
ance
’em
bedd
edin
clas
sica
leq
uili
briu
mth
eory
(195
0:36
).B
uthe
also
argu
esfo
rcib
lyth
atth
eas
sum
ptio
nsof
clas
sica
lthe
ory
dono
tho
ld
inth
epe
riph
ery—
that
isth
eop
enin
gar
gum
ent o
fthe
who
lete
xt—
sone
w
scie
ntif
ican
alys
esas
wel
las
new
prac
tica
lst
rate
gies
are
requ
ired
.T
hat
requ
ires
trai
ning
ane
wge
nera
tion
ofin
telle
ctua
ls,c
apab
leof
the
nece
ssar
y
inde
pend
ence
ofm
ind.
Wit
hin
aco
uple
ofye
ars
ofw
ritin
g,Pr
ebis
chha
d
begu
nto
doju
stth
at,t
hrou
ghC
EPA
L.
Inre
tros
pect
,th
eli
mit
sof
Preb
isch
’sin
tell
ectu
alw
orld
are
clea
r.
Prin
cipa
lPro
blem
str
eate
dec
onom
icgr
owth
asan
abso
lute
good
;tow
ards
the
end
ofhi
slif
e,Pr
ebis
ch(1
981a
)be
gan
toac
know
ledg
een
viro
nmen
tal
prob
lem
s.T
he‘e
cono
my’
that
Preb
isch
theo
rise
dw
asve
ryde
fini
tely
the
men
’sec
onom
y.W
omen
wer
em
enti
oned
just
once
inPr
inci
palP
robl
ems,
asa
rese
rve
labo
urfo
rce,
and
dom
estic
prod
ucti
onw
asno
tcon
side
red
part
ofth
eec
onom
yat
all.
Of
cour
se,t
hese
limits
wer
eco
mm
onto
alm
ost
all
econ
omic
thou
ght
atth
etim
e.W
ithi
nth
em,t
hebe
ginn
ing
that
Preb
isch
r I
-1-
146
South
ern
theo
ry
mad
eto
anec
onom
icth
eory
for
the
unde
rdev
elop
edco
untr
ies
prov
edex
trao
rdin
aril
yfr
uitf
ul—
and
not j
ust
inec
onom
ics.
Rul
ing
clas
ses
and
Donal
dD
uck
Preb
isch
attr
acte
dot
her
soci
alsc
ienc
esbe
side
sec
onom
ics
toC
EPA
L.O
neof
the
soci
olog
ists
who
cam
e,in
exile
from
the
mil
itar
ydi
ctat
orsh
ipju
stes
tabl
ishe
din
Bra
zil,
was
Fer
nand
oH
enri
que
Car
doso
.T
heC
EPA
Lap
proa
chw
asal
read
yun
der
chal
leng
efr
omth
ele
ft,
from
Mar
xist
orM
arxi
st-i
nspi
red
anal
yses
whi
chsa
wth
efu
ture
ofL
atin
Am
eric
ano
tin
capi
talis
t dev
elop
men
t but
inso
cial
ism
.D
urin
g19
65—
67, w
hile
Preb
isch
was
figh
ting
the
good
figh
t at U
NC
TA
D,
Car
doso
and
Enz
oF
alet
tow
ere
wor
king
onan
ambi
tiou
shi
stor
ical
soci
olog
yof
deve
lopm
ent.
The
resu
lting
book
,D
epen
denc
yan
dD
evel
opm
ent
inL
atin
Am
eric
a,w
asfi
rst
circ
ulat
edin
mim
eogr
aph
form
,th
enfo
rmal
lypu
blis
hed
inB
ueno
sA
ires
in19
71.I
tis o
neof
the
mos
t im
port
ant
stat
emen
tsof
the
radi
cal
alte
rnat
ives
toPr
ebis
ch’s
mod
el, a
ndon
eof
the
mos
tre
mar
kabl
ete
xts
ofhi
stor
ical
soci
olog
yin
itsge
nera
tion.
Car
doso
and
Fal
etto
(197
9)ar
gued
for
am
ore
holi
stic
view
ofde
velo
pmen
tth
anw
asfo
und
eith
erin
CEP
AL
econ
omic
sor
inM
arxi
stst
ruct
ural
depe
nden
cyth
eory
.In
thei
rvi
ew, e
cono
mic
chan
gein
volv
eda
com
plex
inte
rpla
ybe
twee
ncl
ass
polit
ics,
the
form
atio
nof
the
stat
e,an
dpe
riph
eral
econ
omie
s’in
sert
ion
into
ach
angi
nggl
obal
syst
em. F
rom
this
inte
rpla
y,m
ulti
ple
outc
omes
wer
epo
ssib
le.
The
refo
re, i
twas
impo
rtan
t not
just
tom
ake
arh
etor
ical
ackn
owle
dgm
ent
ofdi
vers
ity, b
utto
map
the
actu
altr
ajec
tori
esof
hist
oric
alch
ange
. The
core
ofD
epen
denc
yan
dD
evel
opm
ent i
sa
cont
inen
t-w
ide
narr
ativ
eof
chan
ge, s
tart
ing
wit
hth
efi
rst
atte
mpt
sto
crea
tena
tion
alst
ates
afte
rth
ew
ars
ofin
depe
nden
cefr
omSp
ain.
The
book
trac
esth
eun
cert
ain
emer
genc
eof
mid
dle
clas
ses
inth
eni
nete
enth
cent
ury
asal
tern
ativ
epo
wer
cent
res
toth
ela
nd-o
wni
ngol
igar
chie
s;th
epr
oces
sof
urba
nisa
tion
inth
etw
entie
thce
ntur
yan
dth
eem
erge
nce
ofth
e‘w
orke
r-po
pula
rm
ass’
asa
poli
tica
lac
tor;
the
atte
mpt
sat
impo
rtsu
bsti
tuti
onin
dust
rial
isat
ion;
and
the
‘new
depe
nden
ce’
ina
rest
ruct
ured
wor
ldec
onom
yru
nby
mul
tina
tion
alco
rpor
atio
ns, m
akin
gth
eea
rlie
rpo
puli
st-n
atio
nali
stpo
litic
sob
sole
te.
Itis
adr
amat
icst
ory,
and
itha
sa
dram
atic
endi
ng. C
ardo
soar
idFa
letto
wer
eam
ong
the
firs
tto
sugg
est w
ew
ere
ente
ring
ane
wph
ase
ofhi
stor
y
ID
epef
ldef
lcY
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
147
mar
ked
by‘t
hefo
rmat
ion
ofa
supr
anat
iona
lm
arke
t’(1
979:
170)
—th
e
idea
late
rna
med
‘glo
balis
atio
n’.T
hey
diag
nose
d,ac
cura
tely
enou
gh,t
he
grow
thof
new
tech
nocr
atic
elite
sin
Lat
inA
mer
ica
clos
ely
asso
ciat
edw
ith
the
stat
e(m
ilit
ary
dict
ator
ship
sbe
ing
one
form
ofth
is);
and
grow
ing
soci
alin
equa
lity
and
excl
usio
n.V
Wit
hin
this
broa
dou
tlin
e,th
eco
urse
ofev
ents
indi
ffer
ent
coun
trie
s
coul
dbe
sign
ific
antl
ydi
ffer
ent.
Car
doso
and
Fal
etto
emph
asis
eth
eV
diff
eren
cebe
twee
ntw
om
ajor
patt
erns
ofde
pend
ence
.O
neis
‘enc
lave
’
econ
omie
s,w
here
maj
orin
dust
ries
wer
eca
pita
lised
and
cont
rolle
ddi
rect
ly
Vfr
omth
egl
obal
cent
re_e
xam
ples
bein
gth
eni
trat
ean
dco
pper
indu
stri
es
inC
hile
,and
the
bana
nain
dust
ryin
cent
ralA
mer
ica.
Insu
cha
situ
atio
n,
rule
bya
land
owni
ngol
igar
chy
coul
dsu
rviv
e,an
dth
edy
nam
icof
deve
lopm
entw
aslim
ited.
The
seco
ndis
the
patt
ern
ofde
pend
ent
deve
lopm
ent
show
nby
Arg
enti
naan
dB
razi
l,w
here
expo
rtin
dust
ries
deve
lope
dth
roug
ha
natio
nalb
ourg
eois
ie.T
his
grou
pac
hiev
edco
ntro
loft
hest
ate
and
acqu
ired
ace
rtai
nca
paci
tyto
fina
nce
indu
stri
aliS
atio
nan
din
tegr
ate
the
popu
lar
mas
ses
into
the
polit
ical
orde
r.B
utit
did
notc
onte
stth
edo
min
ance
ofth
e
met
ropo
le.
Her
eC
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
reac
hon
eof
thei
rm
ost
impo
rtan
t
theo
retic
alco
nclu
sion
s:‘d
evel
opm
ent’
isno
tthe
oppo
site
of’d
epen
denc
e
Dev
elop
men
tca
noc
cur
ina
way
that
mai
ntai
nsde
pend
ence
;ne
wfo
rms
ofde
pend
ence
emer
gehi
stor
ical
lyan
dth
ispr
oces
sis
still
goin
gon
.
Inth
el9
50s
and
1960
s,so
cial
scie
ntis
tsin
the
met
ropo
lere
spon
ded
to
the
post
colo
nial
situ
atio
nby
prod
ucin
gth
eori
esof
mod
erni
sati
onan
d
deve
lopm
ent,
whi
chas
sum
edth
atth
epo
orer
part
sof
the
wor
ldw
ould
V
prog
ress
byfo
llow
ing
the
path
trod
den
byE
urop
ean
dN
orth
Am
eric
a.T
he
best
know
n—_t
houg
hit
was
little
mor
eth
ana
sche
mat
icpo
pula
tisat
iOfl
was
W.W
.Ros
tow
’sT
heSt
ages
ofE
cono
mic
Gro
wth
(196
0),w
hich
beca
me
aki
ndof
Col
dW
arm
anif
esto
fort
heU
Spo
litic
alel
ite.C
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
Vw
ere
unde
rsta
ndab
lysc
ornf
ulof
‘the
oret
ical
sche
mes
’bas
edon
the
hist
ory
ofth
epr
esen
t-da
yde
velo
ped
coun
trie
s(1
979:
172)
.Ind
eed,
they
saw
a
part
icip
ator
yso
cial
ism
asth
epe
riph
ery’
sre
alal
tern
ativ
eto
depe
nden
cy,
thou
ghth
eyac
know
ledg
edth
epo
litic
aldi
ffic
ulty
offo
llow
ing
‘new
path
s
inso
ciet
y’(1
979:
213)
.M
oder
nisa
tion
theo
ryw
aspo
intle
ssbe
caus
eth
eco
urse
ofde
velo
pmen
t
ince
ntre
and
peri
pher
yha
ddi
verg
edev
ersi
nce
indu
stri
alec
onom
ies
bega
nto
form
inE
urop
e—at
muc
hth
esa
me
tim
eas
Lat
inA
mer
ica
48
South
ern
theo
ry
achi
eved
polit
ical
inde
pend
ence
.B
ritis
hw
ealth
and
pow
erw
ere
vita
lin
shap
ing
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yL
atin
Am
eric
ande
velo
pmen
tpa
ttern
s:
The
very
exis
tenc
eof
anec
onom
ic‘p
erip
hery
’ca
nnot
beun
ders
tood
wit
hout
refe
renc
eto
the
econ
omic
driv
eof
adva
nced
capi
tali
stec
onom
ies,
whi
chw
ere
resp
onsi
ble
for
the
form
atio
nof
aca
pita
list
peri
pher
yan
dfo
rth
ein
tegr
atio
nof
trad
itio
nal
nonc
apit
alis
tec
onom
ies
into
the
wor
ldm
arke
t(C
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
1979
: xvi
i).
Nei
ther
Bri
tain
then
,no
rth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
now
,co
uld
cont
rol
the
who
lepe
riph
ery
dire
ctly
.E
xter
nal
pow
erha
dto
act
thro
ugh
loca
lso
cial
forc
es.
The
core
ofC
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
’sdi
alec
tica
lso
ciol
ogy
isth
ein
terp
lay
betw
een
glob
alst
ruct
ures
and
loca
lpo
liti
cal
dyna
mic
s—th
efo
rmat
ion
ofth
elo
cals
tate
and
the
stru
ggle
sto
cont
rol a
ndre
shap
eit.
The
‘fun
dam
enta
lhis
tori
cala
ctor
s’th
atC
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
see
inth
ispo
liti
cal
dram
aar
e‘c
lass
esan
dgr
oups
defi
ned
wit
hin
spec
ific
form
sof
prod
uctio
n’(1
979:
201)
.Her
eth
eir s
ocio
logy
beco
mes
deci
dedl
ysc
hem
atic
.So
cial
clas
ses
are
defi
ned
sim
ply
asec
onom
icca
tego
ries
.T
hegr
oups
sode
fine
dm
yste
riou
sly
acqu
ire
anaw
aren
ess
ofco
mm
onin
tere
sts
and
aca
paci
tyfo
rpo
litic
alac
tion.
Car
doso
and
Fale
ttogi
veno
atte
ntio
nto
the
prob
lem
ofcl
ass
form
atio
n,do
not
expl
ore
prob
lem
sof
hege
mon
y,an
ddo
not c
onsi
der
the
inte
rsec
tions
ofcl
ass
with
othe
rst
ruct
ures
.Lik
eot
hers
ofth
eir
gene
ratio
n,th
eyca
nnot
see
beyo
ndth
em
en’s
econ
omy.
The
irst
reng
th,t
here
fore
,is
not
ina
subt
lean
alys
isof
the
stru
ctur
eof
Lat
inA
mer
ican
soci
ety.
Itis
rath
erin
thei
ran
alys
esof
the
hist
oric
ally
chan
ging
rela
tion
ship
sbe
twee
nsy
stem
sof
dom
inat
ion
wit
hin
Lat
inA
mer
ica
and
the
stru
ctur
esof
the
inte
rnat
iona
leco
nom
y.In
this
rega
rd,
Dep
ende
ncy
and
Dev
elop
men
thas
impl
icat
ions
far
beyo
ndL
atin
Am
eric
aan
dis
still
, Ith
ink,
anin
tell
ectu
ally
impo
rtan
tte
xt.
Itof
fers
aca
refu
llyth
ough
t out
met
hod
for
the
anal
ysis
oftr
ansn
atio
nals
ocia
lpro
cess
esth
atis
far
mor
eso
phis
tica
ted
than
mos
tof
the
met
ropo
lita
nli
tera
ture
on‘g
loba
lisat
ion’
that
appe
ared
25ye
ars
late
r.In
the
sam
eye
ar,
1971
, ano
ther
inno
vativ
ere
adin
gof
depe
nden
cew
aspu
blis
hed
acro
ssth
em
ount
ains
inC
hile
.The
auth
ors
wer
eA
riel
Dor
fman
,a
poet
,no
veli
stan
dli
tera
rycr
itic
,an
dA
rman
dM
atte
lart
,a
med
iaso
ciol
ogis
tori
gina
lly
from
Bel
gium
.In
wri
ting
it,as
Dor
fman
reca
llsin
his
auto
biog
raph
yH
eadi
ngSo
uth,
Loo
king
Nor
th(1
998)
,the
yw
ere
caug
htup
inth
eas
toni
shin
gfe
rmen
t of S
alva
dorA
llend
e’s
firs
tyea
rin
offic
e.T
he
ID
ependefl
cY
auto
nom
Yand
cult
ure
149
peac
eful
Chi
lean
road
toso
cial
ism
,as
the
Uni
dad
Pop
ular
regi
me
saw
it,
invo
lved
not
only
econ
omic
refo
rmbut
also
ahu
geef
fort
atpo
pula
r
educ
atio
n,in
clud
ing
the
publ
icat
ion
ofm
illio
nsof
book
san
dm
agaz
ines
,
and
the
prod
ucti
onof
new
radi
opr
ogra
ms.
Par
toft
his
effo
rtw
asdi
rect
ed
atC
hile
’syo
uth.
Itw
asna
tura
lfo
rw
rite
rsin
volv
edin
this
effo
rtto
be
inte
rest
edin
the
popu
lar
lite
ratu
refo
rch
ildre
nth
atal
read
yex
iste
d.
Irem
embe
rtha
tH
owto
Rd
Don
ald
Duc
k,w
hen
itbe
gan
toci
rcul
ate
inth
eE
ngli
shsp
eakl
ngw
orld
inth
em
id-1
970s
,ca
used
ace
rtai
nst
ir.
Dis
ney
trie
dto
have
itse
ized
whe
nco
pies
arri
ved
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
.
Even
onth
ele
ftth
ere
was
som
ean
gst.
The
sepe
ople
from
Chi
lew
ere
impo
rtan
trol
em
odel
s;th
eyha
del
ecte
da
soci
alis
tpre
side
ntan
dth
eyha
d
been
sora
dica
ltha
tthe
ypr
ovok
eda
mili
tary
coup
.Why
wer
esu
chpe
ople
play
ing
arou
ndw
ith
child
ren’
sco
mic
book
s?Fo
rH
eave
n’s
sake
,the
rear
e
som
eth
ings
that
prop
erre
volu
tiona
ries
just
don’
tdo!
But
they
did,
and
the
resu
ltis
afa
scin
atin
gdo
cum
ento
frad
ical
polit
ics
asw
ella
sa
pion
eeri
ngw
ork
incu
ltur
alst
udie
s(a
sth
efie
ldw
asbe
ginn
ing
tobe
calle
din
the
met
ropo
le).
How
toR
ead
Don
ald
Duc
kis
aton
ele
vela
n
empi
rica
lstu
dyof
mas
sm
edia
cont
ent,
base
don
acl
ose
read
ing
ofab
out
100
issu
esof
Dis
ney’
sco
mic
book
s.Fa
rfr
omin
noce
ntch
ildh
ood
fant
asy,
Dor
fman
and
Mat
tela
rt(1
975)
show
that
the
stor
ies
cons
truc
taw
orld
of
ade
fini
teso
cial
,cul
tura
land
polit
ical
char
acte
r.
Thi
sis
awor
ldw
itha
fixed
soci
alhi
erar
chy,
thou
gha
som
ewha
tpec
ulia
r
one.
The
rear
eno
pare
nts—
rath
erun
cles
,aun
ts,n
iece
san
dne
phew
sex
ist
inab
unda
nce.
Sobo
thse
xual
repr
oduc
tion
and
fam
ily
auth
orit
yar
e
conc
eale
d,ex
cept
for
ast
ereo
type
dse
xual
isat
ion
ofw
omen
,as
seen
in
Dai
syD
uck’
shig
hhe
els.
Wea
lthis
pres
ent—
inde
edco
mic
ally
exag
gera
ted
inth
efo
rmof
Scro
oge
McD
uck’
sm
oney
bin
s_but
ispi
ctur
edas
trea
sure
wai
ting
tobe
foun
d,no
tth
epr
oduc
tof
anyo
ne’s
labo
ur.‘
Inth
ew
orld
of
Dis
ney,
noon
eha
sto
wor
kin
orde
rto
prod
uce’
(197
5:64
).U
rban
wor
king
-
clas
spe
ople
,whe
npr
esen
tat a
ll,ar
em
ainl
ycr
imin
als
(the
Bea
gle
Boy
s).
But
the
Thi
rdW
orld
isce
rtai
nly
pres
ent.
By
Dor
fman
and
Mat
tela
rt’s
coun
t,as
man
yas
half
the
stor
iesh
ave
the
hero
esse
tting
offf
rom
Duc
kbur
g
toad
vent
ures
inex
otic
,pr
imit
ive
loca
tion
ssu
chas
Azt
ecla
nd,
Inca
Blin
caor
Uns
tead
ysta
n.T
hein
habi
tant
stu
rnou
tto
bena
ive
orno
ble
sava
ges
ofte
nbe
ing
ripp
edof
fby
evil-
doer
sfr
omw
hom
the
duck
ssa
ve
them
.The
yar
eut
terl
yun
able
toch
ange
thei
rci
rcum
stan
ces
byth
eir
own
effo
rts.
F15
0S
outh
ern
theo
ry
Soth
ese
mas
s-ci
rcul
atio
nen
tert
ainm
ents
cons
truc
t for
child
ren
imag
esof
ahi
erar
chic
al, u
ncha
ngin
glo
cal a
ndgl
obal
orde
r.D
orfm
anan
dM
atte
lart
ackn
owle
dge
that
the
Dis
ney
stor
ies
allo
wm
any
min
orin
vers
ions
.Fo
rin
stan
ce, w
hen
the
duck
neph
ews
are
inco
nflic
t with
Don
ald,
itis
usua
llyth
ech
ildr
enw
hoar
ew
ise,
care
ful
and
far-
sigh
ted,
and
the
adul
tw
hois
stup
id. I
nth
isre
spec
t,th
eD
isne
yco
mic
sar
em
ore
soph
istic
ated
than
, say
,Su
perm
anco
mic
s.A
t the
end
ofea
chst
ory,
how
ever
, the
wor
ldre
turn
sto
itsus
ual o
rder
. Gyr
oG
earl
oose
neve
r get
sri
ch, S
croo
gene
ver g
ets
poor
, and
ifth
eno
ble
sava
ges
dow
ell,
itis
beca
use
som
ede
velo
per
has
inst
alle
da
tour
ist h
otel
that
allo
ws
them
topr
eser
veth
eir
exot
icw
ays.
Dor
fman
and
Mat
tela
rtth
eori
seth
eef
fect
bysa
ying
that
the
Dis
ney
com
ics
inve
rtth
ere
alre
lati
onbe
twee
nm
ater
ial
base
and
cult
ural
supe
rstr
uctu
re.
The
ycr
eate
abo
urge
ois
fant
asy
wor
ld—
not
prop
agan
dafo
rth
eA
mer
ican
Way
ofLi
feso
muc
has
prop
agan
dafo
ran
Am
eric
anD
ream
ofLi
fe:
Itis
the
man
ner
inw
hich
the
U.S
.dr
eam
san
dre
deem
sits
elf,
and
then
impo
ses
that
drea
mup
onot
hers
for
itsow
nsa
lvat
ion,
whi
chpo
ses
the
dang
erfo
rth
ede
pend
ent
coun
trie
s.It
forc
esus
Lat
inA
mer
ican
sto
see
ours
elve
sas
they
see
us.
..R
eadi
ngD
isne
yis
like
havi
ngon
e’s
own
expl
oite
dco
ndit
ion
ram
med
wit
hho
ney
dow
non
e’s
thro
at(1
975:
95—
96).
Don
ald
Duc
kth
usco
ntri
bute
sto
unde
r-de
velo
pmen
t,by
help
ing
bloc
kth
efo
rmat
ion
ofa
cons
ciou
snes
sof
the
real
ities
ofex
ploi
tati
on,
and
aco
nsci
ousn
ess
ofth
epo
ssib
ility
ofch
ange
—’t
heno
tion
that
time
prod
uces
som
ethi
ngis
natu
rall
yel
imin
ated
’(1
975:
86).
The
reis
mor
eto
Dor
fman
and
Mat
tela
rt’s
anal
ysis
, as
they
com
men
ton
othe
rth
emes
and
onal
l the
lead
ing
char
acte
rsin
Dis
ney’
sca
stlis
t.B
utth
isis
thei
rm
ain
argu
men
t.It
show
sho
w, e
ven
with
the
unpr
omis
ing
tool
spr
ovid
edby
conv
enti
onal
Mar
xism
,L
atin
Am
eric
anra
dica
lsbe
gan
toco
nstr
uct a
nac
coun
t of t
hein
tern
alm
echa
nism
sof
met
ropo
lita
ncu
ltura
ldo
min
atio
n.T
hepr
oble
mha
dm
any
sim
ilari
ties
toth
e‘W
esto
xica
tion’
that
A1-
eA
hmad
had
addr
esse
da
few
year
sbe
fore
(see
Cha
pter
6).
Unl
ike
Al-
eA
hmad
, Dor
fman
and
Mat
tela
rtdo
dged
the
issu
eof
wha
tto
doab
out
it.In
ade
fens
ive
pass
age
atth
een
dof
thei
rbo
ok, t
hey
wri
teth
atno
one
isab
leto
prop
ose
anin
divi
dual
solu
tion
toth
ese
prob
lem
s,
Dep
en
den
cy
,auto
nom
yan
dcu
lture
151
and
wha
thap
pens
afte
rD
isne
y‘w
illbe
deci
ded
byth
eso
cial
prac
tice
of
the
peop
les
seek
ing
eman
cipa
tion’
(197
5:99
).A
ndpr
obab
lyth
eyth
ough
t
that
was
real
lyha
ppen
ing
inth
eU
nida
dP
opul
arm
ovem
ent.
