lab 1 '15

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PRACTICAL 1: THE BASIC TYPES OF LIVING CELLS

Abstract:

This experiment examined between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, both cells

were observed by using compound microscope. Slides were observed by adjusting the

magnification, either low or high magnification. 4x,1x and 4x magnification were used in

this experiment in order to observed organelles and structures of the cells. Staining is an

auxiliary techni!ue used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image. "t

enable better visuali#ation of cells and cell parts under the microscope. $y using

different stains, a nucleus or a cell wall are easier to view. %ost stain scan be used on non&

living 'fixed( cells, while only some types of stain can be used on living cells. "n this

experiment, methylene blue was used to stain animal cells to make nuclei more visible. )t the

end of the experiment, both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells were able to be

differentiate as there were different type of organelles in each of them.

Introduction:

The cell is the basic living unit organi#ation for all organisms. There are two types of

cells which are prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

*rokaryotic cells have +) but it is not isolated from the rest of the cell in which it

exist as a single loop freely in the cytoplasm. "n addition it often have small loops of +)

called plasmids which can be transferred to other cells.

-ukaryotic cells generally are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They

have true nucleus containing the +) a well as other membrane bound organelles. These

include mitochondria, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum'-( and the nucleus.

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Ob!cti"!:

1# +efine prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells.

$# +escribe the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

1#1#1 BACTERIAL CELLS

%at!ria&s

1. /lean slides

0. /overslip

. /ompound microscope

4. Toothpick

2. )ny commercial yoghurt cultures

3. +istilled water in dropper bottle

%!t'ods

1. ) drop water was placed on a clean slides.

0. The toothpick was used to dip into the yoghurt and placed onto slide and covered with

a cover slip.

. The slide was observed under low and high magnification and drew.

4. The shapes that was observed and described.2. ) drop of methylene blue was placed at the side of the cover slip and it is allowed to

be drawn in.

3. bservation was continued.

1#1#$ CYANOBACTERIA (BL)E GREEN ALGAE*

%at!ria&s

1. *repared slides of Oscillatoria

0. /overslips


%!t'ods

1. The prepared Oscillatoria slide was observed under low magnification and a drawing

was made.

0. ) short segment of the filament was drawn when changed to a higher magnification.

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1#$#1#1 CHEE+ EPITHELIAL CELLS

%at!ria&s

1. /lean slides0. /overslip


4. Toothpick

2. %ethylene blue stain


%!t'ods

1. The side of the cheek was scraped off with the blunt side of the toothpick to obtain

some epithelial cells.

0. The cell was placed into a drop of water on the slide and agitated it so the cells do not

clump up. The slide was then cover with a cover slip.

. The amount of light entering the objective lens was decreased to view the almost

transparent cells.

4. The cells were found using low magnification. ) drawing was made.

2. ) detailed study of one cell was made when the magnification was changed to high.

The nucleus was found.

3. ) drop of methylene blue stain was added to one edge of the coverslip without

removing it. The stain was then drawn under the coverslip by touching a piece of filter

paper to the opposite coverslip.

1#$#$#1 ELODEA LEAF CELLS

%at!ria&

1. /lean slides

0. /overslip


4. 5orceps



6. Elodea leaf

%!t'ods

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1# ) thin layer was tore from surface of Elodea leaf provided, mounted it on a slide with

a drop of distilled water and cover with coverslips.

$# The leaf was examined under low magnification. Then, concentrate on study of few

cells when using a higher magnification.,# The abundance of green bodies in the cytoplasm was observed. These were

chloroplasts that function in photosynthesis.

-# ) drop of methylene blue was added and a drawing of the organelles was made.

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1#$#$#$ ONION SCALE CELLS

%at!ria&s

1. /lean slides0. /overslip


4. 5orceps


3. nion bulb

%!t'ods

1. )n onion bulb was cut into !uarters. ne of the fleshy scale leaves was removed.

0. The onion scale was bent backward until it snaps and a ragged piece of epidermis was

produced.

. 5orceps was used to remove a small piece of epidermis and spreaded evenly in a drop

of water and observed under low magnification.

4. The cell wall and cytoplasm was identified.

2. The light source was adjusted to obtain a clear image of the nucleus.

3. The magnification was changed to higher, the structures that was saw were drew and

labelled.

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.iscussion:

1. *rokaryotic cell is 1&celled organisms that do not have a nucleus or any other

membrane&bound organelles inside them. *rokaryotes include )rchaea, bacteria and

cyanobacteria.

0. -ukaryotic cell is cell organism that have nucleus. They membrane&bounded nucleus

and other membrane&bounded organelle such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum

and 7olgi apparatus.

. The similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell are 8

& They both have +) as their genetic material.

& They both have ribosomes.