But
whe
n
How
toR
ead
Don
ald
Duc
kw
aspu
blis
hed,
Uni
dad
Pop
ular
had
just
two
year
sto
live.
The
Day
afte
rth
eD
eath
ofa
Rev
olut
ion
InSe
ptem
ber
1973
the
gene
rals
stru
ck,t
heM
oned
apa
lace
was
bom
bed,
Alle
nde
died
,and
both
gove
rnm
enta
ndm
ovem
entw
ere
dest
roye
d.A
riel
Dor
fman
was
onth
em
ilita
ry’s
deat
hlis
t,an
don
lyju
stes
cape
dfr
omth
e
coun
try.
Dor
fman
late
rpu
blis
hed
am
ovin
gbo
okof
poem
sab
out
terr
or
and
exile
.In
one
ofth
em(D
orfm
an19
88:6
1)he
reca
llsho
wth
em
ovem
ent
inC
hile
had
faile
dto
see
wha
t was
com
ing
tow
ards
it.U
nfor
tuna
tely
for
copy
righ
trea
sons
Ica
nnot
quot
eth
epo
emhe
re.
But
Ica
nre
flec
ton
the
auth
or’s
poin
tth
atpr
ogre
ssiv
esha
dsi
mpl
yfa
iled
tore
cogn
ise
the
cons
eque
nces
ofm
ilit
ary
cultu
re,a
ndth
eir
own
vuln
erab
ilit
yto
viol
ence
.
Chi
leha
d,af
ter
all,
anes
tabl
ishe
dco
nsti
tuti
onal
regi
me,
and
elec
tora
l
supp
ort
for
Uni
dad
Pop
ular
seem
edto
begr
owin
g.B
utop
posi
tion
was
hard
enin
gto
o,an
dfi
ndin
gou
tsid
esu
ppor
t.
The
Chi
lean
mil
itar
yre
gim
ew
asno
tth
efi
rst—
not
even
the
mos
t
viol
ent—
ofth
eL
atin
Am
eric
anau
thor
itar
ian
regi
mes
,but
itw
asbr
utal
enou
gh.
Inits
firs
tfew
year
s,w
hich
the
hist
oria
nT
omás
Mou
lian
(200
2)
calls
‘the
phas
eof
the
terr
oris
td
icta
tors
hip
left
-win
gm
ilit
ants
and
inte
llect
uals
wer
ehu
nted
dow
n.M
any
ofth
emw
ere
tort
ured
—a
spec
ialis
ed
pris
onw
asse
tup
for
the
purp
ose
atV
illa
Gri
mal
dion
Sant
iago
’sea
ster
n
frin
ge(l
ater
bull
doze
dto
hide
the
evid
ence
,now
am
emor
ialp
ark)
—an
d
hund
reds
wer
eki
lled.
The
situ
atio
nw
asw
orse
inth
eA
rgen
tine
dict
ator
ship
,w
here
inth
e
dirt
yw
arag
ains
tth
ere
gim
e’s
oppo
nent
sth
e‘d
isap
pear
ed’
(pre
sum
ably
mur
dere
d)nu
mbe
red
abov
ete
nth
ousa
nd.T
hedi
ctat
orsh
ipin
Bra
zilh
eld
pow
erfo
rm
ore
than
two
deca
des
and
depo
rted
,im
pris
oned
,tor
ture
dor
mur
dere
dth
ousa
nds.
The
dict
ator
ship
inU
rugu
ayhe
ldde
moc
racy
atba
y
for
mor
eth
ana
deca
de.E
ven
inM
exic
o,un
der
the
civi
lian
regi
me
ofth
e
Inst
itut
iona
lRev
olut
iona
ryPa
rty,
abou
t30
0of
the
youn
ger
inte
llige
ntsi
a
wer
esh
otde
adin
1968
,atT
late
lolc
oSq
uare
.Ir
ecal
lthe
sede
tails
nott
obe
mor
bid,
butt
oem
phas
ise
the
high
stak
es
inL
atin
Am
eric
ande
bate
sab
out
auto
nom
yan
dde
pend
ence
;an
dal
soto
152
South
ern
theo
ry
begi
nto
expl
ain
the
inte
llect
ual c
hang
eth
atfo
llow
ed. T
hest
ate
terr
oris
mth
atde
capi
tate
dU
nida
dP
opul
aran
ddi
sper
sed
itssu
ppor
ters
also
dest
roye
dits
mod
elof
econ
omic
and
cult
ural
auto
nom
y.T
heB
razi
lian
dict
ator
ship
man
aged
toac
hiev
ehi
ghgr
owth
rate
sw
itho
utre
dist
ribu
tion,
wit
hout
dem
ocra
cyan
dw
itho
utde
-lin
king
from
the
met
ropo
le, v
iola
ting
the
pred
icti
ons
ofbo
thC
EPA
Lan
dth
ede
pend
ency
scho
ol. A
sC
rist
óbal
Kay
(198
9)ob
serv
esin
his
hist
ory
ofun
der-
deve
lopm
ent a
ndde
pend
ency
theo
ries
, all
ofth
ese
scho
ols
ofth
ough
twer
elo
sing
polit
ical
cred
ibili
tyin
the
1970
s—ir
onic
ally
, jus
t bef
ore
ava
stde
btcr
isis
engu
lfed
the
cont
inen
tan
dpr
oved
the
need
for
anan
alys
isof
Lat
inA
mer
ica’
svu
lner
abili
ty.
The
grou
ndw
asth
uscl
eare
dfo
ra
new
mod
elof
deve
lopm
ent,
whi
chC
hile
unde
rG
ener
alP
inoc
het
was
the
firs
tco
untr
yin
the
wor
ldto
adop
t.N
eoli
bera
lism
, the
poli
tica
lan
dso
cial
agen
dabu
ilt
arou
ndfr
ee-
mar
ket
econ
omic
sth
atca
me
todo
min
ate
Lat
inA
mer
ica
inth
e19
80s
and
1990
s,is
inno
sens
eS
outh
ern
theo
ry. I
t is,
onth
eco
ntra
ry, a
clas
sic
prod
uct
ofth
e‘f
alse
sens
eof
univ
ersa
lity’
inec
onom
ics
that
Preb
isch
had
crit
icis
edin
Pri
ncip
alPr
oble
ms.
The
neol
iber
als
who
took
cont
rol o
fC
hile
’sec
onom
yun
der
Pin
oche
t mad
eth
ispo
intt
hem
selv
es, b
yin
vitin
gto
the
1975
conf
eren
ceth
atsh
aped
nati
onal
poli
cytw
olu
min
arie
sof
the
Uni
vers
ity
ofC
hica
goE
cono
mic
sS
choo
l—A
rnol
dH
arbe
rger
and
Mil
ton
Fri
edm
an—
who
obli
ged
them
byar
guin
gfo
rsh
ock
trea
tmen
t,no
tgr
adua
lch
ange
(Silv
a19
96).
The
Chi
lean
peop
lem
ade
the
poin
tto
o,by
nick
nam
ing
the
grou
pof
econ
omis
ts, b
urea
ucra
tsan
dne
w-r
ich
entr
epre
neur
s(o
ften
the
sam
epe
ople
)w
hoim
plem
ente
dth
ispo
licy
‘the
Chi
cago
Boys
’.T
heim
pact
ofne
olib
eral
ism
inL
atin
Am
eric
ais
now
very
wel
ldo
cum
ente
d(f
orex
celle
ntE
ngli
sh-l
angu
age
acco
unts
,se
eSi
lva
1996
;N
ocht
eff a
ndA
bele
s20
00; H
uber
and
Solt
2004
),an
dIw
illno
trec
iteth
est
ory
here
. Wha
tI
wou
ldem
phas
ise
isth
atne
olib
eral
ism
arri
ved
inan
atm
osph
ere
ofcr
isis
, par
tly
inte
rnal
—as
repr
esen
ted
byth
evi
olen
ceof
the
dict
ator
ship
sth
emse
lves
—an
dpa
rtly
exte
rnal
, the
debt
cris
isof
the
1980
s.A
nin
tern
atio
nal l
iqui
dity
sque
eze,
new
far-
righ
t gov
ernm
ents
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
and
Bri
tain
led
byR
eaga
nan
dT
hatc
her
who
chok
edof
fth
eN
orth
—So
uth
dial
ogue
ingl
obal
foru
ms,
and
the
capt
ure
ofth
eIn
tern
atio
nal
Mon
etar
yF
und
byne
olib
eral
ssu
pport
edby
thes
ego
vern
men
ts,
forc
edne
olib
eral
poli
cies
onto
econ
omie
sac
ross
the
cont
inen
t.
DependencY
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
53
Neo
liber
aliS
mno
tonl
ym
eant
selli
ngof
fthe
publ
icen
terp
rise
sth
atha
d
been
buil
tup
byth
ela
bour
ofpr
evio
usge
nera
tiOfl
Sdi
sman
tlin
gth
e
wel
fare
stat
ean
dre
dist
ribu
ting
inco
me
tow
ards
the
rich
.Ita
lso
repr
esen
ted
acr
isis
ofim
pote
nce
forp
opul
arpo
litic
s.T
heef
fect
ofth
eec
onom
icsh
ock
trea
tmen
t,as
Noc
htef
fand
Abe
les
(200
0:13
1—2)
desc
ribe
itfo
rArg
entin
a,
was
todi
srup
tin
stit
utio
ns,
erod
epo
pula
rtr
ust,
wea
ken
chec
ksan
d
bala
nces
,and
crea
tea‘
priv
ate
stat
e’in
whi
chth
eon
lyef
fect
ive
pow
ers
wer
e
big
corp
orat
ions
and
the
polit
ical
elite
.
The
adve
ntof
neol
iber
alis
mth
usha
dm
uch
wid
eref
fect
sth
anm
erel
y
econ
omic
.As
anu
mbe
rof
thou
ghtf
ulco
mm
enta
tors
have
obse
rved
,thi
s
who
leco
urse
ofev
ents
also
repr
esen
ted
acr
isis
for
soci
alsc
ienc
ein
Lat
in
Am
eric
a.T
heol
dob
ject
ofkn
owle
dge,
nati
onal
soci
ety
and
econ
omy,
is
nolo
nger
avi
able
unit,
and
the
form
erco
nnec
tion
betw
een
soci
al-s
cien
tific
know
ledg
ean
dpr
ojec
tsof
soci
alch
ange
has
been
brok
en(G
arre
tófl
2000
).
Lat
inA
mer
ican
crit
ical
thou
ght
cam
eto
ast
ands
till
asne
olib
eral
ism
intr
oduc
edne
wpr
oble
ms
and
disc
usse
dth
emin
ane
wla
ngua
ge,
and
conn
ecti
onbe
twee
ncr
itic
alth
ough
tan
dso
cial
mov
emen
tsw
aslo
st
(Sad
er20
02).
Tha
tis
the
situ
atio
nad
dres
sed
byth
eC
hile
anso
ciol
ogis
tM
arti
n
Hop
enha
ynin
ase
ries
ofes
says
colle
cted
inN
oA
poca
lyps
e,N
oIn
tegr
atio
n.
His
open
ing
chap
ter,
‘The
Day
Aft
erth
eD
eath
ofa
Rev
olut
ion’
,evo
kes
the
moo
dof
loss
and
doub
t:
Wha
tth
eso
ciet
ies
ofL
atin
Am
eric
am
ost
shar
eto
day
are
soci
al
dete
rior
atio
n,fo
rmal
dem
ocra
cy,p
riva
tizi
ngeu
phor
iaan
dsh
ock
poli
tics
..
.T
hefo
llow
ing
page
sm
ight
seem
skep
tical
.T
hey
don’
t
indi
cate
new
aven
ues
for
chan
geno
rdo
they
revi
taliz
eol
dim
puls
es
for
radi
cal
tran
sfor
mat
ion.
Rat
her,
they
trac
eth
ecr
isis
and
the
cons
eque
nces
foll
owin
gth
esh
atte
red
drea
mof
inte
gra
tion
(Hop
enha
Yn
2001
:1—
2).
The
cent
ralc
once
rnof
No
Apo
caly
pse
isth
een
dof
the
gran
dso
cia
list
and
plan
nedd
eVel
0Pm
&1t
proj
ects
that
had
give
na
focu
sto
both
polit
ics
and
soci
alsc
ienc
eov
erth
epr
evio
usha
lf-c
entu
rY.T
heen
dof
thes
epr
ojec
ts
requ
ires
ase
arch
for
new
way
sof
thin
king
and
new
form
sof
know
ledg
e.
Thi
sin
volv
es,b
efor
ean
ythi
ngel
se,a
grea
tsc
alin
g-do
wn
ofam
biti
on.‘
At
pres
ent,
the
fleI
dof
the
soci
alsc
ienc
esha
ssl
ippe
din
togr
eate
rac
adem
ic
and
polit
ical
hum
ility
’(2
001:
121)
—so
muc
hso
that
the
prev
ious
hero
ic
r
154
South
ern
theo
ry
figu
reof
the
soci
alsc
ient
ist a
sre
form
erm
ight
wel
lapp
ear t
obe
am
ista
keof
hist
ory.
Hop
enha
yn’s
essa
y‘Is
the
Soci
alT
hink
able
Wit
hout
Met
anar
rativ
es?’
(200
1:11
9—41
)br
ings
toge
ther
the
impl
icat
ions
for
Sou
ther
nth
eory
. The
soci
alsc
ienc
esin
Lat
inA
mer
ica
are
now
suff
erin
gbo
tha
cris
isof
inte
ffig
ibili
tyan
da
cris
isof
orga
nici
ty.T
heth
ree
lead
ing
para
digm
sof
the
prev
ious
gene
rati
onw
ere
CE
PAL
-sty
lede
velo
pmen
tth
eory
,de
pend
ency
theo
ryan
dM
arxi
sm(r
epre
sent
edin
this
chap
ter
byth
eth
ree
mai
nte
xts
disc
usse
dab
ove)
. Soc
ial c
hang
eits
elf h
aspr
oduc
edco
mpl
exiti
esth
atth
ese
fram
ewor
ksca
nnot
com
preh
end.
At t
hesa
me
time,
the
assu
mpt
ion
ofan
orga
nic
conn
ectio
nbe
twee
nth
epr
oduc
tion
ofkn
owle
dge
and
inte
rven
tion
inso
cial
real
ityvi
apo
pula
rre
form
mov
emen
tsha
sbe
ensm
ashe
d.T
hepl
anni
ngst
ate,
the
soci
alm
echa
nism
onw
hich
all t
hree
para
digm
sin
fact
depe
nded
, has
lost
itscr
edib
ility
.H
open
hayn
sees
exte
rnal
even
ts—
the
econ
omic
cris
isat
the
begi
nnin
gof
the
1980
san
dth
eco
llap
seof
Sovi
etco
mm
unis
mat
the
end—
asco
ntri
buti
ngto
this
disi
llus
ion,
but
also
thin
ksth
eso
cial
scie
nces
had
mad
eth
emse
lves
vuln
erab
le. T
hefo
rmth
eyto
okin
Lat
inA
mer
ica
repre
sent
edan
extr
eme
expr
essi
onof
Eur
opea
nE
nlig
hten
men
t opt
imis
mab
out
the
pow
erof
reas
on, a
ndth
eca
paci
tyof
inte
llect
uals
topu
t the
mse
lves
onth
esi
deof
hist
ory
and
prog
ress
. He
revi
ews
the
fam
iliar
criti
ques
ofsu
chdo
ctri
nes
ofra
tion
alit
y—po
stm
oder
n,F
rank
furt
Scho
olan
dne
olib
eral
—to
sugg
est t
here
isno
way
back
toth
eon
ce-d
omin
ant m
odel
sof
know
ledg
ean
din
telle
ctua
l pra
ctic
e.A
t thi
spo
int i
nhi
sar
gum
ent,
Hop
enha
ynis
usin
gpu
rem
etro
poli
tan
theo
ryto
ham
mer
inte
llec
tual
sof
the
peri
pher
y—an
all
too
fam
ilia
rpa
tter
nin
the
cont
rove
rsie
sab
out
deve
lopm
ent
econ
omic
s!In
anot
her
essa
y,H
open
hayn
dire
ctly
addr
esse
sth
elo
cal
rele
vanc
eof
Eur
opea
npo
stm
oder
nth
ough
t,es
peci
ally
Lyo
tard
and
Bau
dril
lard
.H
esu
gges
tsth
eir
idea
sha
veim
port
ant
para
llel
sw
ith
the
new
cond
itio
nof
Lat
inA
mer
ica.
Soth
epo
stm
oder
nth
emes
ofco
mpl
exity
, ind
eter
min
acy
and
the
loca
lar
ehe
lpfu
lin
unde
rsta
ndin
gco
ntem
pora
ryso
ciet
y,an
din
just
ifyi
ngso
cial
scie
nce’
sne
win
tere
stin
ever
yday
life
rath
erth
anla
rge
stru
ctur
es.
Yet
Hop
enha
ynw
ants
tobo
rrow
only
sele
ctiv
ely
from
Nor
ther
nth
eori
sts.
Inpa
rtic
ular
, he
emph
asis
esth
atm
ovin
gto
war
dsa
post
mod
ern
sens
ibili
tysh
ould
not
mea
nfa
lling
into
aco
olor
cyni
cal
acce
ptan
ceof
Dep
enden
cY.
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
155
pove
rty
soci
alex
clus
ion
oral
iena
tion.
He
isve
rycl
ear
abou
tth
egr
owth
ofso
cial
ineq
uali
tyin
Lat
inA
mer
ica
unde
rne
olib
eral
ism
,pro
duci
ng‘a
stat
usqu
ow
here
the
(int
erna
tion
ally
)in
tegr
ated
are
star
kly
juxt
apos
ed
with
the
(nat
iona
lly)
excl
uded
’(2
001:
4).
Whi
lecr
itic
isin
gin
stru
men
tal
reas
on,
Hop
enha
ynde
fend
sut
opia
n
reas
on.H
een
dsth
ebo
okw
itha
nice
essa
yin
prai
seof
utop
ian
thou
ght,
emph
asis
ing
the
need
for
open
rath
erth
anm
illen
nial
istu
topi
as.I
nea
rlie
r
rese
arch
,H
open
hayn
and
his
coll
eagu
esha
dex
plor
edsm
all-
scal
e
deve
lopm
ent
proj
ects
.In
No
Apo
caly
PSe
hepr
aise
sth
e‘a
lter
nati
ve
deve
lopm
ent’
mov
emen
t,w
hich
emph
asis
esgr
assr
oots
actio
n,di
vers
ity
and
soci
alin
volv
emen
trat
her
than
part
ypo
litic
sor
the
sove
reig
nm
arke
t.
Thi
s,H
open
hayn
seem
sto
thin
k,is
the
mos
tpr
omis
ing
venu
efo
ra
new
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
prac
tice
and
theo
ry.
But
ther
eis
also
anot
her
argu
men
tin
the
book
,cur
ious
and
sugg
estiv
e.
The
plan
ning
stat
em
ayha
velo
stal
lleg
itim
acy,
and
the
soci
alsc
ienc
e
para
digm
sas
soci
ated
with
itha
vego
nein
toth
edu
stbi
nof
hist
ory.
But
the
reas
ons
why
thos
eap
proa
ches
wer
ecr
eate
dha
veno
tgon
eaw
ay.A
tthe
end
ofhi
sch
apte
ron
post
mod
erni
sman
dne
olib
eral
ism
,Hop
enha
Yn
reca
lls
Preh
isch
.Man
yof
Preb
isch
’san
alys
esan
dpr
edic
tion
sha
vepr
oved
corr
ect
inth
ene
wne
olib
eral
wor
ld.
Mor
eove
r,‘w
edo
not
poss
ess
anot
her
inte
rpre
tive
focu
sca
pabl
eof
givi
nga
spec
ific
sens
eof
tota
lity
and
cohe
renc
e
toth
ehe
tero
gene
ity
char
acte
rist
icof
the
proc
esse
sof
mod
erni
zati
onin
Lat
inA
mer
ica’
(200
1:90
).O
ther
sto
oha
vesu
gges
ted
that
,si
nce
neol
iber
alid
eas
have
flou
rish
ed
for
year
sw
ith
little
deba
te,i
tis
tim
efo
ra
new
stru
ctur
aliS
m(K
ay19
98).
Infa
ct,P
rebi
sch
had
been
one
ofth
efi
rstt
oat
tem
ptth
is,
asun
stop
pabl
e
inag
eas
heha
dbe
enin
yout
h.A
fter
his
retu
rnto
Lat
inA
mer
ica
and
to
CEP
AL,
now
inhi
sse
vent
ies,
Preb
isch
wro
tea
seri
esof
pape
rs,s
ynth
esis
ed
inC
apita
lism
ope
rife
rico
(198
1b),
refl
ectin
gon
the
less
ons
ofth
e30
year
s
sinc
ePr
inci
palP
robl
ems.
Inth
isbo
okhe
rein
forc
edth
ear
gum
ents
abou
t
stru
ctur
aldi
ffer
ence
betw
een
cent
rean
dpe
riph
ery,
and
adde
da
polit
ical
soci
olog
yof
depe
nden
tec
onom
ies
toac
coun
tfo
rth
eli
mit
edsu
cces
sof
indu
stri
alis
atio
flst
rate
gies
,and
the
turn
tovi
olen
ceun
dert
hedi
ctat
orsh
ips.
He
mad
ea
shar
pcr
itiqu
eof
the
‘fak
elib
eral
ism
’tha
toff
ered
pros
peri
tyto
the
rich
whi
leco
nsol
idat
ing
soci
alin
just
ice;
and
expr
esse
dhi
sco
ntin
ued
belie
ftha
teco
nom
icau
tono
my
fort
hepe
riph
ery
ispo
ssib
lew
hate
ver
new
stra
tegi
esm
ight
bere
quir
edto
achi
eve
it.
One
reas
onfo
rth
ese
nse
ofgr
eate
rso
cial
com
plex
ityno
ted
byG
arre
tón
and
Hop
enha
ynis
the
mul
tipl
icat
ion
ofid
entit
ies
and
the
arri
val
ofne
wso
cial
acto
rs. P
erha
psth
em
osti
mpo
rtan
t—ce
rtai
nly
the
mos
tdif
ficu
ltto
fitin
toan
yof
the
fam
iliar
soci
alsc
ienc
epa
radi
gms—
isth
eL
atin
Am
eric
anw
omen
’sm
ovem
ent.
All
the
theo
rist
sso
far
men
tion
edin
this
chap
ter
have
been
men
, and
not
one
ofth
emse
ems
toha
veth
ough
tth
atm
en’s
pow
erin
soci
ety,
ordo
min
ance
ofdi
scou
rses
abou
tso
ciet
y,w
asa
prob
lem
.O
fco
urse
,L
atin
Am
eric
ais
not
uniq
uein
this
.M
endo
min
ate
mos
tof
the
met
ropo
lita
nan
dpe
riph
eral
disc
ours
esdi
scus
sed
inth
eea
rlie
rch
apte
rsof
this
book
.A
sSo
nia
Mon
teci
no(2
001)
argu
esin
anes
say
onso
cial
dive
rsity
inC
hile
, in
aso
ciet
yac
cust
omed
toth
inki
ngin
term
sof
unit
yit
isa
diff
icul
tta
skto
brin
gou
tdi
ffer
ence
. The
fem
inin
e,th
ein
dige
nous
,the
loca
lca
nbe
asse
rted
inac
tsof
resi
stan
cean
dre
appr
opri
atio
n.B
utto
doso
runs
agai
nst d
omin
ant
mod
esof
thou
ght.
Thi
sap
plie
son
the
left
asw
ell a
son
the
righ
t.W
omen
inL
atin
Am
eric
a,as
inot
her
part
sof
the
wor
ld,
have
ofte
nfa
ced
stro
ngre
sist
ance
from
the
men
runn
ing
trad
eun
ions
,soc
ialis
tpa
rtie
san
dan
ti-gl
obal
isat
ion
cam
paig
ns(f
orC
entr
alA
mer
ica,
see
Men
dez
2002
;fo
rAus
tral
iaan
dC
anad
a,se
eFr
anzw
ay19
99).
Itta
kes
ast
rugg
leto
get m
ento
reco
gnis
ein
just
ice
inth
eir
own
habi
tual
prac
tices
, or i
nge
nder
arra
ngem
ents
from
whi
chth
eybe
nefi
t:w
ife-
beat
ing,
sexu
alha
rass
men
tin
the
wor
kpla
ce, u
nequ
alpa
yan
dth
edo
uble
shif
t.It
take
san
othe
rst
rugg
lefo
rsi
gnif
ican
tnu
mbe
rsof
men
tore
cogn
ise
wom
en—
who
mth
eyha
velo
ngse
enas
ado
mes
ticsu
ppor
tsy
stem
for
am
ascu
line
publ
icw
orld
—as
legi
tim
ate
lead
ers,
repr
esen
tati
ves
and
orga
nisa
tiona
lpo
wer
-hol
ders
.In
2006
abr
eakt
hrou
ghoc
curr
ed,a
ndth
efi
rst w
oman
from
apr
ogre
ssiv
eco
aliti
on, M
iche
lleB
ache
let
ofC
hile
, was
elec
ted
head
ofgo
vern
men
t.M
onte
cino
anal
yses
the
shif
tin
fem
inin
eid
enti
ties
byas
sum
ing
that
hist
oric
alch
ange
soc
cur
both
inth
est
ruct
ure
ofge
nder
rela
tions
and
insu
bjec
tiviti
es. C
hile
ancu
lture
was
trad
ition
ally
mar
ked
byan
iden
tific
atio
nof
wom
anho
odw
ithm
othe
rhoo
d.H
ence
the
cult
ofth
esu
ffer
ing
Mot
her
inre
ligio
n,an
dth
eco
nstr
ucti
onof
imag
esof
mas
culi
nity
inre
latio
nto
am
ater
nal
figu
re—
the
abse
ntfa
ther
, or
the
mot
her’
sso
n.T
his
isa
deep
lyen
tren
ched
cult
ural
patt
ern,
and
Mon
teci
noci
tes
rece
ntsu
rvey
evid
ence
Dep
enden
CY
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
157
show
ing
that
Chi
lean
wom
enar
est
illm
ostly
iden
tifie
dw
ithth
eir
role
as
mot
hers
and
Chi
lean
men
with
thei
rro
leas
wor
kers
.She
obse
rves
that
an
iden
tific
atio
nw
ith
the
mat
erna
lro
leca
nle
adto
real
diff
icul
ties
abou
t
sexu
ality
asw
omen
age.
Yet
econ
omic
chan
ge,s
peci
fica
llyth
ein
corp
orat
ion
ofw
omen
into
the
paid
wor
kfor
ce,h
asbe
endi
srup
ting
this
iden
tity.
Asw
omen
emer
ged
into
the
publ
icre
alm
,iss
ues
abou
tth
eir
subo
rdin
atio
nto
men
also
emer
ged.
Paid
wor
kbe
cam
ea
new
basi
sfo
rw
omen
’sid
enti
ty,
and
ape
rman
ent
tens
ion
wit
hth
eid
eolo
gyof
mat
erni
tyw
asse
tup
.G
iven
the
patt
ern
of
econ
omic
chan
ge,t
his
shif
tocc
urre
dea
rlie
rfor
wor
king
-cla
ssw
omen
than
for
mid
dle-
clas
sw
omen
.M
onte
cino
find
ssu
rvey
evid
ence
show
ing
that
ther
eis
now
wid
espr
ead
acce
ptan
ceof
wom
enw
orki
ngou
tsid
eth
eho
me.
Supp
ort
isst
rong
est
amon
gw
omen
them
selv
es,a
mon
gyo
ung
peop
le,i
n
the
citie
s,on
the
left,
and
inth
ew
orki
ngcl
ass.
Inre
latio
nto
gend
erpo
litic
s,
asw
ell
ascl
ass,
the
stat
ean
dec
onom
icde
velo
pmen
t,C
hile
seem
sto
be
‘un
pais
divi
dido
adi
vide
dla
nd(H
unee
us20
03).
Mon
teci
nois
clea
rth
atch
ange
sin
iden
tity
need
not
sim
plif
yid
entit
y.
We
now
see
‘ide
ntiti
esun
der
tens
ion’
.Sh
eci
tes
ast
udy
ofm
iddl
e-cl
ass
wom
en’s
orie
ntat
ion
topa
idw
ork
that
dist
ingu
ishe
sth
ree
stra
tegi
es:
mai
nten
ance
ofth
eco
mm
itm
ent
tom
ater
naliS
lWa
com
plem
enta
ry
rela
tion
betw
een
paid
wor
kan
dm
ater
nity
;an
dw
ork
asth
epr
imar
ylif
e
focu
s.Ir
onic
ally
,it
ism
iddl
e-an
dup
per-
clas
sw
omen
’sec
onom
icpo
wer
that
allo
ws
them
topa
ssa
good
deal
ofho
usew
ork
and
child
care
over
to
wom
endo
mes
ticem
ploy
ees.
Even
mor
ein
tere
stin
gis
Mon
teci
no’s
sugg
estio
nth
ata
dyna
mic
fam
iliar
inL
atin
Am
eric
anhi
stor
y,th
efo
rmat
ion
ofid
enti
ties
inso
cial
stru
ggle
,
clea
rly
appl
ies
tow
omen
.Col
lect
ive
iden
titie
sfo
rw
omen
are
cons
truc
ted
inw
omen
’sm
ovem
ents
,and
Lat
inA
mer
ican
wom
en’s
mov
emen
tsar
eve
ry
dive
rse—
som
eas
soci
ated
wit
hU
nion
sor
part
ies
and
som
eau
tono
mou
s,
som
ein
dige
nous
and
soon
.Fem
inis
tmov
emen
ts,f
rom
the
earl
yst
rugg
les
for
the
vote
,hav
eem
phas
ised
equa
lity
betw
een
wom
enan
dm
en,a
swel
las
gend
erdi
ffer
ence
.Sur
viva
lmov
emen
tsha
veas
sum
edra
ther
than
atta
cked
the
trad
itio
nalg
ende
rdi
visi
onof
labo
ur.M
othe
rs’
mov
emen
ts,s
uch
asth
e
fam
ous
dem
onst
rati
ons
for
the
‘dis
appe
ared
’in
Arg
entin
a,ha
vebl
ende
d
mat
erna
listi
deol
ogy
with
calls
forh
uman
righ
ts.T
hus
fem
inis
tmov
emen
ts
have
stru
ggle
dfo
rm
ajor
chan
gein
wom
en’s
iden
tity,
and
the
pow
erto
mov
ein
tom
ascu
line
sphe
res
whi
lem
othe
rs’
mov
emen
tsha
veno
t.
156
South
ern
theo
ry
New
dim
ensi
ons
ofst
ruggle
r I
158
South
ern
theo
ry
Wom
en’s
activ
ism
was
apr
omin
entp
art o
fthe
resi
stan
ceto
dict
ator
ship
,an
dth
isac
hiev
emen
tpl
aced
fem
inis
tde
man
dson
the
agen
das
ofpr
ogre
ssiv
epo
liti
cal
part
ies.
But
wom
en’s
acti
vism
also
crea
ted
new
grou
nds
onw
hich
righ
t-w
ing
part
ies
coul
dca
mpa
ign
agai
nst i
mm
oral
ity
and
soci
albr
eakd
own,
thei
rus
ual
inte
rpre
tati
onof
chan
gein
wom
en’s
lives
(in
Lat
inA
mer
ica
asin
Iran
).T
heco
mpl
exdi
alec
ticof
gend
erin
volv
esm
enas
wel
l as
wom
en. L
atin
Am
eric
anfe
min
ism
has
been
exce
ptio
nally
activ
ein
prom
otin
gre
sear
chan
dde
bate
abou
tm
en,
asM
atth
ewG
utm
ann
and
Mar
aV
iver
osV
igoy
a(2
005)
note
ina
rece
ntsu
rvey
ofth
isfi
eld.
Inde
ed,
are
sear
chgr
oup
inC
hile
led
byJo
séO
lava
rrIa
has,
sinc
eth
em
id- l
990s
, con
duct
edth
em
ost
sust
aine
dpr
ogra
mof
rese
arch
and
rese
arch
dial
ogue
onm
en,m
ale
yout
han
dm
ascu
liniti
esan
ywhe
rein
the
wor
ld(e
.g. O
lava
rria
and
Mol
etto
2002
).T
his
rese
arch
abun
dant
lysh
ows
the
dive
rsity
ofm
en’s
situ
atio
nsan
dth
ech
angi
ngco
nsci
ousn
ess
ofyo
unge
rm
en—
for
inst
ance
,th
egr
owth
ofin
tere
stin
enga
ged
fath
erho
od—
asw
ell
asth
eco
ntin
ued
pres
ence
ofco
nser
vativ
em
odel
sof
dom
inan
tm
ascu
linity
.M
appi
ngm
ulti
ple
iden
titi
esra
ises
adi
ffic
ult p
robl
emfo
rm
ovem
ents
for
soci
alch
ange
,sin
cedi
ffer
ence
seem
sto
impl
ydi
ffic
ulty
inm
obili
sing
for
actio
n.L
atin
Am
eric
anfe
min
ism
has
been
inve
ntiv
ein
find
ing
new
way
sto
putp
ress
ure
onth
est
ate.
For
inst
ance
,aw
omen
’sre
sear
chgr
oup
deve
lope
da
benc
hmar
king
tech
niqu
eth
atto
okex
isti
nggo
vern
men
tge
nder
-equ
ity
com
mit
men
ts,b
oth
loca
lan
din
tern
atio
nal,
asits
poin
tof
depa
rtur
ean
dse
tup
syst
emat
icm
easu
res
ofpr
ogre
ssto
war
dsth
ese
actu
ally
exis
ting
goal
s(V
aldé
s20
01).
Mon
teci
no(2
001)
note
sth
at,
thou
ghst
reet
polit
ics
has
decl
ined
, fem
inis
mha
ssp
read
into
man
yot
her
soci
alsp
aces
and
enga
ged
inne
wfo
rms
ofpo
litic
s,es
peci
ally
cult
ural
and
sym
bolic
polit
ics.
The
emer
genc
eof
new
aren
as, n
ewso
cial
mov
emen
tsan
dne
wcu
ltur
alpo
litic
sis
anim
port
ant t
hem
ein
rece
ntL
atin
Am
eric
anso
cial
scie
nce
(e.g
.G
arre
tón
2000
;Sad
er20
02;G
ómez
2004
).It
isal
soa
cent
ral t
hem
ein
the
wor
kof
anA
rgen
tini
an/M
exic
anan
thro
polo
gist
who
iscu
rren
tly
one
ofth
ebe
st-k
now
nso
cial
scie
ntis
tsin
Lat
inA
mer
ica.
Nés
tor
Gar
cia
Can
cini
has
cond
ucte
d,ov
erth
ree
deca
des,
exte
nsiv
ere
sear
chon
soci
alpr
oces
ses
rang
ing
from
villa
gece
rem
onie
san
dcr
aft
prod
ucti
onto
urba
nm
ass
med
ia,
mus
eum
s,ar
tm
arke
ting
and
polit
ical
imag
ery.
The
scop
eof
his
rese
arch
ism
atch
edby
the
qual
ity
ofhi
sw
riti
ng,w
hich
com
bine
scl
ear
Dep
endef
lCY
auto
nom
yand
cult
ure
159
expo
sitio
nof
conc
epts
,vi
vid
desc
ript
ive
deta
il,im
agin
atio
n,hu
mou
r,
ange
ran
dir
ony.
Inw
riti
ngH
ybri
dC
ultu
res,
heex
peri
men
ted
wit
hth
e
form
ofth
eac
adem
ictr
eatis
ean
dth
ees
say.
For
pith
ines
s,I
cann
otre
call
any
com
men
ton
the
Tw
inT
ower
sat
tack
of9/
11th
atco
mpa
res
wit
hhi
s
obse
rvat
ion
that
this
repr
esen
ted
the
clas
hof
’des
pera
dos
cont
rain
stal
ados
’
[the
desp
erat
evs
the
esta
blis
hedi
(Gar
cia
Can
clin
i20
02:
16).
Gar
cia
Can
dini
prac
tise
san
thro
polo
gy,b
uthe
also
ques
tion
sit.
His
1982
book
,Po
pula
rC
ultu
res
inC
apit
alis
m,
3a
mas
terp
iece
oftr
ansi
tion
al
ethn
ogra
phy,
bega
nw
ith
the
cris
isof
ethn
ogra
phic
and
polit
ical
idea
sof
cultu
re.I
nM
exic
o,th
ece
lebr
atio
nof
popu
lar
cultu
reha
sbe
ena
them
eof
natio
nalis
trhe
tori
csi
nce
the
revo
lutio
nin
the
earl
ytw
entie
thce
ntur
y.B
ut,
asG
arci
aC
ancl
inia
rgue
d,th
ere
isno
such
thin
gas
trad
itio
nalc
ultu
rean
y
mor
e. He
dem
onst
rate
dth
isby
apa
inst
akin
gin
vest
igat
ion
oftw
om
ajor
site
sof
‘tra
diti
onal
’ac
tivi
tyin
rura
lco
mm
unit
ies
inM
icho
acán
:cr
aft
prod
ucti
onsu
chas
pott
ery
and
doll
-mak
ing,
and
loca
lfi
esta
s.B
oth
of
thes
epr
actic
es,h
esh
owed
,hav
ebe
enpr
ofou
ndly
chan
ged
byM
icho
acán
’s
inse
rtio
nin
toth
ena
tion
alan
din
tern
atio
nal
capi
tali
stec
onom
y.C
raft
prod
ucti
on,
for
inst
ance
,is
nolo
nger
anac
tivi
typr
oduc
ing
obje
cts
need
edin
alo
cal
agri
cult
ural
way
oflif
e.It
ism
ainl
ya
mat
ter
of
prod
ucti
onfo
rm
arke
tsth
atha
vea
nich
efo
rha
ndm
ade
good
s.C
raft
s
have
ade
fini
tero
lein
Mex
ican
capi
talis
m:a
bsor
bing
rura
lune
mpl
oym
ent,
supp
lyin
gth
eto
uris
tin
dust
ry,
and
supp
orti
ngpo
liti
cal
inte
rpre
tati
ons
ofna
tion
alid
enti
ty.
Sim
ilarl
y,fi
esta
sha
vebe
enre
orga
nise
das
tour
ist
even
ts,
oras
venu
esco
mbi
ning
villa
gepr
oduc
tsw
ith
urba
ngo
ods
and
serv
ices
.G
arci
aC
ancl
ini
show
sth
atth
ese
chan
ges
prod
uce
new
form
sof
subo
rdin
ate
incl
usio
nof
villa
gers
into
the
capi
talis
tsys
tem
.Thi
sar
gum
ent
reca
llsC
ardo
soan
dFa
letto
’spo
int
abou
tth
eco
nsta
ntge
nera
tion
ofne
w
form
sof
depe
nden
ce.M
ore
spec
ific
ally
,Gar
cia
Can
clin
i(1
982:
70)
argu
es
that
capi
tali
smre
late
sto
indi
geno
uscu
ltur
esby
aco
nsta
ntpr
oces
sof
‘dec
onte
xtua
lisat
ion
and
rest
ruct
urin
gof
mea
ning
Indi
geno
uscu
lture
is
3T
heve
ryst
raig
htfo
rwar
dti
tle,
Cul
tura
spo
pula
res
enel
capi
tali
smo,
isw
eird
lych
ange
din
the
Uni
vers
ity
ofTe
xas
Pres
str
ansl
atio
nin
toT
rans
form
ingM
Ode
rfli
ty_O
rpe
rhap
sth
at’s
not
sow
eird
,as
itav
oids
nam
ing
‘cap
italis
m’.
r
160
South
ern
theo
ryD
ep
en
den
cy
,auto
nom
yan
dcu
lture
161
not o
blite
rate
dbu
t fra
gmen
ted,
itsel
emen
tsta
ken
out o
f the
irna
tive
spac
ean
dre
com
bine
din
new
cont
exts
—m
arke
ts, t
ouri
stsh
ops,
buye
rs’ h
omes
,m
useu
ms.
Inse
tting
upth
isar
gum
ent,
Gar
cia
Can
dlin
i giv
esa
brav
ura
disp
lay
ofN
orth
ern
theo
ryfr
omK
roeb
erto
Bou
rdie
u.O
nese
nten
ceal
one
need
bequ
oted
: ‘Fr
omFr
eud
toD
eleu
ze, f
rom
Nie
tzsc
heto
Fouc
ault,
we
have
been
told
that
oppr
essi
onca
nnot
exis
t in
the
anon
ymit
yof
colle
ctiv
est
ruct
ures
alon
e.
..‘
(200
2:16
).T
heea
rly
part
ofP
opul
arC
ultu
res
falls
into
that
fam
ilia
rge
nre
of
met
ropo
lita
nth
eory
illu
stra
ted
byda
tafr
omth
epe
riph
ery.
But
,as
the
argu
men
tun
fold
s,it
mov
esbe
yond
that
terr
ain.
Itst
ays
into
uch
wit
hth
ehi
stor
yof
colo
nisa
tion
.It
sees
the
frac
turi
ngof
loca
l agr
icul
tura
l soc
iety
not
asan
abst
ract
stag
eof
mod
erni
sati
onbu
tas
apr
oduc
tof
dom
inat
ion
and
inco
rpor
atio
n.It
trea
tsco
ntem
pora
ryca
pita
lism
asa
dyna
mic
impe
rial
syst
em, w
ith
apo
wer
ful
hom
ogen
isin
glo
gic
but
also
wit
hpl
aces
for
the
subo
rdin
ate
and
diff
eren
t.A
ndit
also
sugg
ests
—th
ough
itdo
esnot
deve
lop—
apo
liti
csof
resi
stan
cefo
rin
dige
nous
cultu
re.
InH
ybri
dC
ultu
res,
and
inhi
sbe
st-k
now
nbo
okC
onsu
mer
san
dC
itize
ns(1
995)
,G
arci
aC
ancl
ini
mov
esfr
omth
evi
llage
toth
eci
tyan
dto
issu
esab
out p
ostm
oder
nity
unde
r-de
velo
pmen
t and
glob
alis
atio
n.T
hepr
emis
eof
the
argu
men
t now
isth
eco
llaps
e,ac
ross
Lat
inA
mer
ica,
ofth
epr
evio
usge
nera
tions
’na
tion
alis
t,po
puli
st, s
tate
-cen
tred
deve
lopm
ent
proj
ect
and
the
cult
ural
agen
das
that
wen
t wit
hit.
Wri
tten
tow
ards
the
end
ofth
e‘l
ost
deca
de’
ofth
e1 9
80s,
Hyb
rid
Cul
ture
sdi
ssec
tsth
efa
lse
assu
mpt
ions
that
had
been
built
into
that
trem
endo
uspr
ojec
t.C
onve
ntio
nal
idea
sof
mod
erni
ty,
nati
onho
od,
art
and
trad
itio
nal
cultu
rew
ere
all c
onst
ruct
edth
roug
hge
stur
esan
din
stit
utio
nsth
atse
tup
oppo
siti
ons—
for
inst
ance
,fi
near
tve
rsus
popu
lar
craf
ts, m
oder
nve
rsus
pre-
mod
ern,
nati
onve
rsus
loca
lity
and
one
nati
onve
rsus
anot
her.
But
soci
alre
ality
itsel
f sub
vert
sth
ese
oppo
siti
ons—
thro
ugh
mig
rati
onac
ross
bord
ers,
the
crea
tion
ofco
mpl
exbo
rder
real
ms,
mas
sm
edia
reor
gani
satio
nsof
cultu
re,
and
soon
.M
uch
ofth
isco
mpl
exity
Gar
cia
Can
clin
isu
ms
upin
the
noti
onof
‘hy
bri
dit
yw
hich
hese
esas
deep
lyro
oted
inL
atin
Am
eric
a’s
hist
ory.
Hyb
ridi
tyha
sal
way
sco
mpl
icat
edth
eho
mog
enis
ing
driv
eof
deve
lopm
ent a
ndth
efe
ars
abou
t per
iphe
ral
back
war
dnes
s.In
Con
sum
ers
and
Citi
zens
, Gar
cia
Can
clin
i bui
lds
mor
eex
tens
ivel
yon
his
rese
arch
inM
exic
oC
ity. T
hest
upen
dous
expa
nsio
nof
this
city
, whi
ch
grew
ten
times
over
betw
een
1940
and
1990
,has
prod
uced
aso
cial
entit
y
that
isno
taso
cial
unit,
that
has
little
cohe
renc
eor
inte
lligi
bilit
y,an
dw
hich
the
conv
enti
onal
soci
alsc
ienc
esst
rugg
leto
gras
p.So
doits
citi
zens
.
Dif
fere
ntcl
asse
s,co
mm
unit
ies
and
gene
rati
ons
wit
hin
the
city
cond
uct
thei
rliv
esw
ith
litt
lein
tegr
atio
n,pa
ssin
gth
roug
hth
eur
ban
spac
eon
diff
eren
ttra
ject
orie
s.G
arci
aC
ancl
inij
okes
that
the
best
way
toun
ders
tand
the
‘city
wit
hout
am
ap’
mig
htbe
tous
eth
eep
iste
mol
ogic
alm
odel
ofa
vide
ocl
ip: ‘
anef
ferv
esce
ntm
onta
geof
disc
onti
nuou
sim
ages
’(2
001:
84).
Even
tsin
tend
edto
unif
y,su
chas
the
Fest
ival
ofM
exic
oC
ity,h
ave
little
effe
ct.
Inth
isse
ttin
g,th
epo
stm
oder
nqu
esti
onab
out
who
spea
ksin
anth
ropo
logi
cal
stud
ies
isan
swer
ed:
‘Wha
tsp
eaks
,m
ore
than
aso
cial
agen
t,is
adi
ffer
ence
,afi
ssur
e.
.(G
arci
aC
anci
ni20
01: 6
3).
The
reis
nosh
ared
cultu
re,b
utth
ere
are
shar
edex
peri
ence
s—in
clud
ing
mas
spo
vert
yan
dba
rely
cont
roll
edur
ban
viol
ence
.E
urop
ean
mod
els
of
urba
nism
,com
ing
from
am
ore
orde
rly
and
pros
pero
usba
ckgr
ound
,ar
e
larg
ely
irre
leva
ntto
the
bitt
erre
aliti
esof
Lat
inA
mer
ica’
sm
ega-
citie
s.D
eep
fiss
ures
appe
ar,b
etw
een
elite
sor
ient
edto
the
inte
rnat
iona
leco
nom
yan
d
cultu
re,a
ndlo
calc
omm
uniti
esof
surv
ival
.The
near
estt
hing
toa
com
mon
cultu
reis
prov
ided
byco
mm
erci
alte
levi
sion
,am
ediu
mfo
ren
tert
ainm
ent
and
mar
keti
ngw
hich
has
ave
ryw
ide
reac
ham
ong
the
urba
npo
or.
Rec
ogni
sing
the
huge
cont
empo
rary
impo
rtan
ceof
tele
visi
on, f
ilman
d
the
new
elec
tron
icm
edia
does
notl
ead
Gar
cia
Can
dini
back
toD
orfm
an
and
Mat
tela
rt’s
mod
elof
impe
rial
ist
dom
inat
ion.
For
one
thin
g,he
is
awar
eof
the
med
iare
sear
chth
atsh
ows
the
activ
ero
leof
the
audi
ence
and
the
sele
ctiv
eup
take
ofm
edia
cont
ent.
Yet
Gar
cia
Can
clin
iis
quite
awar
e
ofth
een
orm
ous
mar
ket
pow
erof
US
med
iaco
rpor
atio
ns.
One
ofth
e
nice
stth
ings
inC
onsu
mer
san
dC
itize
nsis
itsdi
scus
sion
ofho
wH
olly
woo
d
crea
tes
aki
ndof
wor
ldfo
lklo
re.I
nth
ees
say
on‘L
atin
Am
eric
aan
dE
urop
e
asSu
burb
sof
Hol
lyw
ood’
,Gar
cia
Can
clin
isho
ws
how
neol
iber
alec
onom
ic
polic
ies
ofgl
obal
mar
ket
inte
grat
ion
impi
nge
oncu
ltura
lau
tono
my
and
dive
rsity
ona
wor
ldsc
ale,
whi
leth
epr
ivat
isat
ion
agen
dade
stro
yscu
ltur
al
agen
cies
atth
ena
tion
alle
vel.
Ina
shor
tboo
kw
ritt
enat
the
star
toft
hene
wde
cade
,Lat
inoa
mer
ican
os
busc
ando
luga
ren
este
sigl
o(L
atin
Am
eric
ans
Seek
ing
aPl
ace
inT
his
Cen
tury
),G
arci
aC
ancl
ini
retu
rns
toth
ispo
int
ina
mor
eop
timis
ticve
in.
Nat
iona
lid
enti
ties
are
cert
ainl
yun
der
heav
ypr
essu
refr
omne
olib
eral
glob
alis
atio
n.A
nim
port
ant
case
isth
eta
keov
erof
the
Lat
inA
mer
ican
162
South
ern
theo
ry
publ
ishi
ngin
dust
ryby
inte
rnat
iona
lcap
ital,
espe
cial
lyfr
omSp
ain.