& They have similar basic metabolism.4. The differences between eukaryotic cell are 8

& -ukaryotes undergo mitosis while prokaryotes divide by binary fission 'simple

cell division(.

& -ukaryotes have a nucleus, while prokaryotes do not.

& The +) of eukaryotes is much more complex than the +) of prokaryotes.

Conc&usion

*rokaryotic and eukaryotic cells were defined. The similarities and differences between

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells were described.

Post/Lab 0u!stion 1

9ist two general similarities and differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells as seen

during the experiment

Euar2otic c!&&s Proar2otic c!&&s

Si3i&ariti!s

1.:acuole is present

0.:esicle is present

.i44!r!nc!s

ucleus is presence ucleus is absent

ibosome is larger in si#e ibosome is smaller in si#e

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9ist two general similarities and differences between animal and plant cells as seen during the

experiment

Ani3a& c!&&s P&ant c!&&s

Si3i&ariti!s1.%itochondria is present

0.ucleus is present

.i44!r!nc!s

/ell wall is absent *resence of cell wall

:acuole is smaller in si#e :acuole is larger in si#e

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R!4!r!nc!:

1(http://wizznotes.com/biology/the-cell/difference-between-plant-and-animal-cells. 'n.d.(.

etrieved ctober 0, 012, from http8;;wi##notes.com;biology;the&cell;difference&between&

plant&and&animal&cells

2)http://www.diffen.com/difference/Animal_ell_!s_"lant_ell . 'n.d.(. etrieved ctober 0,

012, from http8;;www.diffen.com;difference;)nimal

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PRACTICAL $: VIR)SES

Introduction:

:iruses were discovered by a ussian biologist, +.>. "wanowski in 1?20. :iruses are

not members of the @ingdom %onera. Aowever, many viruses parasiti#e bacteria. :iruses

that use bacteria as host are called bacteriophages. The viruses enters the bacterial cell and

takes over the metabolic machinery of the cell to replicate new viral nucleic acids to produce

new viral proteins.

Abstract:

This experiment examined about virus, diagrams of different types of viruses were

being observed and distinguished throughout the experiment. $ased on the diagrams ,

different shapes of virus can be observed and described. $y using detailed diagram of the

structure of bacteriophage, the structure of bacteriophage can be observed clearly.

$acteriophage is a virus which uses bacteria as their hosts. 9astly, the life cycle of

bacteriophage also able to be described by observing provided diagrams of life cycle of

bacteriophage.

Ob!cti"!s

1. +efine a virus

0. +escribe different shapes of viruses

. +escribe the life cycle of the bacteriophage

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%at!ria&s

1. +iagrams of different types of viruses

0. +etailed diagram of the structure of bacteriophage

. +iagrams of life cycle of bacteriophage

%!t'ods

1. The different shapes of virus were studied. "ts basic structure was drawn.

0. $acteriophages were drawn based on the diagram provided and the parts were

labelled.

. The life cycle of the bacteriophage was studied from the diagram provided and how

they replicated was understood.

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.ISC)SSION

1. :irus is a poisonous and an infective agent that typically consists of a nucleic acid

molecule in a protein coat. "t is too small to be seen by light microscopy and is able to

multiply only within the living cells of a host.

0. There are four different shapes of virus which are helical, polyhedral;icosahedral,

complex combination and spherical shape.

. Aelical shape is like rod&shaped, polyhedral;icosahedral have many sided shaped,

complex combination have structures like tail and most enveloped virus have

spherical shape.

4. The bacteriophage life cycle consists of either the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.

2. The lytic cycle consist of five stage which are attachment, penetration, replication and

synthesis, assembly and release.

3. )ttachment stage B ) virus will attach to a suitable host cell.

6. *enetration stage & The whole virus or only the genetic material 'nucleic acid( will

penetrate the cellCs cytoplasm. ) bacteriophage capsid remains on the outside of the

bacterial cell whereas many viruses that infect animal cell enter a host cell intact.

?. eplication and synthesis stage & The viral +);) directs the host cell to produce

many copies of viral nucleic acids and proteins necessary for its replication.

D. )ssembly stage B The viral nucleic acids and proteins are assembled together to form

new infectious particles.

1. elease stage B ewly generated viral particles are released from the host cell.

11. 5or lysogenic cycle, the infection will enter a latent period. The host cell is not killed

in this process, but the viral nuclei acid will undergo genetic recombination with the

host cellCs chromosome. This integrated structure is called prophage. =hen the

bacterial +) replicates, the prophage also replicates.

Conc&usion

1. ) virus was defined.

0. +ifferent shapes of viruses were described.

. The life cycle of the bacteriophage was described.

Post/Lab $ 0u!stions

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1. 9ist several economically important viruses.

". )denovirus

"". )deno&associated virus

""". $acteriophage T4

":. uclear *olyhedrosis virus

:. etrovirus:". :accinia virus

0. 9ist the various shapes of viruses that you have seen.