Som
eau
thor
s,ev
enw
hen
publ
ishe
d,ar
eno
tdis
trib
uted
inth
eir h
ome
coun
trie
sbe
caus
epr
ofit
sar
eno
tgu
aran
teed
ther
e.‘T
heau
thor
itar
iani
smof
the
mar
ket’
ther
efor
eha
sda
mag
ing
effe
cts
(Gar
cia
Can
clin
i20
02:
53).
But
ther
ear
eim
port
ant
poss
ibil
itie
sfo
rre
gion
alac
tion
tode
fend
cultu
rali
ndep
ende
nce
and
dive
rsity
. In
anar
gum
entr
emin
isce
ntof
CEP
AL
50ye
ars
earl
ier,
Gar
cia
Can
clin
iobs
erve
sth
atre
gion
alm
arke
ts(e
.g. f
orpo
pula
rm
usic
)ar
ela
rger
than
nati
onal
ones
.H
epr
opos
esth
atcu
ltur
alpro
duct
ion
shou
ldbe
trea
ted
asan
import
ant
indu
stry
wor
thy
ofgo
vern
men
tpl
anni
ngan
dsu
ppor
t.A
dem
ocra
tic
use
ofne
wm
edia
ispo
ssib
le,
allo
win
gcu
ltur
alpr
oduc
tion
and
dist
ribu
tion
byth
eso
cial
grou
psw
hoar
ecu
rren
tly
mar
gina
lised
orex
clud
ed.
Gar
cia
Can
clin
iper
sist
ently
refu
ses
the
dich
otom
yof
elite
and
suba
ltern
whi
chhe
sees
asth
ew
eakn
ess
ofL
atin
Am
eric
anm
arxi
stan
alys
esof
cultu
re: ‘
Abr
oade
ran
dm
ore
deta
iled
cons
ider
atio
nof
the
daily
inte
ract
ions
ofsu
balt
ern
maj
orit
ies
reve
als
that
Lat
inA
mer
ican
coun
trie
sar
ehy
brid
soci
etie
sw
here
diff
eren
tfor
ms
ofdi
sput
ing
and
nego
tiat
ing
the
mea
ning
ofm
oder
nity
are
inco
nsta
ntco
nten
tion’
(Gar
cia
Can
clin
i200
1:14
0).T
hepr
oble
mis
that
,du
ring
the
1980
san
d19
90s,
the
spac
efo
rpo
liti
cal
nego
tiat
ion
was
clos
eddo
wn.
Neo
liber
alpo
litic
sop
erat
esas
asp
ecta
cle,
wit
hth
em
ajor
deci
sion
sta
ken
info
rum
shi
dden
away
from
popu
lar
part
icip
atio
n.O
ldm
odel
sof
hier
arch
ical
dom
inat
ion
nolo
nger
appl
y,bu
tth
esy
stem
isve
ryfa
rfr
omde
moc
ratic
.Si
nce
the
syst
emur
gent
lydo
esne
edch
ange
,thi
spu
shes
Gar
cia
Can
clin
ito
thin
kab
out
new
form
sof
polit
ical
acti
onth
atm
ake
sens
ein
the
new
cond
itio
ns.
At
the
star
tof
Con
sum
ers
and
Citi
zens
,he
sugg
ests
that
‘con
sum
ptio
nis
good
for
thin
ldng
’In
the
fina
lcha
pter
, ‘H
owC
ivil
Soci
ety
Spea
ksT
oday
hear
gues
for
are
cons
titu
ted
publ
icsp
here
,in
whi
chci
tizen
ship
isba
sed
onpe
ople
’sac
tivity
asco
nsum
ers:
Civ
ilso
ciet
ies
appe
arle
ssan
dle
ssas
nati
onal
com
mun
itie
s,un
ders
tood
onth
eba
sis
ofte
rrit
oria
l,lin
guis
tican
dpo
litic
alun
ity.
The
ybe
have
,rat
her,
asin
terp
retiv
eco
mm
uniti
esof
cons
umer
s,th
atis
,en
sem
bles
ofpe
ople
who
shar
eta
stes
and
inte
rpre
tive
pact
sin
rela
tion
toce
rtai
nco
mm
oditi
es(e
.g.,
gast
rono
my,
spor
ts,m
usic
)th
atpr
ovid
eth
eba
sis
for
shar
edid
entit
ies
(Gar
cia
Can
clin
i20
01:
159)
.
Dep
efld
enC
Yauto
nom
yand
cuIu
re16
3
The
kind
ofpo
litic
alpr
actic
eto
whi
chth
ism
ight
lead
rem
ains
unde
ar,
butG
arci
aC
ancl
inic
erta
inly
sees
mul
ticul
tura
lism
asak
eyto
cont
empo
rary
dem
ocra
cy.
Gar
cia
Can
clin
i’s
wor
kis
incr
easi
ngly
know
nin
the
met
ropo
le.T
here
hete
nds
tobe
seen
asa
regi
onal
cultu
rals
tudi
essp
ecia
listo
ran
idio
sync
ratic
post
mod
erni
st.
(Vid
eth
ebi
zarr
ean
dco
ndes
cend
ing
Intr
oduc
tion
to
Con
sum
ers
and
Citi
zens
byits
Nor
thA
mer
ican
tran
slat
or.)
Gar
cia
Can
dlin
i
has
cert
ainl
ym
ade
use
ofm
etro
poli
tan
post
mod
ern
thou
ght,
asw
ella
s
met
ropo
litan
Mar
xism
,ant
hrop
olog
y,m
edia
rese
arch
and
othe
rlite
ratu
res.
(One
coul
dw
ish
heha
dle
arnt
mor
efr
omfe
min
ism
.)H
ew
as,
like
Hou
ntof
ldji
and
Sha
riat
i,a
grad
uate
stud
ent
inPa
ris.
And
heto
oha
s
deve
lope
da
nuan
ced
use
ofm
etro
poli
tan
theo
ry.E
spec
ially
inhi
sla
ter
wor
k,G
arci
aC
ancl
ini
refu
ses
tota
kean
ym
etro
poli
tan
theo
ryas
a
fram
ewor
k,bu
tta
kes
man
yof
them
asfr
uitf
ulso
urce
sof
idea
s.
Thi
sdo
esno
tre
sult
ingr
oss
ecle
ctic
ism
,bec
ause
ther
ear
etw
ost
rong
orga
nisi
ngpr
inci
ples
atw
ork
inhi
sw
ritin
g:th
eso
cial
_sci
entif
icen
coun
ter
with
Lat
inA
mer
ican
real
ities
;an
dth
ese
arch
for
form
sof
prog
ress
ive
poli
tics
rele
vant
toth
esi
tuat
ion
Lat
inA
mer
ican
sar
eac
tual
lyin
.H
e
rem
arks
atth
een
dof
Con
sum
ers
and
Citi
zens
.‘P
ostm
oder
nth
ough
t
prov
oked
usdu
ring
the
1970
san
d19
80s
tofr
eeou
rsel
ves
from
the
illus
ions
ofm
etan
arra
tiveS
that
augu
red
tota
lizi
ngor
tota
lita
rian
eman
cipa
tiOfl
s.
Per
haps
itis
tim
eto
eman
cipa
teou
rsel
ves
from
this
dise
ncha
ntm
ent’
(Gar
cia
Can
clin
i200
1:16
1).T
here
isa
plac
e,he
too
sugg
ests
,for
utop
ias.
r
8P
ower
,vio
lence
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nial
ism
The
aim
isnot
toad
just
,al
ter
orre
furb
ish
Indi
anex
per
ience
s
tofi
tth
eex
isti
ng
psyc
holo
gica
lor
soci
alth
eori
esT
heai
m
isto
mak
ese
nse
ofso
me
ofth
ere
levan
tca
teg
ori
esof
conte
mpora
rykn
owle
dge
inIn
dian
term
san
dp
ut
them
ina
com
pet
ing
theo
ryof
univ
ersa
lism
.
—A
shis
Nan
dy(1
983)
166
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
epai
nof
colo
nia
lism
167
Indi
aw
asth
e‘je
wel
inth
ecr
own
the
core
ofth
ese
cond
Bri
tish
empi
re.
Indi
a’s
inde
pend
ence
mov
emen
tw
asth
ein
spir
atio
nfo
ran
ti-c
olon
ial
mov
emen
tsar
ound
the
wor
ld, a
ndits
vict
ory
chan
ged
the
shap
eof
wor
ldpo
litic
s.B
ut19
47al
sosp
litIn
dia,
and
not j
ust b
etw
een
Hin
duan
dM
uslim
.P
ost-
inde
pend
ence
gene
rati
ons
have
face
da
hard
reck
onin
gw
ith
the
lega
cyof
colo
nial
ism
,w
ith
new
form
sof
depe
nden
ce,
and
wit
hne
wpa
tter
nsof
divi
sion
, pow
eran
dco
nflic
t.T
his
reck
onin
goc
curs
acro
ssth
eso
cial
scie
nces
—w
hich
them
selv
esha
veco
mpl
exre
lati
ons
with
Indi
a’s
long
inte
llec
tual
trad
itio
nsan
dw
ith
met
ropo
lita
nhe
gem
ony.
Inth
isch
apte
r,1
cons
ider
this
fiel
dof
forc
esat
wor
kin
text
sof
hist
orio
grap
hy,
gend
eran
alys
is,
anth
ropo
logy
and
cult
ural
psyc
holo
gyT
hese
text
sno
ton
lydo
cum
ent
avi
vid
and
som
etim
estr
agic
mas
sex
peri
ence
,bu
tal
soim
ply
new
way
sof
thin
king
abou
tso
cial
scie
nce
and
itsfu
ture
.
Ran
ajit
Guha’
sin
surg
ency
In19
82, a
t ati
me
whe
nth
ene
wri
ght w
asco
nsol
idat
ing
pow
erin
Bri
tain
and
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, t
hecl
eric
alre
gim
ein
Iran
had
alm
ost d
estr
oyed
the
oppo
siti
on,
neol
iber
als
wer
eta
king
over
the
IMF
and
the
giga
ntic
debt
cris
isof
Lat
inA
mer
ica
was
begi
nnin
g,a
grou
pof
radi
cal
hist
oria
nsfr
omIn
dia
laun
ched
ane
wbo
okse
ries
, whi
chev
olve
din
toa
peri
odic
al.
Cal
led
Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
s,w
ith
ackn
owle
dgm
ent
toG
ram
scj,
itw
assu
btit
led
Wri
tings
onSo
uth
Asi
anH
isto
ryan
dSo
ciet
y.T
hepr
efac
eto
the
firs
tis
sue,
sign
edby
the
foun
ding
edit
orR
anaj
itG
uha,
decl
ared
anai
m‘to
prom
ote
asy
stem
atic
and
info
rmed
disc
ussi
onof
suba
lter
nth
emes
inth
efi
eld
ofSo
uth
Asi
anst
udie
sw
ithco
ntri
buti
ons
from
scho
lars
acro
ssth
ehu
man
itie
san
dso
cial
scie
nces
. Abr
oad
fiel
dw
asto
besu
rvey
ed,
but
not
blan
dly.
Thi
sw
asan
inte
llec
tual
insu
rgen
cy, ‘
tore
ctif
yth
eel
itist
bias
char
acte
rist
icof
muc
hre
sear
chan
dac
adem
icw
ork
inth
ispa
rtic
ular
area
Inth
ebr
ief f
ollo
win
ges
say,
‘On
som
eA
spec
tsof
the
His
tori
ogra
phy
ofC
olon
ial
1ndi
aG
uha
(198
2)te
ars
apar
tth
em
ain
trad
itio
nsof
wri
ting
abou
t Ind
ian
hist
ory,
from
the
Bri
tish
colo
nise
rsto
the
post
-ind
epen
denc
ena
tiona
lists
. He
argu
esth
atth
etr
adit
iona
lfo
cus
onth
eco
loni
alst
ate
and
the
stru
ggle
sar
ound
itcr
ucia
llyle
aves
out
the
polit
ics
ofth
epe
ople
(his
italic
s). A
long
side
the
elite
acto
rs, t
heJi
nnah
san
dN
ehru
s,th
ere
isan
othe
rdo
mai
n,an
auto
nom
ous
dom
ain,
ofpo
pula
rlif
e,co
nsci
ousn
ess
and
polit
ics.
Thi
sha
sits
own
idio
ms
and
valu
es,
expr
esse
din
even
tssu
chas
peas
ant
upri
sing
s.To
docu
men
tth
isau
tono
mou
sdo
mai
n,to
brin
gto
light
the
logi
c,lim
itsan
dim
pact
ofth
ispo
pula
rpo
litic
s,is
the
task
of
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies.
Two
deca
des
late
r,Su
balte
rnSt
udie
sw
asfa
mou
s—no
tam
ong
Indi
an
peas
ants
,but
inN
orth
Am
eric
anun
iver
sitie
s.Pr
aise
dby
Edw
ard
Said
and
Gay
atri
Cha
krav
orty
Spiv
ak(G
uha
and
Spiv
ak19
88),
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
cam
eto
bese
enas
exem
plar
yof
post
colo
nial
stud
ies.
The
seri
es,
and
the
netw
ork
arou
ndit,
beca
me
ave
hicl
efo
rpo
stm
oder
ndi
scus
sion
sof
iden
tity,
frag
men
tati
onan
ddi
ffer
ence
.S
omet
hing
happ
ened
that
wen
t
beyo
ndth
eno
rmal
case
of‘a
cade
mic
tour
ism
asH
ount
ondj
ical
led
it(s
ee
Cha
pter
5),w
here
Sou
ther
nin
tell
ectu
als
trav
elto
the
met
ropo
lean
d
hum
bly
lear
nits
conc
epts
and
tech
niqu
es.
Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
san
dits
cont
ribu
tors
wer
edr
awn
into
met
ropo
lita
nci
rcui
tsas
aki
ndof
colle
ctiv
e
cele
brity
.A
long
the
way
,Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
sattr
acte
dan
extr
aord
inar
you
tpou
ring
ofcr
itici
sm.
Its
seco
ndis
sue,
for
inst
ance
,was
the
subj
ect
ofa
40-p
age
mul
ti-a
utho
rcr
itica
lre
view
inan
othe
rIn
dian
jour
nal.
Atv
ario
ustim
es,
mem
bers
ofth
eS
ubal
tern
Stu
dies
grou
pw
ere
char
ged
wit
hba
d
hist
orio
grap
hy,i
nsuf
fici
ent
revo
luti
onar
yze
al,n
oten
ough
Mar
xism
,too
muc
hM
arxi
sm,
too
muc
hm
oder
nism
and
too
muc
hpo
stm
oder
nism
.
The
yw
ere
criti
cise
dfo
rbei
ngto
oW
este
rnis
ed,f
orro
man
ticis
ing
peas
ants
,
and
for
igno
ring
the
mid
dle
clas
ses.
The
yw
ere
crit
icis
edin
the
nam
e
ofL
enin
,in
the
nam
eof
Lac
an,
inth
ena
me
ofD
erri
da,
inth
ena
me
of
Gan
dhi,
inth
ena
me
ofW
alle
rste
inan
d,ir
onic
ally
,in
the
nam
eof
Gra
msc
i.
Two
wei
ghty
book
sha
vebe
enpu
blis
hed
that
cons
isto
fnot
hing
buta
rtic
les
abou
tS
ubal
tern
Stu
dies
(Cha
turv
edi
2000
;L
udde
n20
02;
see
also
Lal2
003)
.W
hatm
ore
can
ther
ebe
tosa
y?T
hecr
itica
lcom
men
tary
incl
udes
som
e
very
fine
piec
es.
One
isan
essa
yby
the
hist
oria
nan
dfo
rmer
cont
ribu
tor
Sum
itSa
rkar
,‘T
heD
eclin
eof
the
Suba
ltern
inSu
balte
rnSt
udie
s’(S
arka
r
1997
).T
his
trac
esth
eim
pact
ofth
epe
riod
ical
’spo
stm
oder
ntu
rn,w
hich
Sark
arse
esas
aki
ndof
Faus
tian
barg
ain.
The
conn
ecti
onth
atbr
ough
t
fam
eca
me
ata
pric
e:a
drif
taw
ayfr
omth
epr
ojec
tof
docu
men
ting
the
poor
and
the
disp
osse
ssed
,an
da
narr
owin
gof
poli
tica
lho
rizo
ns
wit
hin
Indi
a.Sa
rkar
’sar
gum
ent
help
sin
unde
rsta
ndin
gth
ecu
ltur
alph
enom
enon
that
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
beca
me.
Yet
ther
eis
som
ethi
ngm
ore
tobe
said
,for
168
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
lence
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
lism
169
the
purp
oses
ofth
isbo
ok. T
heea
rly
issu
esof
the
serie
s,as
wel
l as
cont
aini
ngvi
vid
soci
alhi
stor
ies,
also
expr
esse
da
theo
reti
cal
poin
tof
view
that
has
cons
ider
able
inte
rest
.T
hepr
ojec
t of d
ocum
enti
ng‘t
hepo
litic
sof
the
peop
le’,
whi
leit
requ
ired
the
fine
-gra
ined
empi
rica
l his
tory
that
mad
eup
the
bulk
ofth
eea
rly
issu
es,
was
neve
ran
inno
cent
empi
rici
sm.
Guh
a’s
phra
seal
read
yco
ntai
ned
anim
port
ant t
heor
etic
alpo
int—
that
peas
ant a
ndw
orki
ng-c
lass
mov
emen
tsw
ere
polit
ical
. The
yw
ere
not,
asas
sum
edby
both
nati
onal
ist a
ndM
arxi
sthi
stor
iogr
aphy
(in
Guh
a’s
view
),sp
onta
neou
san
dun
dire
cted
outb
urst
sth
atre
quir
edei
ther
the
natio
nalis
t elit
eor
the
one
true
revo
lutio
nary
part
yto
give
them
polit
ical
form
. In
the
cont
ext o
f Bri
tish
rule
, the
sem
ovem
ents
embo
died
spec
ific
ally
anan
ticol
onia
l pol
itics
.T
his
polit
ics
was
not a
nof
fsho
otof
elite
polit
ics.
Tha
t was
the
prin
cipl
eof
the
‘aut
onom
ous
dom
ain’
defi
ned
byG
uha.
Suba
ltern
polit
ics
grew
out
oflo
cal w
ays
oflif
ean
dth
usex
pres
sed
spec
ific
form
sof
cons
ciou
snes
s,of
ten
inth
ela
ngua
geof
loca
lrel
igio
n.So
me
ofth
em
ost f
asci
natin
gpa
pers
inea
rly
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
show
the
loca
l roo
tsof
polit
ics
very
clea
rly.
Agr
ippi
ngex
ampl
eis
‘Fou
rR
ebel
sof
Eig
htee
n-Fi
fty-
Seve
n’, i
nw
hich
Gau
tam
Bha
dra
(198
5)ex
cava
tes,
from
reco
rds
ofth
ehu
geup
heav
als
ofth
atye
ar,
tale
ssu
chas
the
stor
yof
the
villa
gere
bel
Dcv
iSi
ngh.
Thi
sw
as‘e
ntir
ely
the
affa
irof
ape
asan
tco
mm
unit
yof
asm
all
area
’,in
volv
ing
atta
cks
onm
oney
lend
ers
asw
ell a
sB
ritis
hau
thor
ity, a
ndan
atte
mpt
tose
tup
anin
depe
nden
t gov
ernm
ent.
Thi
ssm
all-
scal
eri
sing
was
soon
put d
own
byfo
rce
and
the
lead
ers
wer
eha
nged
.A
noth
erex
ampl
eis
Gya
nend
raPa
ndey
’s(1
982)
‘Pea
sant
Rev
olt
and
Indi
anN
atio
nalis
m:
The
Peas
ant
Mov
emen
t in
Aw
adh,
191
9—22
’.Pa
ndey
show
sth
at, e
ven
inth
eco
ntex
t of t
hena
tion
alno
n-co
oper
atio
nm
ovem
ent
inth
ose
year
s,lo
calp
easa
ntpo
litic
sw
asan
auto
nom
ous
mov
emen
t.It
had
itsow
nor
gani
sing
mec
hani
sms—
Kis
anSa
bhas
, or p
easa
nts’
asso
ciat
ions
—its
own
lead
ers
and
itsow
nm
odes
ofac
tion
agai
nst
land
lord
san
dth
eau
thor
itie
s.H
uge
dem
onst
rati
ons
attr
acte
dth
eat
tent
ion
ofth
eIn
dian
Nat
iona
l Con
gres
sle
ader
s.W
hen
Gan
dhi c
ame
toth
ear
eaan
din
terv
ened
inth
est
rugg
le, i
twas
mai
nly
tore
stra
inpe
asan
t mili
tanc
y.Pa
ndey
argu
esth
atth
isre
flec
tsth
est
rate
gic
deci
sion
ofth
eC
ongr
ess
lead
ersh
ipfo
ran
alli
ance
wit
hIn
dian
elit
es,
whi
chre
quir
edho
ldin
gba
ckth
eso
cial
radi
calis
mof
the
rank
and
file.
The
Aw
adh
peas
ant m
ovem
ent
was
, in
itstu
rn, c
rush
edby
polic
eac
tion.
The
obvi
ous
diff
icul
tyw
ithtr
acin
gsu
balte
rnco
nsci
ousn
ess
isth
atfe
w
ofth
esu
balt
ern
grou
psle
ftw
ritt
enre
cord
s,an
dle
ader
slik
eD
cvi
Sing
h
wer
eki
lled
befo
reth
eyco
uld
crea
teor
altr
adit
ions
.Su
balte
rnSt
udie
s,in
one
ofits
mos
tbr
illi
ant
mov
es,
deve
lope
da
soci
olog
yofk
now
1edg
e
appr
oach
toth
ehi
stor
ical
reco
rd,a
ndse
tabo
utre
adin
gsu
balt
ern
hist
ory
thro
ugh
the
docu
men
tscr
eate
dby
the
colo
nial
elite
s.
Thu
s,in
the
pape
ron
1857
alre
ady
men
tion
ed,
Bha
dra
read
the
mem
oirs
ofth
eB
ritis
hvi
ctor
s,bu
tre
adth
emfr
omth
epo
int
ofvi
ewof
the
defe
ated
loca
lcom
mun
ities
.Dip
esh
Cha
krab
arty
(198
3),i
n‘C
ondi
tions
for
Kno
wle
dge
ofW
orki
ng-C
lass
Con
ditio
ns’,
stud
ied
the
jute
wor
kers
of
Kol
kata
inth
eea
rly
twen
tiet
hce
ntur
y.H
esh
owed
that
the
abse
nce
of
docu
men
tati
onab
out
the
wor
kfor
ce(e
ven
whe
nof
fici
ally
requ
ired
)is
a
clue
toth
ere
alpa
tter
nof
labo
urre
crui
tmen
tan
dco
ntro
lin
the
jute
fact
orie
s.In
‘The
Pros
eof
coun
ter-
Insu
rgen
cy’,
taki
ngas
his
mai
nca
seth
e
Sant
alri
sing
of18
55,G
uha
(198
3)sh
ows
how
prim
ary
wri
tten
acco
unts
ofpe
asan
tri
sing
sar
eco
nstr
ucte
dto
just
ify
the
cont
inui
tyof
the
Bri
tish
Raj
.Lat
erhi
stor
ians
tend
edto
repr
oduc
eth
evi
ewpo
int
impl
icit
inth
ese
docu
men
ts,o
ras
sim
ilate
them
toan
over
-arc
hing
narr
ativ
eof
nati
onal
or
revo
luti
onar
yst
rugg
le.
Yet
,as
Guh
aal
sosh
ows,
bya
deta
iled
crit
ical
read
ing
ofth
ear
chiv
e‘t
hesp
ecif
icit
yof
rebe
lco
nsci
ousn
ess’
can
be
reco
nstr
ucte
dan
dth
elo
call
ogic
ofth
em
ovem
ent,
incl
udin
gits
stro
ng
relig
ious
com
pone
nt,c
anbe
unde
rsto
od.
Bei
ngtr
aine
din
the
sam
epr
ofes
sion
,and
havi
ngtr
ied
toun
ders
tand
clas
san
dch
ange
inan
othe
rki
ndof
colo
ny(C
onne
llan
dIr
ving
1980
),1
have
read
thes
epa
pers
wit
had
mir
atio
nan
dpl
easu
re.T
hey
are
very
skilf
ul
hist
orio
grap
hy.
Not
only
doth
eau
thor
sha
vean
eye
for
sign
ific
antd
etai
l
and
afl
air
forw
eavi
ngan
alys
isan
dna
rrat
ive
toge
ther
.Asw
ith
Hou
nton
dji
inA
fric
aan
dSh
aria
tiin
Iran
,the
irar
gum
ent
isgi
ven
urge
ncy
bya
shar
p
awar
enes
sof
pow
er.
Inon
eof
the
earl
ycr
itiqu
esof
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies,
Ros
alin
dO
’Han
lon
(198
8)ar
gues
that
the
dich
otom
yof
‘sub
alte
rn’a
nd‘e
lite’
,for
whi
chG
uha
and
his
colle
ague
sw
ere
heav
ilycr
itici
sed,
was
not
som
uch
inte
nded
to
nam
eso
cial
cate
gori
esas
todr
amat
ise
the
perv
asiv
enes
sof
pow
eran
d
dom
inat
ion.
Itw
asa
way
ofcr
eatin
gan
agen
daof
inve
stig
atio
n,al
way
sto
look
for
resi
stan
ceto
pow
er—
whe
ther
spec
tacu
lar
orun
hero
ic.
Ith
ink
that
O’H
anlo
nw
asri
ght,
and
that
the
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
grou
p’s
sens
itivi
tyto
issu
esof
pow
erac
coun
tsfo
rth
evi
vidn
ess
ofits
mem
bers
’
170
South
ern
theo
ry
wri
ting,
acro
ssa
very
wid
era
nge
ofto
pics
and
hist
oric
alsi
tuat
ions
.Thi
sis
ake
yw
ayin
whi
chSu
balte
rnSt
udie
s dif
fere
dfr
omth
em
ore
conv
entio
nal
Mar
xism
that
had
been
the
mai
nfo
rce
onth
eIn
dian
inte
llec
tual
left.
Mar
xist
rese
arch
was
very
muc
hco
ncer
ned
wit
hge
tting
soci
oeco
nom
icca
tego
ries
, esp
ecia
llycl
asse
s,ex
actly
defi
ned
and
map
ped.
Yet
the
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
rese
arch
ers
cam
eou
tof
Mar
xism
,wit
hout
ado
ubt.
Ran
ajit
Guh
a,lik
eA
l-c
Ahm
ad(C
hapt
er6)
,ha
dbe
ena
labo
urm
ovem
ent
activ
ist
inth
e19
40s
and
1950
s.H
ew
assp
ecif
ical
lya
mil
itan
tof
the
Com
mun
ist
Par
tyof
Indi
a,fr
omw
hich
heal
sobr
oke,
som
ewha
tla
ter
than
Al-
cA
hmad
’sde
part
ure
from
Tud
eh(A
min
and
Bha
dra
1994
).T
heyo
unge
rgr
oup
whi
chG
uha
gath
ered
tocr
eate
Suba
ltern
Stud
iesw
ere
infl
uenc
edby
deve
lopm
ents
inM
arxi
stth
ough
tin
the
1 960
san
d1 9
70s,
incl
udin
gth
ene
ww
orki
ng-c
lass
hist
ory
com
ing
out
ofB
rita
inan
dth
est
ruct
ural
ist
Mar
xism
com
ing
out
ofPa
ris.
The
rear
e,ho
wev
er, f
ewsi
gns
ofan
yin
flue
nce
from
Thi
rdW
orld
revo
luti
onar
yth
ough
tin
the
trad
itio
nof
Fano
n.T
heM
arxi
stba
ckgr
ound
was
the
star
ting
poin
tfo
rG
uha’
sam
biti
ous
pape
r ‘D
omin
ance
Wit
hout
Heg
emon
yan
dits
His
tori
ogra
phy’
(198
9),i
nw
hich
hear
gues
that
Bri
tish
impe
rial
ism
neve
rac
hiev
edhe
gem
ony
inth
eIn
dian
colo
ny. R
athe
r,th
eR
ajw
asba
sed
onco
erci
onbe
hind
ath
infa
cade
ofle
galit
y.G
uha
sugg
ests
that
the
univ
ersa
lisin
gte
nden
cies
ofbo
urge
ois
cult
ure,
base
don
the
expa
nsiv
ete
nden
cies
ofca
pita
l,fi
ndth
eir
hist
oric
lim
itin
colo
nial
ism
.It
isan
argu
men
tth
atco
nver
ges
wit
hPr
ebis
ch’s
(198
1)la
tecr
itiqu
eof
liber
alis
min
the
peri
pher
y.M
arxi
stth
ough
tis
also
the
star
ting
poin
tfo
rea
rly
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies’
mos
tex
plic
itat
tem
ptto
theo
rise
pow
er,
apa
per
byP
arth
aC
hatt
erje
e(1
983)
calle
d‘M
ore
onM
odes
ofPo
wer
and
the
Pea
sant
ryIn
apr
evio
uspa
per,
ast
udy
ofth
efl
uctu
atio
nsof
com
mun
alco
nfli
ctin
Ben
gal,
Cha
tterj
eeha
dsu
gges
ted
that
the
expl
anat
ion
lay
inth
ein
term
ingl
ing
ofco
ntra
dict
ory
pow
ersy
stem
sth
atex
iste
ddu
ring
atr
ansi
tion
toca
pita
lism
.In
‘Mod
esof
Pow
erC
hatte
rjee
sets
out
tosy
stem
atis
eth
isid
ea,w
hich
heth
ough
tap
plie
dbr
oadl
yto
larg
eag
rari
anso
ciet
ies.
The
argu
men
tsta
rts
with
the
tran
sitio
nsbe
twee
n‘m
odes
ofpr
oduc
tion
unde
rsto
odin
clas
sica
lM
arxi
stte
rms.
Ass
ocia
ted
wit
hth
ese
econ
omic
stru
ctur
es,
but
not
redu
cibl
eto
them
,ar
epa
tter
nsof
poli
tica
lst
rugg
le,
cent
red
onpr
oper
tyan
don
defi
niti
ons
ofri
ghts
oren
titl
emen
ts.
The
seC
hatte
rjee
calls
‘mod
esof
pow
er’
He
defi
nes
thre
eba
sic
form
s:co
mm
unal
,
Pow
er,
vio
lence
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
liS
m17
1
whe
reen
titl
emen
tsar
eal
loca
ted
onth
eau
thor
ity
ofa
who
leso
cial
colle
ctiv
ity;f
euda
l,w
here
entit
lem
ents
deri
veba
sica
llyfr
omph
ysic
alfo
rce
(i.e.
asi
tuat
ion
ofdi
rect
dom
inat
ion)
;an
dbo
urge
ois
whe
repr
oper
ty
righ
tsar
egu
aran
teed
byge
nera
lise
dla
w,
and
indi
rect
dom
inat
ion
is
achi
eved
thro
ugh
the
inst
itut
ions
ofre
pres
enta
tive
gove
rnm
ent.
The
mos
tin
tere
stin
gpa
rtof
Cha
tter
jee’
sar
gum
ent
conc
erns
the
inte
rpla
ybe
twee
nth
ese
mod
es.
Feud
also
ciet
yw
asno
tes
tabl
ishe
das
a
hom
ogen
ouS
syst
em;
rath
er,i
tinv
olve
dth
ein
trus
ion
ofth
efe
udal
mod
e
ofpo
wer
into
aco
mm
unal
real
m.
The
resu
ltw
asco
nsta
ntre
sist
ance
to
feud
allo
rds,
wit
hun
stab
leou
tcom
es.
Sud
den
risi
ngs,
and
sudd
enre
conf
igur
atio
ns,
wer
epo
ssib
le__
espe
cial
lyw
hen
afe
udal
mon
arch
y
beca
me
ath
ird
play
er.
The
com
mun
alm
ode
ofpo
wer
was
capa
ble
of
gene
ratin
glo
call
eade
rshi
pw
hen
need
ed,b
utno
tof
inst
itut
iona
lisi
ngit.
Cha
tter
jee
trea
tsth
etr
ansi
tion
toth
ebo
urge
ois
mod
eof
pow
eron
ly
brie
fly,
but
mak
esth
eke
ypo
int
that
expa
ndin
gca
pita
lism
does
sim
ply
obli
tera
tefe
udal
ism
.In
deed
,it
can
inco
rpor
ate
feud
alst
ruct
ures
of
dom
inat
ion.
Wha
tca
pita
lism
does
tend
tow
ards
isth
eex
tinc
tion
ofth
e
com
mun
alm
ode
ofpo
wer
.C
hatte
rjee
give
sa
pith
ysu
mm
ary
ofa
coup
le
ofhu
ndre
dye
ars
ofco
loni
alis
m:
The
usua
lfea
ture
she
rear
eth
ein
trus
ion
ofne
wex
trac
tive
mec
hani
sms
into
the
agra
rian
econ
omy,
ofte
nw
ith
the
activ
ele
gal
and
arm
ed
supp
ort
ofa
colo
nial
poli
tica
lau
thor
ity,
lead
ing
toa
syst
emat
icco
mm
erci
aliz
atio
nof
agri
cult
ure
and
the
inco
rpor
atio
nin
vary
ing
degr
ees
ofth
eag
rari
anec
onom
yin
toa
larg
erca
pita
listw
orld
-mar
ket;
the
grow
thof
ane
win
dust
rial
sect
or,u
sual
lyof
ali
mit
edna
ture
in
com
pari
son
wit
hth
eab
solu
tesi
zeof
the
econ
omy
and
with
vary
ing
com
bina
tion
sof
fore
ign,
‘com
prad
or’
and
‘nat
iona
l’ca
pita
l;
the
grow
thof
new
poli
tica
lin
stit
utio
nsan
dpr
oces
ses
base
don
bour
geoi
sco
ncep
tion
sof
law
,bu
reau
crac
yan
dre
pres
enta
tion
(Cha
tterj
ee19
83:
347)
.
The
impa
cton
pre-
exis
ting
soci
alst
ruct
ures
was
extr
emel
yun
even
in
prac
tice,
crea
ting
‘man
yun
expe
cted
poss
ibili
ties’
thro
ugh
the
inte
rpla
yof
diff
eren
tmod
esof
pow
er—
henc
ew
em
ight
infe
r,th
eva
rieg
ated
pict
ure
ofsu
balte
rnpo
litic
sdo
cum
ente
dby
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies.
Cha
tterj
eeex
plic
itly
cont
rast
sth
isw
ith
the
pict
ure
of‘c
apill
ary’
pow
erin
Eur
ope
pres
ente
dby
Fouc
ault.
Cha
tterj
eesu
gges
tsth
at,
inth
e‘s
o-ca
lled
back
war
dco
untr
ies
1’• 1..:
172
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
ceand
the
pain
ofco
lon
iali
sm17
3
such
form
sof
pow
erha
veli
mit
edre
ach.
Itis
the
com
plex
com
bina
tion
sof
mod
esof
pow
erar
ound
post
colo
nial
stat
esth
atar
ech
arac
teri
stic
,op
enin
gup
‘an
entir
ely
new
rang
eof
poss
ibili
ties
for
the
rulin
gcl
asse
sto
exer
cise
thei
rdo
min
atjo
nT
his
grim
conc
lusi
onw
asno
t Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
s’la
stw
ord
onth
esu
bjec
tof
pow
er. I
nla
ter i
ssue
s,no
t onl
ydi
dth
eto
pics
ofre
sear
chsh
ift a
way
from
suba
lter
ngr
oups
but,
asSa
rkar
(199
7)sh
ows,
the
conc
eptu
alfr
amew
ork
also
shif
ted.
The
key
dich
otom
yw
asno
long
erbe
twee
nru
ling
clas
san
dsu
balte
rn, b
utbe
twee
nco
loni
alpo
wer
/kno
wle
dge,
inst
itut
iona
lise
din
the
mod
ern
stat
e,an
dth
eno
n-m
oder
n.T
his
iscl
ear
inP
arth
aC
hatte
rjee
’sbo
okT
heN
atio
nan
dits
Frag
men
ts, p
ubli
shed
ten
year
saf
ter t
hepa
per
onpo
wer
. The
focu
sis
nolo
nger
onsy
stem
sof
clas
spo
wer
and
the
chan
ging
form
sof
cont
esta
tion,
but o
nth
edi
scou
rse
ofna
tion
alis
man
dm
oder
nity
,w
ithth
est
ate
take
nto
beth
eax
isof
pow
er. I
nsh
ort,
Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
san
dth
egr
oup
ofsc
hola
rsar
ound
itm
oved
tow
ards
am
ore
conv
enti
onal
post
mod
ernj
smI
thin
kth
atis
api
ty,
beca
use
Guh
a’s
stru
ctur
alis
m, a
ndC
hatte
rjee
’sor
igin
alco
ncep
tual
isat
ion
ofpo
wer
, wer
ehi
ghly
illum
inat
ing
theo
risa
tion
s.
Gen
der
,v
iole
nce
and
fem
inis
tth
eory
Am
ong
the
criti
cism
sof
Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
s was
that
itha
dli
ttle
tosa
yab
out
cast
e,an
dlit
tleto
say
(des
pite
the
invo
lvem
ent o
fa
wel
l-kn
own
fem
inis
t,G
ayat
riSp
ivak
)ab
out
gend
erre
lati
ons.
The
secr
itic
ism
sar
ebr
oadl
yco
rrec
t,fo
rth
eea
rly
issu
es.
The
narr
ativ
esof
peas
ant
risi
ngs
talk
alo
tab
out
loca
lle
ader
ship
s,bu
tha
rdly
noti
ceth
atth
ele
ader
sar
eex
clus
ivel
ym
en. H
owev
er, g
ende
r iss
ues
docr
eep
in. I
nth
efi
fth
volu
me,
Guh
a(1
987)
him
self
wro
tea
supe
rbpa
per,
‘Cha
ndra
’sD
eath
abou
t ape
asan
t fam
ilyin
mid
-nin
etee
nth
cent
ury
Ben
gal.
Inth
ishe
wor
ked
from
tiny
frag
men
tsof
evid
ence
tobu
ild
api
ctur
eof
the
gend
eror
der
inru
ral
soci
ety
and
the
resp
onse
sru
ral
wom
enm
ade
topa
tria
rcha
lpo
wer
.O
fco
urse
,G
uha
was
not
the
firs
tm
anto
conc
ern
him
self
wit
hth
eop
pres
sion
ofw
omen
. As
Cha
tterj
ee(1
993:
Chs
6—7)
note
s,ge
nder
just
ice
had
been
am
ajor
issu
ein
mid
-nin
etee
nth
cent
ury
Ben
gal.
Cla
ims
abou
tth
eba
rbar
ous
Indi
antr
eatm
ent
of
wom
enw
ere
part
of
the
Bri
tish
just
ific
atio
nof
colo
nial
rule
; but
the
issu
ew
asal
soad
dres
sed
byin
dige
nous
inte
llec
tual
s.Is
war
chan
dra
Vid
yasa
gar,
aned
ucat
iona
lre
form
eran
da
cent
ral
figu
rein
the
‘Cal
cutta
rena
issa
nce’
ofth
em
id-n
inet
eent
hce
ntur
y,
shar
ply
crit
icis
edth
epa
tria
rcha
lki
nshi
psy
stem
of
his
day,
incl
udin
g
poly
gam
y,ch
ildm
arri
age
and
the
ban
onw
idow
sre
mar
ryin
g.H
ew
rote
the
scat
hing
lines
:
Letn
otth
eun
fort
unat
ew
eake
rse
xbe
born
ina
coun
try
whe
reth
e
men
have
nopi
ty,n
odh
arm
a,no
sens
eof
righ
tand
wro
ng, n
oab
ility
todi
scri
min
ate
betw
een
bene
fici
alan
dha
rmfu
l,w
here
pres
erva
tion
ofw
hat
has
been
cust
omar
yis
cons
ider
edth
eon
lydu
ty,
the
only
dhar
ma.
..B
yw
hats
indo
wom
enco
me
tobe
born
inB
hara
tvar
sha
atal
l?(Q
uote
din
Sark
ar19
97:2
67)
Inth
ene
xtge
nera
tion
,B
anki
mch
andr
aC
hatte
rjee
[Cha
ttopa
dhya
y],
the
best
-kno
wn
Indi
anno
velis
tbef
ore
Tag
ore,
and
fam
ous
asth
eau
thor
ofth
ehy
mn
Ban
deM
atar
am(H
ail
toth
eM
othe
r),
whi
chbe
cam
ea
natio
nals
ong,
took
anev
enm
ore
radi
calp
ositi
on. I
nan
essa
yon
‘Equ
ality
’,
hede
noun
ced
the
fact
that
‘inal
lcou
ntri
esw
omen
are
the
slav
esof
men
He
argu
edno
ton
lyfo
rw
idow
rem
arri
age
and
wom
en’s
prop
erty
righ
ts,
buta
lso
forw
omen
’sri
ghtt
om
ove
inpu
blic
spac
e,an
dth
ene
edfo
rm
en
tosh
are
child
-car
ean
dho
usew
ork,
apo
siti
onst
illra
dica
lahu
ndre
dye
ars
late
r(C
hatte
rjee
1986
).C
hatte
rjee
late
rre
trea
ted
from
this
view
,but
othe
r
men
inth
eIn
dian
inte
llige
ntsi
aal
soto
okup
the
caus
eof
wom
en’s
righ
ts,
incl
udin
gSa
yyid
Ahm
adK
han,
asm
enti
oned
inC
hapt
er6.
The
deve
lopm
ent o
faw
omen
’spo
litic
sar
ound
gend
erju
stic
ew
asa
slow
and
com
plex
proc
ess.
Wom
enw
ere
pres
enti
nth
ena
tiona
listm
ovem
enti
n
cons
ider
able
num
bers
,an
dno
tju
stel
itew
omen
.G
andh
i’s
mas
sac
tion
cam
paig
nsde
pend
edon
wom
en’s
supp
ort.
But
mai
nstr
eam
natio
nalis
m,a
s
Part
haC
hatte
rjee
(199
3)ar
gues
, did
not
artic
ulat
ea
gend
erpo
litic
sin
the
publ
icre
alm
. Adi
vers
egr
oup
ofw
omen
’sor
gani
satio
nsse
tup
anum
brel
la
orga
nisa
tion,
the
All
Indi
aW
omen
’sC
onfe
renc
e,in
the
1920
s.T
hisb
ody
did
artic
ulat
ean
equa
l-ri
ghts
pers
pect
ive,
butl
ost i
nflu
ence
afte
rind
epen
denc
e.T
hose
wom
en’s
orga
nisa
tion
sw
hich
had
am
ass
reac
hw
ere
mai
nly
the
affil
iate
dgr
oups
setu
pby
mal
e-co
ntro
lled
polit
ical
part
ies.
The
iref
fect
isil
lum
inat
edby
Rak
aR
ay’s
(199
9)st
udy
offe
min
ist
polit
ics
inK
olka
taan
dM
umba
i,w
hich
look
scl
osel
yat
Pasc
him
Ban
ga
Gan
atan
trik
Mah
ilaSa
miti
,the
wom
en’s
win
gof
Wes
tBen
gal’s
gove
rnin
gC
omm
unis
tP
arty
ofIn
dia
(Mar
xist
).T
heSa
miti
func
tion
edm
ainl
yto
impl
emen
tth
eof
fici
allin
eco
min
gdo
wn
from
the
mal
ele
ader
ship
,an
dth
atlin
ein
sist
edon
soli
dari
tybe
twee
nw
orki
ng-c
lass
wom
enan
dm
en.
174
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
epai
nof
colo
nia
lism
175
The
wom
enof
the
Sam
iti,
whi
lew
orki
ngfo
rw
omen
’sec
onom
ican
ded
ucat
iona
l adv
ance
men
t,th
eref
ore
shie
daw
ayfr
oman
ydi
rect
chal
leng
eto
the
inte
rest
sof
men
—fo
rin
stan
ce,
from
mak
ing
apu
blic
issu
eof
dom
estic
viol
ence
.V
iole
nce
agai
nst w
omen
was
, how
ever
, the
galv
anis
ing
issu
ein
othe
rpa
rts
ofIn
dia.
Som
efe
min
ist g
roup
sfo
rmed
inth
eea
rly
1970
s.In
the
year
sim
med
iate
lyaf
ter I
ndir
aG
andh
i’s
tem
pora
rydi
ctat
orsh
ip, t
he‘E
mer
genc
y’of
1975
—77
, fem
inis
t org
anis
ing
spre
adra
pidl
y.A
wid
era
nge
ofau
tono
mou
sw
omen
’sgr
oups
cam
ein
toex
iste
nce,
peri
odic
als
wer
ela
unch
ed—
the
best
-kno
wn,
Man
ushj
, beg
anpu
blic
atio
nin
1 979—
rese
arch
and
teac
hing
bega
n,an
dpu
blic
cam
paig
nsw
ere
unde
rtak
en(K
umar
1999
).A
few
year
sla
ter,
Nan
dita
Gan
dhi a
ndN
andi
taSh
ah(1
992)
cond
ucte
dan
inte
rvie
wsu
rvey
ofw
omen
’sgr
oups
acro
ssth
eco
untr
y,an
dw
ere
impr
esse
dby
the
rang
ean
ddi
vers
ityof
activ
ism
.T
here
wer
eca
mpa
igns
arou
nddo
mes
ticvi
olen
ce, d
owry
mur
ders
, rap
e,w
omen
’she
alth
, wom
enin
the
wor
kpla
ce, l
egal
refo
rm,
and
mor
e.B
utfo
ral
l thi
sdi
vers
ity, i
t was
the
cont
inui
ngfa
ctof
men
’svi
olen
ce—
the
sens
eof
thre
atun
der
whi
chw
omen
live
d—th
atw
asce
ntra
lto
the
mov
emen
t.A
sth
eed
itor
ial
inth
efi
rst i
ssue
ofM
anus
hipu
tit:
Toliv
eas
aw
oman
isto
live
infe
ar—
ofm
oles
tati
on, r
ape,
ofso
cial
stig
ma
inal
mos
tev
ery
actio
nof
ours
. We
have
tobe
afra
idto
doso
man
yth
ings
—to
beou
tsid
eaf
ter d
ark,
totr
avel
alon
e,to
step
outs
ide
the
hom
e,to
beal
one
inth
eho
me,
tobe
with
othe
rs, t
oac
know
ledg
eev
ento
ours
elve
sou
row
nde
sire
s—to
love
, to
laug
h,to
live
(Kis
hwar
and
Van
ita19
84:
243)
.
We
mig
htth
eref
ore
expe
ctIn
dian
fem
inis
mto
gene
rate
dist
inct
ive
theo
ries
abou
t vio
lenc
ean
dth
ena
ture
ofa
gend
ersy
stem
that
prod
uced
such
perv
asiv
efe
ar. B
utG
andh
i and
Shah
, who
subt
itled
thei
r boo
kT
heor
yan
dPr
actic
ein
the
Con
tem
pora
ryW
omen
’sM
ovem
ent i
nIn
dia,
foun
dlit
tleth
eore
tica
lw
ork
goin
gon
.W
omen
’sm
ovem
ent
conf
eren
ces,
onth
eir
acco
unt,
focu
sed
onem
piri
cal
docu
men
tati
onof
the
posi
tion
ofw
omen
and
onde
bati
ngpr
oble
ms
ofac
tivis
m. A
ndof
one
occa
sion
whe
nth
ere
was
aco
nsci
ous
atte
mpt
topr
omot
eth
eory
, the
yre
port
ruef
ully
: ‘A
stud
yci
rcle
form
edby
Sha
kti,
aB
omba
yba
sed
reso
urce
cent
re,
todi
scus
san
alyt
ical
conc
epts
such
aspa
tria
rchy
,fe
min
ism
and
itsva
riou
sst
ream
s,ha
dto
clos
edo
wn
for w
ant o
f peo
ple’
(Gan
dhi
and
Shah
1992
: 288
).
Can
anen
erge
tic,d
iver
sean
dcr
eativ
em
ovem
ent,
whi
chis
grap
plin
g
with
issu
esab
out
stat
epo
wer
,ca
ste
ineq
ualit
ies
and
cult
ural
defi
nitio
ns
ofw
omen
’sbo
dies
,fun
ctio
nw
itho
utth
eory
?Pe
rhap
sno
t,be
caus
ese
vera
l
kind
sof
theo
ryw
ere
soon
impo
rted
. One
was
abo
dyof
idea
slo
ngfa
mili
ar
onth
eIn
dian
left
,M
arxi
stpo
liti
cal
econ
omy.
Indi
anfe
min
ists
beca
me
invo
lved
inth
ede
bate
s,al
sofa
mili
arin
the
met
ropo
le,
abou
tpr
oduc
tive
and
unpr
oduc
tive
labo
ur,
wag
esfo
rho
usew
ork,
wom
enas
are
serv
e
arm
yof
labo
ur,
Eng
els
onth
efa
mily
,an
dso
on.
For
inst
ance
,G
abri
ele
Die
tric
h(1
992)
, apa
rtic
ipan
tfo
rfo
urte
enye
ars,
devo
ted
ahe
avyw
eigh
t
chap
tero
fher
Ref
lect
ions
onth
eW
omen
’sM
ovem
enti
nIn
dia
toth
ese
idea
s.
She
conc
lude
s,un
surp
risi
ngly
,th
atth
ew
omen
’squ
esti
onca
nnot
be
solv
edw
ithin
capi
talis
m,b
utal
soth
atan
auto
nom
ous
wom
en’s
mov
emen
t
isne
cess
ary.
Oth
erIn
dian
fem
inis
tsre
adth
elit
erat
ure
ofra
dica
lfem
inis
mpr
oduc
ed,
mai
nly
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
, in
the
1970
s.T
heco
ncep
t of‘
patr
iarc
hy’
asa
syst
emof
dom
inat
ion
was
arti
cula
ted
byW
omen
’sL
iber
atio
nat
the
star
t
ofth
atde
cade
.N
otlo
ngaf
terw
ards
, Mar
yD
aly,
Susa
nG
riff
in,
Car
olyn
Mer
chan
tan
dot
hers
rew
orke
dth
isid
eain
toa
dich
otom
ous
visi
onof
¶ge
nder
inw
hich
fem
ales
are
peac
eful
,coo
pera
tive
and
clos
eto
natu
rew
hile
mal
esar
eag
gres
sive
,co
mpe
titiv
ean
dho
stile
tona
ture
. Thi
sm
odel
was
pick
edup
byth
ew
oman
who
,af
ter
Spiv
ak,b
ecam
eIn
dia’
sbe
st-k
now
n
fem
inis
tout
side
Indi
a,V
anda
naSh
iva.
InSt
ayin
gAliv
e:W
omen
,Eco
logy
and
Dev
elop
men
t,Sh
iva
(198
9)ap
plie
s
this
mod
el,
her
imm
edia
teso
urce
sbe
ing
Mer
chan
tan
dG
riff
in,
to
envi
ronm
enta
lst
rugg
les
inIn
dia.
The
stre
ngth
sof
the
book
incl
ude
a
narr
ativ
eof
the
Chi
pko
fore
stpr
otec
tion
mov
emen
tin
Nor
thIn
dia
sinc
e
1972
,in
whi
chSh
iva
emph
asis
es,i
na
way
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
neve
rdi
d,th
e
impo
rtan
ceof
wom
enin
loca
lle
ader
ship
.T
hebo
oksh
arpl
ycr
itici
ses
‘Gre
enR
evol
utio
n’ag
ricu
ltur
e,on
the
basi
sof
villa
ge-l
evel
rese
arch
on
sorg
hum
,and
deve
lopm
entp
rogr
ams
that
harv
estw
ater
.Bot
har
ecr
itici
sed
for
disr
upti
ngvi
llage
wom
en’s
labo
uran
dth
ere
prod
ucti
onof
loca
l
com
mun
ities
and
envi
ronm
ents
.T
hese
anal
yses
,how
ever
,are
embe
dded
ina
righ
teou
srh
etor
icin
whi
ch
wom
enar
eal
way
sgo
od,e
colo
gica
llykn
owle
dgea
ble,
embe
dded
inna
ture
,
cari
ng,q
uiet
and
com
mit
ted
toth
epr
oduc
tion
oflif
e.M
enar
em
ostly
bad
and
nois
y,an
dw
hite
Wes
tern
men
are
extr
emel
yba
dan
dex
cept
iona
lly
nois
y,be
ing
hell
-ben
ton
mar
kets
,pro
fits
and
deve
lopm
ent.
Dev
elop
men
t
176
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
ep
ain
ofco
lon
iali
sm17
7
isal
way
sde
stru
ctiv
e,al
way
sag
ains
t wom
en’s
inte
rest
s,an
dal
way
sre
sist
edby
‘wom
en, p
easa
nts
and
trib
als
The
sego
odfo
lk, a
ccor
ding
toSh
iva,
are
invo
lved
inth
etr
adit
iona
lw
orsh
ipof
natu
reas
Mot
her,
and
supp
ort
the
crea
tive
‘fem
inin
epr
inci
ple’
know
nin
Indi
antr
adit
ion
as‘P
rakr
itiW
ell.
Aqu
arte
rof
the
peas
ants
onth
eIn
dian
subc
onti
nent
are
Mus
liman
dex
trem
ely
unlik
ely
tobe
into
natu
rew
orsh
ip. (
Itis
spec
ific
ally
reje
cted
inth
eQ
ur’a
n,se
ee.
g.Su
ra13
.)T
heot
her
peas
ants
are
divi
ded
amon
ghu
ndre
dsof
dial
ects
,ca
stes
and
relig
ious
com
mun
ities
. As
Bin
aA
garw
al(1
992)
obse
rves
ina
judi
ciou
scr
itiq
ue,
Shiv
aig
nore
sso
cial
,re
ligio
us,
regi
onal
and
nati
onal
dive
rsit
yin
cons
truc
ting
anid
ealis
edpi
ctur
eof
wom
en;
she
igno
res
proc
esse
sof
gend
erch
ange
;an
dsh
em
isse
sth
eim
port
ance
oflo
cal c
lass
pow
erin
econ
omic
proc
esse
s.T
hear
bitr
ary
char
acte
rof
Shiv
a’s
text
iscu
riou
sly
reve
aled
,fo
ran
Aus
tral
ian
read
er, b
yhe
rdi
scus
sion
ofeu
caly
ptus
tree
s.H
ere
Shiv
a(1
989:
78—
82)
conv
erts
ape
rfec
tlyva
lidar
gum
ent a
gain
stm
onoc
uitu
reof
exot
ics
inIn
dia
into
ade
nunc
iati
onof
euca
lypt
ustr
ees
them
selv
es, w
hich
seem
toep
itom
ise
the
gras
ping
, mas
culin
e,an
ti-lif
efo
rces
that
Shiv
aha
tes.
She
does
not
seem
tokn
owth
ateu
caly
ptus
isno
ta
‘sin
gle
spec
ies
but
ave
ryla
rge
genu
sw
ithm
ore
than
500
vari
edsp
ecie
s,be
autif
ully
adap
ted
toth
edi
ffer
ent
envi
ronm
ents
acro
ssA
ustr
alia
,an
dm
uch
love
din
thei
rna
tive
plac
es.
(For
thei
rca
reer
asex
otic
sun
der
Bri
tish
and
Fren
chco
loni
alis
m,
see
Zac
harj
n19
76.)
Yet
ath
ird
styl
eof
met
ropo
lita
nfe
min
ism
isin
voke
din
ala
ter
issu
eof
Sub
alte
rnSt
udie
s.Su
sie
Tha
ruan
dT
ejas
win
iN
iran
jana
(199
6)ar
eco
ncer
ned
abou
tth
eri
seof
wom
en’s
acti
vism
inri
ght-
win
gH
indu
nati
onal
ist a
gita
tions
, and
abou
t how
the
empo
wer
men
t of w
omen
can
bem
isus
edby
mar
kete
rsof
cont
race
ptiv
ech
emic
als
and
mis
repr
esen
ted
indi
scus
sion
sof
the
anti
-alc
ohol
mov
emen
tam
ong
vifia
geW
omen
. Wha
t is
the
theo
reti
cal
prob
lem
here
?To
Tha
ruan
dN
iran
jana
,it
isfe
min
ism
’ssu
ppos
edco
mpl
icit
yw
ith
hum
anis
man
dfa
ilur
eto
brea
kw
ith
the
‘hum
anis
tsu
bje
ctT
hedi
agno
sis
ista
ken
stra
ight
from
the
man
ual
ofN
orth
Am
eric
anfe
min
ist p
ostm
oder
nism
The
sete
xts
brin
gto
ahe
ada
maj
orpr
oble
mab
out t
heor
yin
the
glob
alSo
uth.
No
inte
llec
tual
sW
orki
ngou
tsid
eth
em
etro
pole
can
igno
reth
ein
telle
ctua
l pro
duct
ion
ofth
em
etro
pole
. For
man
ypu
rpos
es, i
t is
feas
ible
and
labo
ur-s
avin
gto
impo
rtm
etro
poli
tan
theo
ryan
dsi
mpl
ygi
veit
alo
cal
glos
s.T
hat
isun
ders
tand
able
whe
rean
acti
vist
mov
emen
tfa
ces
huge
prac
tical
prob
lem
s,w
hich
istr
uefo
rth
eIn
dian
wom
en’s
mov
emen
t.It
is
also
unde
rsta
ndab
le—
thou
ghth
edy
nam
ics
are
diff
eren
t—w
here
ala
rge
part
ofth
eau
dien
ceis
loca
ted
inth
em
etro
pole
,whi
chis
true
fort
hela
ter
Suba
ltern
Stud
ies
and
for
Shiv
a’s
envi
ronm
enta
lism
.
The
ques
tion
ofS
outh
ern
theo
ryha
s,of
cour
se,b
een
cons
ider
edby
Indi
anin
telle
ctua
ls.
Cha
tterj
ee(1
993)
,for
inst
ance
, arg
ues
for
‘an
Indi
an
hist
ory
ofpe
asan
tstr
uggl
e’ra
ther
than
anap
plic
atio
nof
Eur
opea
nm
odel
s.
He
offe
rsso
me
inte
rest
ing
idea
sab
out
how
Eur
opea
nth
ough
tab
out
mod
erni
tybe
cam
ea
univ
ersa
lm
odel
and
led
tom
isre
adin
gsof
colo
nial
soci
ety.
Am
ore
deta
iled
and
prof
ound
trea
tmen
toft
hepr
oble
mis
foun
d
inV
eena
Das
’s(1
995)
Cri
tica
lE
vent
s:A
nA
nthr
opol
ogic
alPe
rspe
ctiv
eon
Con
tem
pora
ryIn
dia—
abo
okth
atde
mon
stra
tes,
amon
got
her
thin
gs,t
hat
pow
erfu
lthe
oris
ing
abou
tge
nder
viol
ence
isge
nera
ted
from
the
Indi
an
expe
rien
ce.
Suf
feri
ng,
death
and
the
limits
ofso
cial
scie
nce
Vee
naD
asis
anex
peri
ence
dan
thro
polo
gist
,and
Cri
tical
Eve
nts s
tart
sw
ith
are
flec
tion
onhe
row
npr
ofes
sion
and
itsre
latio
nshi
pto
her
own
soci
ety.
Indi
a,lik
eA
ustr
alia
(Cha
pter
4), h
aslo
ngbe
ena
data
min
efo
rmet
ropo
litan
soci
alth
eori
sts,
from
Mai
tlan
dan
dM
aine
inth
eni
nete
enth
cent
ury
to
Dum
ont’
sH
omo
Hie
rarc
hicu
sin
the
1960
s.T
heir
mon
opol
yof
inte
llect
ual
fram
ing
has
been
chal
leng
ed.D
asde
scri
bes
ade
bate
age
nera
tion
ago
in
whi
chA
.K.S
aran
asse
rted
,whi
leD
umon
tden
ied,
the
poss
ibili
tyof
aso
cial
scie
nce
cons
truc
ted
from
anIn
dian
pers
pect
ive.
ToD
as,
the
key
ques
tion
isho
wto
prac
tise
anth
ropo
logy
inIn
dia.
Eth
nogr
aphi
cre
sear
chis
poss
ible
inon
e’s
own
soci
ety,
give
nad
just
men
ts
ofpe
rspe
ctiv
e,as
rece
ntw
ork
onse
xual
itysh
ows
(Bha
skar
an20
04).
But
clas
sic
ethn
ogra
phic
tech
niqu
epr
esup
pose
sth
eex
iste
nce
ofa
func
tion
ing
com
mun
ity,a
smal
l,tr
adit
ion-
boun
dso
cial
univ
erse
that
isto
beth
eob
ject
ofkn
owle
dge.
Das
stro
ngly
ques
tion
sth
ispr
esup
posi
tion
.O
neof
the
cent
ral
them
esof
her
book
isth
atco
mm
unit
yis
not
apr
e-gi
ven
soci
al
entit
y.C
omm
unit
ies
have
beco
me
polit
ical
acto
rsw
hocl
aim
the
righ
tto
defi
nehi
stor
y,to
regu
late
the
body
, to
enac
tvio
lenc
e.N
ow,‘
the
com
mun
ity
also
colo
nize
sth
elif
e-w
orld
ofth
ein
divi
dual
inth
esa
me
way
asth
est
ate
colo
nize
sth
elif
e-w
orld
ofth
eco
mm
unit
yIn
the
cond
itio
nsof
Indi
an
mod
erni
ty,‘
new
form
atio
nsof
com
mun
ity
and
cultu
reha
veem
erge
d,an
d
178
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
epai
nof
colo
nia
Hsm
179
inde
edha
vebe
com
eth
esi
tes
ofm
ajor
conf
licts
inco
ntem
pora
ryIn
dian
soci
ety
and
polit
y’(D
as19
95:
12).
The
anth
ropo
logi
stno
wpr
ocee
ds,
not
byim
mer
sion
ina
war
mba
thof
trad
itio
ns,
but
byth
epa
infu
lro
ute
ofst
udyi
ngth
ose
‘maj
orco
nflic
tsT
hem
ain
text
ofC
riti
cal E
vent
sdi
scus
ses
ase
ries
ofco
nflic
tsw
ithin
Indi
anso
ciet
yin
the
last
two
gene
ratio
ns: v
iole
nce
agai
nst w
omen
inth
ePa
rtiti
onof
1947
; the
scan
dalo
usca
seof
aM
uslim
wom
an’s
clai
mfo
rm
aint
enan
cefr
omhe
rdi
vorc
edhu
sban
d;th
eco
nseq
uenc
esof
the
deat
hby
sati
ofa
very
youn
gR
ajpu
t wom
an; t
heem
erge
nce
ofSi
khse
para
tist m
ilita
ncy;
and
the
horr
ifyi
ngch
emic
aldi
sast
erat
Bho
pal
in19
84,
whe
retw
oan
da
half
thou
sand
peop
lew
ere
kille
d,an
dth
ree
hund
red
thou
sand
othe
rsaf
fect
ed,
inth
ew
orst
indu
stri
alac
cide
ntin
hist
ory.
Das
’sac
coun
t of B
hopa
l the
refo
redo
esno
t att
empt
anet
hnog
raph
yof
the
com
mun
itie
sth
atw
ere
deva
stat
edby
the
pois
onga
sle
ak. R
athe
r,sh
efo
cuse
son
the
lega
l bat
tles
that
follo
wed
, and
part
icul
arly
onth
em
edic
alan
dju
dici
alar
gum
ents
and
the
cont
rol o
f kno
wle
dge.
The
rew
aspo
wer
ful
stat
ein
terv
enti
on.
The
Gov
ernm
ent
ofIn
dia
took
over
the
proc
eedi
ngs
agai
nst
the
Uni
onC
arbi
deco
mpa
ny;
the
Mad
hya
Pra
desh
regi
onal
gove
rnm
ent
took
cont
rol
of
clin
ical
info
rmat
ion
abou
tth
eim
pact
;an
dth
eSu
prem
eC
ourt
impo
sed
ase
ttle
men
t(w
hich
man
yth
ough
tra
dica
llyin
adeq
uate
)on
the
com
pany
and
the
vict
ims.
The
med
ical
prof
essi
on, t
oo,
was
deep
lyin
volv
ed,
sett
ing
term
sfo
rth
edi
scus
sion
ofim
pact
and
resp
6nsi
bilit
yth
atm
ade
itim
poss
ible
for m
any
ofth
evi
ctim
sto
esta
blis
hth
eir
case
.T
hus
‘the
suff
erin
gof
surv
ivor
sbe
cam
ean
occa
sion
for
the
exer
cise
ofpo
wer
byth
em
edic
alpr
ofes
sion
’(1
995:
156)
.Y
etth
ispa
les
besi
deth
ele
gal
proc
ess
that
Das
trac
es,
inw
hich
the
voic
esof
the
vict
ims
wer
esi
lenc
edov
era
peri
odof
year
s,an
dth
eir
agen
cyre
plac
edby
gove
rnm
ent
and
judi
cial
man
oeuv
erin
g.T
hede
tails
are
too
com
plex
tore
cite
here
, but
I will
quot
ein
full
Das
’sin
cand
esce
ntsu
mm
ary
ofth
erh
etor
ical
role
that
the
suff
erin
gof
the
peop
leca
me
topl
ay:
The
judg
esw
ere
conc
erne
dto
sign
alth
eir o
wn
hum
anit
yan
dpr
otec
tth
ele
gitim
acy
ofth
eju
dici
alin
stit
utio
nof
whi
chth
eyw
ere
apa
rt.
The
‘suf
feri
ng’
ofth
evi
ctim
sw
asa
usef
ulna
rrat
ive
devi
cew
hich
coul
dbe
evok
edto
expl
ain
why
vict
ims
had
not b
een
cons
ulte
d;w
hyth
eir p
rote
sts
over
the
sett
lem
ent c
ould
bere
defi
ned
asth
eac
tions
ofir
resp
onsi
ble
and
igno
rant
peop
le;
toex
plai
naw
ayth
efa
ctth
atth
e
judg
esha
dno
tfe
ltob
liged
toas
kth
ego
vern
men
tan
dits
med
ical
esta
blis
hmen
t to
plac
efo
rpu
blic
scru
tiny
wha
tit h
adac
com
plis
hed
byw
ayof
reli
efan
dhe
lp;
toig
nore
the
know
ledg
eth
atha
dbe
en
gene
rate
don
the
impa
ctof
the
dead
lyis
ocya
nate
onth
ehe
alth
of
peop
le;
and
fina
lly, t
oob
fusc
ate
the
fact
that
they
had
com
plet
ely
faile
dto
fixre
spon
sibi
lity
for
the
acci
dent
and
had
thus
conv
erte
d
the
issu
eof
mul
tina
tion
allia
bilit
yin
toth
atof
mul
tina
tion
alch
arity
(Das
1995
:16
3).
Das
’san
ger
isob
viou
s—an
dw
hoco
uld
doub
titi
sjus
tifie
d?B
utas
wel
l
asex
pres
sing
her
dism
ayat
the
dire
cour
seof
even
ts,
this
pass
age
also
illus
trat
eshe
rsh
arp
soci
alan
alys
is,
focu
sed
onth
ein
terp
lay
betw
een
disc
ours
ean
din
stitu
tiona
l pow
er. I
nth
eex
erci
seof
lega
land
adm
inis
trat
ive
pow
er, t
hepa
inof
the
mas
spo
ison
ing
vict
ims
istr
ansl
ated
into
the
self-
just
ifyi
ngdi
scou
rse
ofth
ein
stit
utio
ns.
The
stat
e,in
effe
ct,
rede
fine
s
real
ity—
and
not
inth
ein
tere
stof
the
peop
leit
clai
ms
tore
pres
ent.
The
stat
e’s
capa
city
tode
fine
the
situ
atio
nis
also
atis
sue
inD
as’s
acco
unt o
fgen
derv
iole
nce
inth
eP
arti
tion
. The
last
acto
fBri
tish
colo
nial
rule
was
tocu
tIn
dia
into
part
s,an
dth
ein
augu
rati
onof
the
inde
pend
ent
stat
esof
Paki
stan
and
Indi
aw
asac
com
pani
edby
bitt
erco
mm
unal
conf
licts
inw
hich
hund
reds
ofth
ousa
nds
died
,and
man
ym
illio
nsbe
cam
ere
fuge
es
acro
ssth
ene
wbo
rder
s.
Apa
rtic
ular
feat
ure
ofth
ese
even
tsw
asvi
olen
ceby
men
agai
nstw
omen
:
mas
sra
pe,
abdu
ctio
nan
d(r
eput
edly
)m
util
atio
nof
the
wom
enof
the
‘ene
my’
com
mun
ity,
and
hono
urki
lling
sof
the
wom
enof
one’
sow
n
com
mun
ity. D
astr
aces
thes
eev
ents
,esp
ecia
llyam
ong
the
Sikh
and
Hin
du
popu
lati
ons
ofth
ePu
njab
inIn
dia’
sno
rthw
est.
She
read
sth
emas
mov
ing
beyo
ndth
efa
mil
iar
Lév
i-S
trau
ssia
nca
seof
wom
enbe
ing
sign
sin
mat
rim
onia
lexc
hang
esam
ong
men
.In
situ
atio
nsof
cris
is,w
omen
beco
me
sign
sin
am
onst
rous
exch
ange
ofpo
llut
ion
and
hatr
edbe
twee
ngr
oups
of
men
,an
dw
omen
’sbo
dies
beco
me
the
men
’sba
ttle
grou
nd:
‘Hen
ce, e
ach
soug
htto
puni
shth
eot
her
not
only
byin
flic
ting
pain
but
also
,and
mor
e
spec
ially
,on
the
wom
enof
the
othe
rgr
oup
soth
atth
em
emor
yof
indi
gniti
esw
ould
neve
rce
ase
toha
unt
the
futu
re’
(Das
1995
:18
6).
Mah
atm
aG
andh
i’s
long
cam
paig
nfo
rH
indu
—M
uslim
unit
yfa
iled,
and
his
last
cam
paig
nw
asto
try
tost
opth
isvi
olen
ce. F
orth
ishe
was
sile
nced
fore
ver b
ya
Hin
dum
ilit
ant (
Cha
dha
1997
).T
hepo
stco
loni
alG
over
nmen
t
180
South
ern
theo
ry
ofIn
dia
took
ast
ance
clos
eto
Gan
dhi’
s,an
din
deed
the
mas
svi
olen
cedi
dst
opin
earl
y19
48.
Gov
ernm
ent
then
face
dth
equ
esti
onof
wha
tto
doab
out
the
thou
sand
sof
wom
enw
hoha
dbe
enab
duct
ed.
Das
’sin
vest
igat
ion
ofth
eim
prov
isat
ions
that
follo
wed
prov
ides
abr
illi
ant
acco
unto
fth
eco
mpl
exiti
esof
gend
erre
latio
nsan
dst
ate
pow
er.
The
gove
rnm
ents
ofIn
dia
and
Paki
stan
both
set u
pre
patr
iati
onpr
ogra
ms,
inef
fect
taki
ngin
toth
ere
alm
ofth
est
ate
cons
ider
atio
nsof
puri
tyan
dho
nour
that
had
prev
ious
lybe
enaf
fair
sof
the
fam
ilyor
the
villa
ge.
On
the
Indi
ansi
de, t
hefo
cus
ofD
as’s
rese
arch
, the
gove
rnm
entc
alle
din
soci
alw
orke
rsto
solv
eth
ein
terp
erso
nal
prob
lem
san
dhe
lpw
ith
rese
ttlem
ent.
The
soci
alw
orke
rs, l
ike
the
doct
ors
and
judg
esin
the
Bho
pal
even
ts, b
ecam
eth
eau
thor
itat
ive
voic
esde
fini
ngw
hat
was
good
for
the
wom
enco
ncer
ned.
Tom
ake
the
mac
hine
ryw
ork,
the
stat
ein
this
case
too
rede
fine
dre
ality
,cat
egor
isin
gth
ew
omen
asei
ther
Mus
lim
orH
indu
/Silt
h,ov
erri
ding
allc
ompl
exiti
esof
mix
edaf
filia
tion
orch
angi
ngre
latio
nshi
psan
did
entit
ies.
The
resu
ltin
som
eca
ses—
itis
impo
ssib
leto
know
how
man
y—w
asa
fres
hhu
man
trag
edy
inw
hich
new
rela
tions
hips
and
blen
ded
fam
ilies
wer
eto
rnap
art.
Som
ew
omen
evad
edth
em
achi
nery
and
refu
sed
togo
back
.D
asno
tes
that
the
publ
icsy
mbo
lism
ofre
stor
ing
wom
enan
dch
ildre
nto
thei
rco
mm
unit
yig
nore
dth
ere
silie
nce
ofge
nder
rela
tion
san
dfa
mily
prac
tices
,whi
chin
man
yca
ses
had
alre
ady
achi
eved
are
conc
ilia
tion
. It
also
igno
red
the
ambi
guit
yof
even
ts, i
nw
hich
mix
edm
arri
ages
mig
htbe
anem
erge
ncy
loca
lar
rang
emen
tpr
otec
ting
wom
enof
am
inor
ity
grou
pfr
omth
evi
olen
ceal
l aro
und,
orin
whi
chw
omen
(con
trar
yto
the
ideo
logy
ofpu
rity
)m
ight
actu
ally
pref
erlif
ein
anot
her
com
mun
ity
toho
nour
kill
ing
atth
eha
nds
ofth
eir
mal
ere
lati
ves.
Eve
nin
such
desp
erat
eci
rcum
stan
ces,
Das
argu
es, w
omen
had
ade
gree
ofag
ency
tow
hich
the
offi
cial
inte
rpre
tati
onof
even
tsw
asbl
ind.
Inth
efi
nal c
hapt
ers
ofC
ritic
alEv
ents
, Das
refl
ects
onth
ean
thro
polo
gyof
pain
and
onth
ena
ture
ofso
cial
scie
nce.
She
cons
ider
s,bu
tdo
esno
tac
cept
,th
eso
cial
scie
nce
trad
itio
ngo
ing
back
asfa
ras
Dur
khei
mth
attr
eats
pain
(for
inst
ance
, in
init
iati
on)
asa
mea
nsof
soci
alin
tegr
atio
n,th
atse
esso
cial
rela
tions
insc
ribe
don
the
body
. In
even
tssu
chas
the
Par
titi
onvi
olen
ce, D
assu
gges
ts, s
ocia
l pro
cess
esan
dso
cial
scie
nce
find
alim
it.T
hesi
lenc
ing
ofsp
eech
, oft
heca
paci
tyto
repr
esen
ton
e’s
suff
erin
g,is
part
ofth
ete
rror
itsel
f.T
hese
xual
and
repr
oduc
tive
viol
ence
ofth
ePa
rtiti
on:
Pow
er,
vio
lence
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
lism
181
cann
otbe
unde
rsto
odby
taki
ngso
cial
rela
tion
sas
the
mod
elfo
r
unde
rsta
ndin
gei
ther
rela
tion
sbe
twee
npe
rson
s(e
ven
ifth
eyha
d
know
nea
chot
her
prio
rto
the
occu
rren
ceof
thes
eev
ents
),or
by
taki
ngth
ere
latio
nsbe
twee
ndi
ffer
enta
spec
tsof
soci
alst
ruct
ure
(suc
h
aspo
litic
san
dki
nshi
p)as
the
mod
el(D
as19
95: 2
00).
The
seev
ents
wer
eou
tsid
eth
ere
prod
ucti
onof
soci
alre
latio
ns;
peop
le
had
toin
vent
scri
pts.
And
inth
ese
mom
ents
ofte
rror
,the
fate
ofth
epe
ople
invo
lved
,the
good
orba
dou
tcom
es,w
ere
dete
rmin
edby
proc
esse
sbey
ond
hum
anun
ders
tand
ing:
‘It i
sin
this
cont
ext
that
Iha
vego
neag
ains
tth
e
tim
e-ho
nour
edtr
adit
ion
inso
ciol
ogy
tolo
okfo
rm
eani
ngin
the
face
of
suff
erin
g,an
din
stea
dsu
gges
ted
that
ath
eory
ofch
aos
may
befa
rcl
oser
toth
evi
ctim
’sun
ders
tand
ing
ofth
ew
orld
asac
cide
ntal
and
cont
inge
ntin
natu
re’
(Das
1995
:22
).B
utth
atdo
esno
tmea
nw
esh
ould
aban
don
soci
olog
yor
anth
ropo
logy
.
Inon
eof
the
mos
tor
igin
alan
dim
pres
sive
step
sin
her
argu
men
t,D
as
sugg
ests
adi
ffer
entf
unct
ion
for
soci
alsc
ienc
e.So
cial
scie
nce
shou
ldre
sist
com
plic
ityw
ith
alla
ttem
pts
ates
tabl
ishi
ngm
onop
olie
sof
trut
h,w
heth
er
thos
eof
the
mod
ern
stat
e,or
thos
eof
the
‘com
mun
ities
’cl
aim
ing
spac
ein
polit
ics,
orth
ose
ofpr
ofes
sion
alco
mm
uniti
es.
Itis
am
atte
rof
urge
ncy
toch
alle
nge
thes
em
eta-
narr
ativ
eS,t
oal
low
othe
rna
rrat
ives
toco
me
fort
h,an
dto
rela
tedi
ffer
ent
narr
ativ
esto
each
othe
r.T
his
isa
posi
tive,
not
pure
lyne
gativ
e,pr
oces
s.It
allo
ws
allia
nce
(eve
nm
ore,
‘con
subs
tant
iati
on’)
wit
hth
etr
uth
ofth
evi
ctim
,the
trut
h
inca
rnat
ein
the
vict
im.T
his
allo
ws
new
poss
ibili
ties
for
purs
uing
just
ice,
‘and
anan
thro
polo
gyw
hich
can
bese
enas
form
ing
one
body
wit
hth
e
vict
im’
(199
5:23
,209
).T
hati
sa
diff
icul
tpro
posi
tion
,tho
ugh
perh
aps
one
that
isla
tent
inth
e
trad
itio
nof
soci
alsc
ienc
eth
atco
ncer
nsits
elfw
ithop
pres
sion
and
inju
stic
e.
Itis
not
diff
icul
tto
see
how
itm
ight
appl
yto
soci
alsc
ienc
efa
rbe
yond
Indi
a,su
chas
Mam
dani
’s(2
001)
prof
ound
anal
ysis
ofth
e19
94ge
noci
de
inR
wan
da.T
here
are
com
plic
atio
ns,h
owev
er.
Inth
eev
ents
Das
stud
ies,
ther
eis
little
doub
tabo
utw
hoth
evi
ctim
is.M
amda
ni’s
title
,Whe
nV
ictim
s
Bec
ome
Kill
ers,
sugg
ests
this
can
bein
doub
t.T
he19
94de
aths
wer
eth
e
wor
stro
und
ina
cycl
eof
oppr
essi
on,
killi
ng,f
ear
and
reve
nge
inw
hich
both
Hum
and
Tut
siw
ere
agen
ts;a
cycl
eth
atst
arte
dm
uch
earl
iera
ndm
ay
notb
een
ded
yet.
I
82
South
ern
theo
ry
Yet
Mam
daij
’sre
sear
chst
r&in
gly
confi
san
othe
r of D
as’s
argu
men
ts.
Like
Hin
duan
dM
uslim
inIn
dia,
Hut
uan
dT
utsj
inR
wan
daan
dB
urur
idj,
now
oppo
sed
‘com
mun
itie
sw
ere
not
prim
ordi
also
cial
units
.T
hey
are
rela
tive
lym
oder
nid
enti
ties
,po
liti
call
yco
nstr
ucte
d,an
dsp
ecif
ical
lyen
hanc
edan
dsh
aped
byth
eco
loni
alst
ate.
Thi
sis
conn
ecte
dto
Das
’svi
ewof
the
posi
tion
ofso
cial
scie
ntis
tsin
the
peri
pher
y.D
asis
very
wel
lre
adin
the
Eur
opea
nan
dN
orth
Am
eric
anli
tera
ture
,an
dsh
eis
awar
eth
atth
edi
scip
line
ofan
thro
polo
gyst
illha
sa
Eur
ocen
tric
disc
ours
e.Y
etsh
eem
phas
ises
that
the
‘mod
esof
bein
gin
the
wor
ld’
ofan
thro
polo
gist
sin
peri
pher
alco
untr
ies
such
asB
razi
l and
Indi
ado
not
mim
icth
ose
inm
etro
poli
tan
coun
trie
s(1
995:
197)
.D
iffe
rent
mod
esof
bein
gm
ayle
adto
diff
eren
t pat
hsto
war
dsunder
stan
ding
. Hen
ceD
as’s
own
stud
yof
criti
cal e
vent
s,as
aw
ayof
tran
scen
ding
the
old
focu
son
loca
l com
mun
ity, l
eadi
ngto
aco
ncer
nw
ithth
elim
itsof
soci
alre
lati
ons
mod
els.
Rig
htat
the
end
ofth
ebo
ok,
Das
cons
ider
sth
ere
latio
nbe
twee
ngl
obal
proc
esse
san
dth
ese
arch
for
loca
l und
erst
andi
ngs,
whi
chis
ofte
npu
rsue
din
circ
umst
ance
sw
here
the
loca
lis
bein
gov
erw
helm
ed. I
t is
inth
atco
ntex
t tha
t ade
cons
truc
tive
and
empa
thic
role
for
soci
alsc
ienc
eco
mes
into
focu
s.
Inti
mate
opposi
tions
Vee
naD
as’s
rese
arch
onP
arti
tion
viol
ence
was
cond
ucte
din
colla
bora
tion
wit
hA
shis
Nan
dy,
tow
hom
Ino
wtu
rn.
One
ofth
ele
adin
gpu
blic
inte
llect
uals
inIn
dia,
Nan
dyop
pose
sbo
thH
indu
and
secu
lar n
atio
nalis
m.
He
isa
prol
ific
wri
ter,
prod
ucin
gliv
ely
essa
yson
lite
rary
hist
ory,
cont
empo
rary
film
,sc
ient
ific
biog
raph
y,re
ligio
usco
nflic
t,te
chno
crac
y,an
dm
ore.
Iw
ififo
cus
mai
nly
onon
ete
xt, i
nw
hich
hedi
scus
ses
colo
nial
cult
ure
and
Gan
dhia
npo
liti
cs,
but
Ial
sono
teth
atth
isle
don
toso
phis
ticat
eddi
agno
ses
ofco
ntem
pora
rySo
uth
Asi
a.N
andy
has
aba
ckgr
ound
incl
inic
alps
ycho
logy
and
his
debt
toFr
eudi
anth
ough
tis
clea
r.T
heem
otio
nal
side
ofcu
ltur
ean
dpo
litic
sis
his
cent
ral
conc
ern.
Nan
dym
akes
free
use
ofFr
eudi
anan
dpo
st-F
reud
ian
cate
gori
es,
whi
chso
met
imes
brin
gshi
mcl
ose
toth
eU
S‘c
ultu
rean
dpe
rson
alit
y’sc
hool
of
Psy
choa
naly
tic
anth
ropolo
gy
inth
el9
40s.
But
whe
reth
ose
theo
rist
sha
da
stat
icvi
ewof
cultu
re, N
andy
wor
ksw
itha
mod
elof
cult
ure
that
ispl
ural
,co
nsta
ntly
chan
ging
and
deep
lyim
plic
ated
inth
epo
litic
sof
mod
erni
ty.
Tho
ugh
Nan
dym
akes
free
use
ofm
etro
poli
tan
psyc
holo
gy—
and
also
met
ropo
litan
philo
soph
y,hi
stor
y,so
ciol
ogy
and
cult
ural
anal
ysis
—he
is
far
from
doin
gN
orth
ern
theo
ryin
the
Sout
h.A
tone
poin
the
conf
esse
s
joki
ngly
to‘t
hede
libe
rate
mis
use’
of
conc
epts
from
psyc
holo
gyan
d
soci
olog
y,si
gnal
ling
aw
fflin
gnes
sto
borr
owbu
tal
soa
dete
rmin
atio
nto
argu
ein
Indi
ante
rms,
asw
ese
ein
the
epig
raph
toth
isch
apte
r.
Thi
spr
esup
pose
sa
conf
iden
cein
the
‘Ind
ian
term
s’,a
ndN
andy
isw
ell
just
ifie
din
his
conf
iden
ce.
He
has
ade
tail
edkn
owle
dge
ofri
chIn
dian
trad
ition
sof
relig
ious
,phi
loso
phic
alan
dpo
litic
alth
ough
t,lit
erat
ure
and
art,
and
mak
esfr
eeus
eof
thes
ere
sour
ces
inhi
sw
ork.
He
has
wri
tten
,for
inst
ance
, am
agni
fice
ntes
say
onR
abin
dran
ath
Tago
re’s
nove
lsas
adi
scou
rse
onth
ech
angi
ngch
arac
ter
ofna
tion
alis
man
dna
tion
alid
enti
tyan
dth
e
polit
ical
cons
truc
tion
ofth
ese
lf(N
andy
2004
:15
3—23
3).N
andy
hasb
roug
ht
tolig
htsu
chm
argi
nal
char
acte
rsas
the
forg
otte
nen
viro
nmen
tali
stK
apil
Bha
ttach
arje
e,a
criti
cof
dam
-bui
ldin
gin
the
1950
s,an
d—in
adi
ffer
ent
regi
ster
—G
andh
i’s
Bra
bman
icm
urde
rer
Nat
hura
mG
odse
.
Nan
dy’s
(198
0)ea
rly
rese
arch
addr
esse
dth
edi
lem
mas
of
doin
g
Wes
tern
-sty
lesc
ienc
ein
colo
nial
Indi
a,ra
isin
gco
ncer
nsco
mpl
emen
tary
toth
ose
ofH
ount
ondj
iin
Wes
tAfr
ica
(see
Cha
pter
5).N
andy
’sin
tere
stin
scie
nce
hasc
ontin
ued,
buth
asno
tmov
edto
war
dsa
soci
olog
yof
know
ledg
e,
rath
erto
war
dsa
diag
nosi
sof
tech
nocr
atic
cultu
re.T
his,
intu
rn,h
asbe
en
shap
edby
the
anal
ysis
ofco
loni
alis
min
his
mos
tin
flue
ntia
lbo
ok,
The
Inti
mat
eE
nem
y(1
983)
.
Subt
itled
‘Los
san
dR
ecov
ery
ofSe
lfun
der
Col
onia
lism
The
Inti
mat
e
Ene
my
cons
ists
ofa
pith
ypr
efac
ean
dtw
olo
ng,p
artly
over
lapp
ing
essa
ys,
‘The
Psyc
holo
gyof
Col
onia
lism
’an
d‘T
heU
ncol
oniz
edM
ind
Nan
dy
star
tsby
insi
stin
gth
atco
loni
alis
mw
asno
tjus
tan
econ
omic
and
polit
ical
stru
ctur
e,bu
tw
asal
soa
cult
ural
and
psyc
holo
gica
lon
e,‘a
stat
eof
min
d
inth
eco
loni
zers
and
the
colo
nize
d’(1
983:
1).T
his
did
not
begi
nat
the
time
offi
rst
conq
uest
.The
band
it-k
ings
ofth
eE
ast
Indi
aC
ompa
nyw
ere
out
toro
bth
elo
cals
’pu
rses
and
had
noin
tere
stin
tam
peri
ngw
ith
thei
r
min
ds.
Inde
ed,
the
earl
yco
nque
rors
had
muc
hre
spec
tfo
rIn
dian
civi
lisat
ion.
But
this
chan
ged
inth
e‘s
econ
dco
loni
satio
n’of
the
nine
teen
th
cent
ury,
whe
nth
eB
ritis
hdi
dse
tout
toco
ntro
l and
chan
gew
hat t
hey
now
rega
rded
asa
prim
itive
cultu
re.
Nan
dy’s
key
mov
eis
totu
rnth
esp
otli
ght
onth
eco
loni
sers
.T
he
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yR
ajpr
oduc
edpr
ofou
ndch
ange
sin
Bri
tish
cult
ure.
Pow
er,
vio
len
ceand
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
lism
183
184
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
lence
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
lism
185
Nan
dyst
ress
estw
o:an
exag
gera
tion
and
sim
plif
icat
ion
of
mas
culin
ity,
now
cons
truc
ted
into
tal
Opp
ositi
onto
fem
inin
ity;
and
ava
lori
satio
nof
adul
thoo
das
agai
nst
chil
dhoo
d,w
hich
beca
me
the
dom
inan
tm
etap
hor
of
cult
ural
deve
lopm
ent.
The
impe
rial
Bri
tish
,in
shor
t,im
agin
edth
emse
lves
asvi
rile
adul
tsgo
vern
ing
child
like
and/
oref
fem
inat
era
ces
who
need
edto
benu
dged
, led
and
coer
ced
tow
ards
civi
isat
ion
and
prog
ress
.So
me
ofth
isha
sbe
ensa
idin
othe
rsc
hola
rs’
hist
orie
sof
impe
rial
ism
.N
andy
’sar
gum
ent
isun
ique
inst
ress
ing
the
psyc
holo
gica
lda
mag
eth
atth
issy
stem
did
toth
eB
ritis
h.It
led
toa
glor
ific
atio
nof
viol
ence
, aco
ntem
ptfo
r wea
knes
san
dth
efe
min
ine,
afe
arof
cult
ural
com
plex
ity; a
need
tow
all
ones
elf o
fffr
omth
eO
rien
tal
othe
r,an
da
cult
ofm
ascu
line
valo
ur. T
his
isse
enin
exag
gera
ted
form
amon
gth
eoc
cupy
ing
forc
es, b
utal
sopl
ayed
back
into
Bri
tish
cult
ure
inth
eho
mel
and.
The
reit
fost
ered
the
illu
sion
ofho
mog
enei
ty(‘
the
Bri
tish
race
’)th
atis
one
ofth
em
ost
stri
king
feat
ures
ofim
peri
alis
t ide
olog
y.It
was
duly
expo
rted
toco
loni
esof
sett
lem
ent s
uch
asA
ustr
alia
and
Can
ada,
and
help
edto
mot
ivat
eth
esl
augh
ter
onth
eW
este
rnF
ront
inW
orld
War
I.N
andy
deve
lops
thes
eth
emes
ina
subt
lean
alys
isof
Rud
yard
Kip
ling,
the
mos
t pro
min
ent i
ntel
lect
ual o
f the
Bri
tish
Em
pire
athi
ghtid
e.K
iplin
g’s
chil
dhoo
did
enti
fica
tion
with
nativ
eIn
dia
had
alw
ays
tobe
deni
edan
dov
erco
me
inad
ult
hood_th
ough
asa
hidd
encu
rren
tit
mot
ivat
edw
onde
rful
wri
ting
abou
t Ind
ia. K
iplin
g,in
effe
ct, i
nter
najis
edth
ene
cess
ary
viol
ence
ofco
loni
alis
m: ‘
Ifhe
did
not h
ave
any
com
pass
ion
for t
hevi
ctim
sof
the
wor
ld, h
edi
dno
tha
vean
yco
mpa
ssio
nfo
ra
part
ofhi
mse
lfei
ther
’(N
andy
,19
83: 6
9). A
ndK
iplin
g’s
equi
libr
ium
was
dest
roye
dw
hen
his
son
was
kille
don
the
Wes
tern
Fron
t in
1915
.B
utps
ycho
logi
cal
dam
age
was
also
wid
espr
ead
amon
gth
e‘e
xpos
edse
ctio
nsof
Indi
anso
ciet
y’(1
983:
76),
forc
edto
com
eto
term
sno
ton
lyw
ithco
nque
stbu
t als
ow
ithth
era
cial
cont
empt
embe
dded
inth
ede
velo
ped
syst
emof
Bri
tish
rule
. Som
eof
Nan
dy’s
mos
tpo
wer
ful w
riti
ngtr
aces
the
dive
rgin
gre
acti
ons
ofIn
dian
inte
llec
tual
sin
the
nine
teen
than
dea
rly
twen
tiet
hce
ntur
ies
toth
issi
tuat
ion.
Her
ehi
sps
ycho
logi
cal
cate
gori
es_
such
asid
enti
fica
tion
wit
hth
eag
gres
sor_
com
ein
topl
ay, a
ndN
andy
isab
leto
anal
yse
the
prob
lem
that
Al-
eA
hmad
call
ed‘W
esto
xica
tion’
(Cha
pter
6)in
muc
hgr
eate
rde
pth.
One
resp
onse
was
toco
pyth
eex
agge
rate
dm
ascu
lini
tyof
Bri
tish
colo
nial
cultu
re. T
hat w
asno
t har
dto
do, g
iven
the
anci
ent s
ocia
l cat
egor
y
ofks
hatr
iya,
the
war
rior
clas
sof
the
Hin
ducl
assi
cs,a
ndal
sogi
ven
the
Bri
tish
tend
ency
toad
mir
e‘m
arti
alra
ces’
amon
gth
eir
subj
ects
.T
his
prod
uced
atte
mpt
sat
arm
edre
volt:
The
yso
ught
tore
deem
the
Indi
ans’
mas
culi
nity
byde
feat
ing
the
Bri
tish
,of
ten
figh
ting
agai
nst
hope
less
odds
,to
free
the
form
er
once
and
for
all
from
the
his
tori
cal
mem
ory
ofth
eir
own
hum
ilia
ting
defe
atin
viol
ent
pow
er-p
lay
and
‘tou
ghpoli
tics
Thi
s
gave
ase
cond
-ord
erle
giti
mac
yto
wha
tin
the
dom
inan
tcu
ltur
e
ofth
eco
lony
had
alre
ady
beco
me
the
fina
ldif
fere
nti
aeof
man
line
ss:
aggr
essi
on,
achi
evem
ent,
cont
rol,
com
peti
tion
and
pow
er(N
andy
1983
:9)
.
Such
chal
leng
esw
ere
put
dow
nw
ith
nogr
eat
trou
ble
byth
eB
ritis
h,
who
had
bigg
ergu
nsan
dkn
eww
hatt
odo
with
that
kind
ofop
posi
tion
.
Ano
ther
resp
onse
was
toex
agge
rate
wha
tth
eB
ritis
hse
emed
mos
tto
reje
ct:
Indi
anre
ligi
on.
Thi
sle
din
toan
othe
rtr
ap,
asre
viva
lists
bega
n
tore
cons
truc
tthe
flui
dan
dop
en-e
nded
Hin
dusp
iritu
ality
onth
em
odel
ofC
hris
tian
relig
ion.
Yet
anot
her
resp
onse
was
toad
optt
heB
ritis
hpo
into
f
view
onth
eba
ckw
ardn
ess
ofIn
dian
cultu
rean
dle
apw
hole
hear
tedl
yin
toa
mod
erni
sati
onpr
ogra
m. T
his
mig
htin
volv
eW
este
rn-s
tyle
scho
olin
g,us
e
ofth
eE
nglis
hla
ngua
gein
the
hom
e,ad
opti
ngW
este
rndr
ess,
conv
ersi
on
toC
hris
tian
ity
orw
orki
ngfo
rth
eco
loni
alre
gim
e.
The
rew
ere
man
yco
mbi
nati
ons
ofth
ese
resp
onse
s.N
andy
trac
esth
em
thro
ugh
short
case
stud
ies
ofin
tell
ectu
als,
such
asth
eno
veli
st
Ban
kim
chan
dra
Cha
tter
jee,
men
tion
edab
ove,
who
wor
ked
his
way
thro
ugh
ale
ft-w
ing
posi
tivis
min
the
styl
eof
John
Stu
artM
illto
acu
ltof
Kri
shna
stru
ctur
edon
Eur
opea
nlin
es(C
hatt
erje
e19
86).
Nan
dy’s
mos
t
sust
aine
dan
alys
isis
ofSr
iAur
obin
do,t
hefi
rstm
oder
nIn
dian
guru
inth
e
sens
eof
bein
gle
ader
ofan
auth
orit
aria
ncu
lt.
Aur
obin
do’s
chil
dhoo
din
the
late
nine
teen
thce
ntur
yw
asa
mir
ror
imag
eof
Kip
ling’
s,st
arti
ngin
aho
useh
old
rule
dby
afa
ther
com
plet
ely
com
mitt
edto
Bri
tish
cultu
re.T
aken
toE
ngla
ndby
his
pare
nts
atse
ven
and
left
wit
han
Eng
lish
fam
ily,s
entt
osc
hool
and
then
univ
ersi
tyin
Eng
land
,
Aur
obin
doas
alo
nely
youn
gad
ult
wor
ked
his
way
tow
ards
avi
olen
t
reje
ctio
nof
Bri
tish
impe
rial
ism
. He
retu
rned
toIn
dia,
beca
me
flue
ntin
four
loca
llan
guag
es,b
ecam
t are
volu
tion
ary
nati
onal
istl
eade
r,pi
cked
up
186
South
ern
theo
ry
Cha
tterj
ee’s
imag
ery
ofIn
dia
asa
mot
her
need
ing
tobe
resc
ued,
and
by19
08w
asin
gaol
for
sedi
tion.
Luc
kily
acqu
itte
d,A
urob
indo
dram
atic
ally
chan
ged
dire
ctio
nan
dw
ithd
rew
toco
ntem
plat
ive
life
inan
ashr
am,
now
seek
ing
yogi
cra
ther
than
mar
tial
pow
er.O
vert
hene
xt30
year
s,un
der
the
infl
uenc
eof
aFr
ench
follo
wer
who
mA
urob
indo
assi
mil
ated
toth
efi
gure
ofT
heM
othe
r,hi
sgr
oup
was
tran
sfor
med
into
ahi
erar
chic
al,d
isci
plin
edan
dco
nser
vativ
ecu
ltw
ithA
urob
indo
assu
prem
eau
thor
ity.
He
wit
hdre
win
toat
tem
pts
toac
hiev
ew
orld
peac
eby
incr
easi
ngly
unbe
lieva
ble
yogi
cpr
actic
es.
As
Nan
dyob
serv
es:
‘It
isim
poss
ible
tore
adth
elif
eof
Aur
obin
dow
itho
utse
nsin
gth
e“i
nner
”pa
inw
hich
wen
twith
impe
rial
ism
inIn
dia’
—pa
inex
peri
ence
din
the
fam
ily, i
ned
ucat
ion,
and
allo
win
gon
lya
reso
lutio
nin
mys
ticis
m,
atfi
rst
poli
tica
lan
dth
encu
lt-lik
e.N
andy
take
sth
isas
apo
inte
rto
aw
ider
cultu
ral
repo
nse,
inw
hich
Indi
anso
ciet
yre
spon
ded
toth
eim
poss
ibili
ties
ofco
loni
aldo
min
atio
nw
ith
absu
rdit
ies
and
con
tra
dict
ions
.In
ave
rych
arac
teri
stic
pass
age,
hew
rite
s:
Itis
the
wor
ldof
aba
nk-c
lerk
who
secr
etly
wri
tes
poet
ryan
dei
ther
hide
sit
from
apr
osai
cw
orld
orco
mic
ally
affi
rms
itfr
omth
ehouse
top
..
.To
som
e,po
etry
ison
lypo
etry
and
clow
nsar
eon
lycl
owns
...To
othe
rs,
poet
ry—
and
fool
ing—
coul
dal
sobe
ase
cret
defi
ance
,a
reaf
firm
atio
nof
the
righ
tst
ate
ofm
ind
ina
hard
,m
ascu
line,
anti-
poet
icw
orld
.Def
ianc
ene
edno
tal
way
sbe
self
-con
scio
us.I
tnee
dno
tbe
alw
ays
back
edby
the
arde
nt, m
urde
rous
,mor
alpa
ssio
nsin
whi
chth
em
onot
heis
tic
fait
hs,
and
incr
easi
ngly
the
mor
em
oder
nan
dna
tiona
listv
ersi
ons
ofH
indu
ism
,spe
cial
ize
(198
3:98
).
Whi
chbr
ings
us,
asit
brou
ght
Nan
dy,
toM
ohan
das
Kar
amch
and
Gan
dhi:
‘one
of
the
few
who
succ
essf
ully
arti
cula
ted
inpo
liti
csth
eco
nsci
ousn
ess
whi
chha
dre
mai
ned
unta
med
byB
riti
shru
lein
Indi
a’(1
983:
100)
.G
andh
iis
the
cent
ral
figu
rein
The
Inti
mat
eE
nem
y,an
din
Nan
dy’s
wor
kas
aw
hole
.H
eis
pres
ent
not
asth
eex
empl
arof
any
cult
ural
orps
ycho
logi
cal
patt
ern,
but
asth
epe
rson
who
crac
ked
the
code
ofco
loni
alis
m,w
hodi
scov
ered
the
way
out o
fthe
dead
-end
sth
atha
dde
feat
edal
loth
erH
indu
refo
rmer
s.H
ew
asth
epe
rson
who
foun
d‘t
heri
ght
stat
eof
min
d’an
dm
ade
itno
ta
secr
etde
fian
cebu
tapu
blic
ethi
can
da
polit
ical
prog
ram
.
Po
wer
,v
iole
nce
and
the
pai
nof
colo
nia
lism
187
Gan
dhi’
sor
igin
ality
isno
teas
ilyap
prec
iate
dfr
omou
tsid
eIn
dia.
He
is
popu
larl
yse
enas
the
arch
etyp
alm
ild-
man
nere
dpa
cifi
st,o
ras
som
eone
who
reje
cted
mod
ern
tech
nolo
gyin
favo
urof
the
sim
ple
life.
Nei
ther
imag
eis
who
llytr
ue,
and
neit
her
capt
ures
Gan
dhi’
shi
ghly
soph
istic
ated
resp
onse
toco
loni
alis
m.T
oN
andy
,Gan
dhi’
sor
igin
ality
lay
inhi
sre
alis
atio
n
that
tofi
ght
colo
nial
ism
onth
ete
rms
colo
nial
ism
had
crea
ted
was
tobe
defe
ated
from
the
star
t.O
neha
dto
step
outs
ide
the
logi
cof
bein
ga
play
er
orco
unte
r-pl
ayer
inth
esy
stem
.
The
reso
urce
for
this
was
pres
ent
not
inth
eel
itecu
ltur
esto
whi
ch
earl
ier
refo
rmer
sha
dap
peal
ed,
but
inth
efo
lkH
indu
ism
they
ofte
n
desp
ised
.Gan
dhi
and
his
supp
orte
rscr
eate
da
mas
spo
litic
sof
aki
ndth
e
Indi
anN
atio
nalC
ongr
ess
befo
rehi
mha
dne
ver
imag
ined
,and
whi
chth
e
Bri
tish
regi
me
coul
dne
ithe
run
ders
tand
nor
cont
rol.
The
met
hods
of
saty
agra
ha,i
nIn
dia
aspr
evio
usly
inSo
uth
Afr
ica,
wer
ece
rtai
nly
peac
eful
buta
tthe
sam
etim
eco
erci
ve.T
hey
forc
edth
esy
stem
tore
veal
itsvi
olen
ce,
and
reve
alits
failu
re.
Ref
usin
gth
eno
rms
ofco
loni
alcu
ltur
e,re
fusi
ng
hege
mon
icm
ascu
linity
,m
oder
nisa
tion
and
scie
ntif
icra
tion
alit
yas
wel
l
asw
ealt
han
dof
fice
,G
andh
ipe
rman
entl
yde
legi
tim
ised
the
impe
rial
syst
em.
Indi
abe
cam
e,to
use
am
ore
rece
ntte
rm,
ungo
vern
able
by
the
Bri
tish.
But
Gan
dhi
did
mor
eth
anin
vent
saty
agra
ha
and
mak
ein
dia
ungo
vern
able
.H
ispo
liti
csw
ere
base
don
anet
hic
that
,lik
efo
lkH
indu
cultu
re,w
asge
nuin
ely
incl
usiv
e.G
andh
i’s
fam
ous
joke
agai
nstt
heW
est—
aske
dby
ajo
urna
list
wha
the
thou
ghto
fEur
opea
nci
vilis
atio
n,he
repl
ied:
Ithi
nkit
wou
ldbe
ago
odid
ea’—
was
alit
tleun
char
acte
rist
ic.A
sN
andy
puti
t in
anot
her
essa
y:‘T
heba
sic
assu
mpt
ion
here
isth
atth
ede
hum
aniz
ed
tyra
ntis
asm
uch
avi
ctim
ofhi
ssy
stem
asth
ose
tyra
nniz
ed;h
eha
sto
be
[lib
erat
ed,t
oo’
(Nan
dy19
87: 3
5).F
arfr
omre
ject
ing
the
colo
nisi
ngpe
ople
,
relig
ion
and
cultu
re,G
andh
isea
rche
din
them
for
supp
ortiv
eth
emes
and
inde
edfo
und
som
e.T
hey
incl
uded
the
prin
cipl
eof
non-
viol
ence
itsel
f,
whi
chhe
clai
med
toha
vefo
und
noti
nth
eH
indu
scri
ptur
esbu
tin
Jesu
s’s
Serm
onon
the
Mou
nt.
Itis
ethi
cal
and
cult
ural
incl
usiv
enes
sth
at,
for
Nan
dy,
dist
ingu
ishe
s
Gan
dhi’
spr
ojec
tfr
omth
atof
all
othe
rm
ajor
play
ers
inIn
dian
polit
ics,
incl
udin
gth
em
oder
nise
rsw
hoca
me
topo
wer
in19
47.A
mod
erni
sing
proj
ectw
asfi
rsta
rtic
ulat
edas
ale
gitim
ate
oppo
siti
onw
ithi
nB
ritis
hin
dia,
disc
redi
ting
exis
ting
cultu
reev
enat
‘the
deep
estl
evel
sof
Hin
dure
ligio
us
I
188
South
ern
theo
ryP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
epai
no
fco
lon
iali
sm18
9
idea
s’(1
983:
26)
and
calli
ngfo
ra
shif
tto
war
dsra
tion
alit
y,sc
ienc
ean
dlin
ear i
deas
ofhi
stor
ical
time.
Thi
spr
ojec
t was
carr
ied
forw
ard
inth
epo
st-
inde
pend
ence
stat
e,as
the
ideo
logy
ofa
mid
dle
clas
sw
hose
path
olog
yN
andy
wen
ton
toan
alys
ein
man
yot
her
text
s.H
eco
nclu
des
The
Inti
mat
eE
nem
yby
invo
king
anIn
dian
cult
ure
mar
ked
byits
flui
dity
,its
capa
city
toliv
ew
ith
ambi
guit
ies,
itstr
ick
ofsu
rviv
ing
byin
corp
orat
ing
pres
sure
san
dth
us‘d
omes
tica
ting
the
Wes
t’(1
983:
108)
. Sur
viva
l of t
hecu
ltur
eun
der
colo
nial
ism
requ
ired
ace
rtai
nsp
litt
ing
ofpe
rson
alit
y,a
cert
ain
capa
city
for
duck
ing
and
wea
ving
.M
ore
posi
tivel
yit
invo
lved
‘ape
culi
arro
bust
real
ism
’an
d‘a
cert
ain
tale
ntfo
ran
dfa
ith
inlif
e’(1
983:
109—
10),
whi
char
efo
und
inab
unda
nce
inIn
dia
npopula
rcu
ltu
re.
Itw
asju
stth
isunher
oic
stre
ngth
and
capa
city
for
surv
ival
onw
hich
Gan
dhi
buil
tth
esa
tyag
rahi
mod
elof
resi
stan
ce.
Her
e,N
andy
take
sa
muc
hro
sier
view
ofth
epo
wer
and
auto
nom
yof
loca
l pop
ular
cult
ure
than
Gar
cia
Can
clin
ido
esin
Mex
ico
(see
Cha
pter
7).
Inth
isbo
okan
dot
her
essa
ysw
ritt
enab
out
the
sam
eti
me,
Nan
dvde
fend
sa
view
ofco
loni
alis
man
da
mod
elof
antic
olon
ial p
oliti
csth
atar
ea
long
way
from
the
insu
rrec
tion
ist p
oliti
csof
Fano
n,G
ueva
raor
Shar
iati.
Inhi
s19
78es
say’
Tow
ards
aT
hird
Wor
ldU
topi
a’, h
ecr
itici
ses
Fano
n’s
idea
ofcl
eans
ing
viol
ence
asbe
ing
inse
nsiti
veto
the
cult
ural
resi
stan
ceof
the
oppr
esse
d(N
andy
1987
:33
).H
eco
nsid
ers
this
stra
tegy
ofop
posi
tion
tobe
cont
aine
dw
ithi
nth
elo
gic
ofco
loni
alis
m,
repr
oduc
ing
itshyper
mas
culi
nity
,cu
ltof
viol
ence
,lo
ssof
emoti
onal
connec
tion
and
dehu
man
isat
ion
ofen
emie
s.N
andy
’scr
itiq
ueof
the
post
colo
nial
stat
eis
clos
ely
conn
ecte
dw
ithhi
san
alys
isof
scie
nce.
Ina
key
essa
y,‘S
cien
ce, A
utho
rita
rian
ism
and
Cul
ture
wri
tten
in19
80, h
ede
velo
psa
crit
ique
ofth
ecu
ltur
eof
scie
nce
asba
sed
onth
eps
ycho
logi
cal
mec
hani
smof
‘iso
latio
n’—
that
is,t
hese
para
tion
ofco
gnit
ion
from
affe
ct(N
andy
1987
:95
—12
6).
Psyc
holo
gica
lde
tach
men
tfr
omth
eob
ject
ofst
udy
was
cruc
ial i
nal
low
ing
Wes
tern
scie
nce
tode
velo
p.B
utsc
ienc
eis
now
entw
ined
with
pow
erfu
l tec
hnol
ogie
san
dal
igne
dw
ithth
est
ate
and
itsru
ling
elite
s.Sc
ienc
eha
sbe
com
ea
key
toth
edo
min
ant
ideo
logy
ofth
epo
stco
loni
alst
ate,
legi
tim
atin
gth
evi
olen
ceth
atis
cons
tant
lydo
nein
the
nam
eof
econ
omic
deve
lopm
ent.
Nan
dyev
iden
tly
sees
the
isol
atio
nof
know
ledg
efr
omem
otio
n,ab
stra
cted
perc
epti
ons
ofth
ew
orld
, and
com
mit
men
t to
prog
ram
sra
ther
than
peop
le,
asa
very
gene
ral
path
olog
yo
fm
oder
nise
dcu
ltur
es.
In
‘Tow
ards
aT
hird
Wor
ldU
topi
a’he
rem
arks
onho
wth
em
oder
nW
est:
has
also
popu
lari
zed
ade
vast
atin
gly
ster
ileco
ncep
tofa
uton
omy
and
indi
vidu
alis
mw
hich
has
incr
easi
ngly
atom
ized
the
Wes
tern
indi
vidu
al.M
any
non-
Wes
tern
obse
rver
sof
the
cultu
reof
the
mod
ern
Wes
t..
.ha
vebe
enst
ruck
byth
ew
ayco
ntra
ctua
l,co
mpe
titi
ve
indi
vidu
alis
m—
and
the
utte
rlo
neli
ness
whi
chfl
ows
from
it—
dom
inat
esth
eW
este
rnm
ass
soci
ety
(Nan
dy19
87:
50).
Ina
late
res
say,
‘Cul
ture
,Voi
cean
dD
evel
opm
ent
Nan
dysu
gges
tsth
at
the
ideo
logy
ofm
oder
nisa
tion
isen
tren
ched
inth
epo
stco
loni
alm
iddl
e
clas
ses
and
inth
epo
stco
loni
alst
ate,
whi
chis
now
—at
leas
tin
the
case
of
Indi
aan
dSr
iLan
ka—
mor
ede
velo
pmen
talis
ttha
nit
was
atin
depe
nden
ce.
And
this
ideo
logy
ispr
ofou
ndly
dest
ruct
ive
ofpr
e-ex
istin
gcu
lture
s.N
ot
that
itob
liter
ates
them
;rat
her,
deve
lopm
enti
deol
ogy
sele
cts
from
exis
ting
cultu
res
thos
eas
pect
sth
atun
derw
rite
‘the
psyc
holo
gica
lde
man
dsof
rnod
erni
tyIt
redu
ces
indi
geno
uskn
owle
dge
to‘t
rans
ient
coun
ter-
syst
ems’
that
surv
ive
inco
rner
s,no
mor
eth
anm
inor
irri
tant
sto
the
posi
tive
scie
nces
link
edw
ith
the
deve
lopm
enta
list
stat
e.So
vict
ims
ofth
e
deve
lopm
entp
roce
ssha
vedi
ffic
ulty
infi
ndin
ga
voic
eth
atca
nac
tual
lybe
hear
d(N
andy
2003
:15
1—70
).N
andy
does
not
reje
ctde
alin
gw
ithth
eW
est,
nor
even
adop
ting
larg
e
part
sof
Wes
tern
cultu
re.L
ike
A1-
eA
hmad
,he
thin
ksth
atis
unav
oida
ble.
Ash
ew
rote
inhi
ses
say
onT
agor
e,co
loni
alis
mfr
actu
red
the
selv
esof
thos
e
Indi
ans
who
wer
eex
pose
dto
the
colo
nial
syst
em,a
ndse
tup
the
Wes
tas
‘acr
ucia
lvec
tor
wit
hin
the
Indi
anse
lf’(N
andy
2004
:23
3).
The
ques
tion
ison
wha
tte
rms
that
‘vec
tor’
isin
corp
orat
ed,a
ndw
hat
coun
ter-
forc
eske
epits
path
olog
ies
wit
hin
boun
ds.G
andh
iand
Tag
ore,
in
thei
rda
y,fo
und
anan
swer
info
rms
ofpa
trio
tism
that
wer
eno
tnat
iona
list,
and
inun
iver
salis
teth
ics
supe
rior
toth
ecl
aim
sof
colo
nial
ideo
logy
.Can
such
aso
luti
onbe
foun
dno
w?
Nan
dy’s
dist
inct
iven
ess
asa
theo
rist
flow
sfr
omhi
sco
nsta
ntw
eavi
ng
toge
ther
ofps
ycho
logi
cal
argu
men
tw
ithan
alys
isof
cultu
rean
dpo
litic
s.
In‘T
owar
da
Thi
rdW
orld
Uto
pia’
here
mar
ksth
at:‘
No
visi
onof
the
futu
re
can
igno
reth
atin
stit
utio
nals
uffe
ring
touc
hes
the
deep
estc
ore
ofhu
man
bein
gs,a
ndth
atso
ciet
ies
mus
twor
kth
roug
hth
ecu
lture
and
psyc
holo
gy
1• I
190
South
ern
theo
ry
ofsu
chsu
ffer
ing,
inad
diti
onto
itspo
liti
csan
dec
onom
ics’
(Nan
dy19
87:
26).
Nan
dy’s
posi
tion
isno
tso
muc
ha
dogm
atic
psyc
holo
gism
asa
very
cons
iste
nthu
man
ism
,a
resp
ect
for
ordi
nary
lives
and
ever
yday
expe
rien
ce.
Con
trar
yto
wha
tso
ciol
ogis
tsm
ight
expe
ct,
Nan
dy’s
psyc
holo
gism
does
not l
ead
toan
over
-em
phas
ison
the
indi
vidu
al. N
andy
alw
ays
assu
mes
the
pers
onal
ispo
litic
al,
that
larg
erst
ruct
ures
are
impl
icat
edin
pers
onal
expe
rien
ce.
Inde
ed,
one
ofhi
sm
ost
star
tlin
gan
dpo
wer
ful
argu
men
tsis
abou
t the
psyc
holo
gica
l tie
sth
atbi
ndco
loni
alor
glob
alsy
stem
sto
geth
er—
for
inst
ance
, ‘th
ein
diss
olub
lebo
ndbe
twee
nth
efu
ture
ofth
epe
riph
erie
sof
the
wor
ldan
dth
atof
the
appa
rent
lyau
tono
mou
s,po
wer
ful,
pros
pero
us,
impe
rial
cent
res’
(Nan
dy19
87:
52).
Cle
arly
deri
ved
from
Gan
dhi’
set
hica
lco
ncer
nfo
rth
eB
riti
sh,
Nan
dy’s
argu
men
tsre
peat
edly
emph
asis
eth
eps
ycho
logi
cal
inte
rpla
ybe
twee
nco
loni
ser
and
colo
nise
d,be
twee
nde
velo
pers
and
deve
lope
d,be
twee
ngl
obal
rich
and
glob
alpo
or.
Wha
tm
etho
dar
eth
ese
conc
lusi
ons
base
don
?N
andy
deve
lops
som
eof
his
idea
sin
clos
ean
alys
esof
lite
rary
wor
ksor
film
s,po
litic
alm
ovem
ents
orbi
ogra
phie
sof
inte
llect
uals
. Som
eof
his
argu
men
t isb
ased
onem
piri
cal
wor
k—fo
rin
stan
ce, o
nth
eP
arti
tion
killi
ngs.
But
heis
also
very
free
with
swee
ping
gene
rali
sati
ons,
hypo
thes
esan
dgu
esse
s.H
eci
tes
appr
ovin
gly
Gan
dhi’
sdi
sdai
nfo
rhi
stor
yas
am
ode
ofkn
owle
dge,
and
his
pref
eren
cefo
rm
yth.
Itis
ofte
nun
clea
rho
ww
eca
nkn
oww
heth
eror
not
Nan
dyis
righ
t.H
isar
gum
ents
dono
t fac
e—as
, say
, the
Thi
rdW
orld
insu
rrec
tioni
sts
did—
ahar
dte
stof
prac
tice.
The
rear
eso
me
trou
blin
glim
itsto
Nan
dy’s
thou
ght.
InT
heIn
tim
ate
Ene
my,
the
cast
listw
asal
mos
ten
tire
lym
ale;
the
only
wom
anto
play
asi
gnif
ican
tro
lew
asth
esn
eaky
Fre
nchw
oman
inSr
iA
urob
indo
’sta
le.
Nan
dyde
velo
ped
anor
igin
alan
dim
port
ant a
rgum
ent a
bout
mas
culin
ity,
and
was
also
inte
rest
edin
fem
inin
ity
and
andr
ogyn
y,bu
t am
ong
men
not
wom
en.
Eve
nin
the
rece
ntco
llec
tion
The
Rom
ance
ofth
eS
tate
(Nan
dy20
03),
half
the
popu
lati
onof
Indi
ase
ems
tobe
mis
sing
.T
heA
ustr
alia
nth
eori
stP
hill
ipD
arby
(200
5)ha
sno
ted
that
Nan
dyw
ishe
sto
spea
kbe
yond
the
Indi
ansi
tuat
ion,
that
heis
‘atte
ntiv
eto
the
poss
ibili
ties
ofcr
eativ
ech
ange
with
indo
min
ant c
olle
ctiv
ities
’ But
how
can
this
bedo
ne?
InT
heIn
tim
ate
Ene
my,
Nan
dyem
phas
ises
the
loca
l roo
tsof
Gan
dhi’
sst
rate
gy,
itsco
nnec
tion
wit
hpo
pula
rH
indu
ism
asw
ell
asits
tail
orin
gto
Bri
tish
cult
ure.
Yet
hela
ter
uses
this
stra
tegy
asa
basi
sfo
r
rP
ow
er,
vio
len
cean
dth
ep
ain
ofco
lonia
lism
191
criti
cisi
ngF
anon
—in
deed
,re
volu
tion
ists
and
deve
lopm
enta
list
son
a
glob
alsc
ale.
Thi
slin
eof
thou
ghth
asre
cent
lybe
enpu
shed
abou
t as
far
as
itw
illgo
byV
inay
Lal i
nE
mpi
reof
Kno
wle
dge
(200
2).
Con
quer
edcu
ltur
esm
aybe
insi
mila
rsi
tuat
ions
inre
lati
onto
stat
esan
dgl
obal
capi
talis
m.
But
that
isno
tal
way
sso
,as
Car
doso
and
Fale
ttosh
owed
bym
appi
ngdi
ffer
ent
patt
erns
ofde
pend
ency
(Cha
pter
7).
Con
quer
edcu
ltur
esce
rtai
nly
dono
tal
lha
veth
esa
me
hist
ory
and
capa
citie
sfo
rm
obil
isat
ion.
Gan
dhi,
asto
nish
ingl
y,br
ough
tsa
tyag
rahi
mov
emen
tsto
ade
gree
ofsu
cces
sin
two
coun
trie
s:So
uth
Afr
ica
and
Indi
a.
Cou
ldev
enG
andh
ido
itag
ain?
Nan
dype
rhap
sov
er-e
mph
asis
eson
est
rate
gyof
oppo
siti
onbe
caus
ehe
tend
sto
hom
ogen
ise
pow
er.
The
dow
nsid
eof
his
psyc
holo
gica
lso
phis
tica
tion
isa
rath
erst
ereo
type
dvi
ewof
the
stat
e,an
da
blan
knes
s
abou
tmod
ern
corp
orat
eca
pita
lism
.The
dow
nsid
eof
his
enth
usia
smfo
rpo
pula
rre
ligio
nis
,as
Sark
ar(1
997:
98)
obse
rves
,an
exag
gera
ted
host
ility
tose
cula
rism
.In
Nan
dy’s
crit
ique
ofde
velo
pmen
talis
m,
itis
diff
icul
tto
see
why
larg
enu
mbe
rsof
peop
le,
not
just
the
mid
dle
clas
s,do
supp
ort
deve
lopm
ent
proj
ects
and
the
gove
rnm
ents
that
purs
ueth
em.A
ndit
isdi
ffic
ult t
ose
ein
Nan
dy’s
argu
men
tsth
egr
ound
son
whi
ch—
apo
intD
asan
dSa
rkar
clea
rly
note
—su
balte
rngr
oups
mig
htus
est
ate
lega
lpro
cedu
res
orm
oder
nist
‘rig
hts’
idea
sto
chal
leng
eth
eop
pres
sion
they
expe
rien
ce.I
nth
iser
aof
tran
snat
iona
lcap
italis
m,I
sugg
est,
we
need
toco
mbi
neN
andy
’sw
onde
rful
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
psyc
ho-c
ultu
ralp
roce
sses
with
am
ore
robu
st
and
nuan
ced
anal
ysis
ofin
stit
utio
ns.