". Aelical 'rod shape(

"". *olyhedral; "cosahedral

""". /omplex combination of both helical and polyhedral structures

":. Spherical shape

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R!4!r!nc!:

1(http://biologyboom.com/!iral-diseases-&-their-economic-importance/ . 'n.d.(. etrieved

ctober 0, 012, from http8;;biologyboom.com;viral&diseases&?4&their&economic&importance;

2)http://st$dy.com/academy/lesson/shapes-of-a-!ir$s-helical-icosahedral-prolate-comple-

en!eloped.html . 'n.d.(. etrieved ctober 0, 012, from

http8;;study.com;academy;lesson;shapes&of&a&virus&helical&icosahedral&prolate&complex&

enveloped.html

&)http://!ir$ses-bipin.blogspot.my/200/2/economic-importance-of-!ir$ses.html . 'n.d.(.

etrieved ctober 0, 012, from http8;;viruses&bipin.blogspot.my;01;10;economic&

importance&of&viruses.html

,)http://wizznotes.com/biology/the-cell/difference-between-plant-and-animal-cells. 'n.d.(.

etrieved ctober 0, 012, from http8;;wi##notes.com;biology;the&cell;difference&between&

plant&and&animal&cells

1)http://www.diffen.com/difference/Animal_ell_!s_"lant_ell . 'n.d.(. etrieved ctober 0,

012, from http8;;www.diffen.com;difference;)nimal

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PRACTICAL ,: E)BACTERIA

Introduction:

$acteria, including cyanobacteria are the simplest of organisms. Their cells are

prokaryotic and lack the organelles found in eukaryotic cells. 5or example, while prokaryotes

do contain +), they have no definite nucleus or chloroplast. eproduction is primarily

asexual by fission. $acteria exist in three shapesE coccus 'spherical(, bacillus 'rods(, and

spirillium 'spiral(. "n addition to being differentiated by shape, bacteria can be separated

according to hoe they react to 7ram staining. 7ram&positive bacteria are purple after being

stained, while 7ram&negative bacteria appear pink after 7ram stain reaction.

Abstract:

This experiment examined about eubacteria. +ifferent bacterial shapes can be

distinguished by observing provided slides such as slides of Escherichia coli, 'acill$s

s$bstilis, (taphylococc$s a$re$s and (pirilli$m spp by using compound microscope. Those

different types of shapes were being drew later. ext, different types of grain&stained bacteria

were being differentiate by observing the different colour of bacteria. 9astly, Anabaena slide

was observed under compound microscope ,the structure of bacteria was drew later.

Anabaena was a cyanobacteria that live as symbionts within other organisms. The cell also

been observed under higher magnification, the si#e of cells were larger than the other cells.

The cells were called as heterocyst.

Ob!cti"!s

1. To describe three different shapes of bacteria.

0. To distinguished between 7ram&positive and 7ram&negative.

. To describe differences between eubacteria and cyanobacteria.

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,#1#1 .IFFERENT BACTERIAL SHAPES AN. GRA% STAINING

%at!ria&s

1. 7ram&stained bacteria slide

0. Slides of Escherichia coli

. Slides of 'acill$s s$bstilis

4. Slides of (taphylococc$s a$re$s

2. Slides of (pirili$m spp

3. /ompound microscope

%ethods

1. The demonstration slides given were examined. +rawings of the three basic bacterial

shapes were made.

0. The colour of the 7ram stained bacteria. +rawings were made and the different types

of 7ram&stained bacteria by using colours.

.0 CYANOBACTERIA (BL)E GREEN ALGAE*

%at!ria&s

1. Slides of Anabaena

0. /ompound microscope

%!t'od

1. The Anabaena slide was observed under the compound microscope. ) drawing was

made.

0. The cells were observed under high magnification.

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.ISC)SSION

1. The common shapes of eubacteria include bacillus, coccus and spiral.

0. $acillus & This shape of bacteria can also form long chains called streptobacillus.

)nother form is called coccobacillus, which describes a class of bacteria whose shape

is somewhere between that of the coccus and the bacillus.

. /occus & /occi are spherically shaped bacteria that organi#e in several distinct

arrangements. 5or two cocci it is called diplococcus. The diplococcus arrangement is

characteri#ed by cell division along one plane, where the bacteria will appear to form

chains.

4. Spiral B "t can form in three distinct sub&forms. The first one is a called a vibrio, in

which cells are characteri#ed by a comma shaped rod. The second sub&form is called a

spirillium. This refers to a cell that forms a thick, stiff spiral. The last sub&form is

termed a spirochete, which is very closely related to the spirillium, but typically the

spiral form is thinner and more flexible than the former.

2. The differences between 7ram&positive and 7ram&negative bacteria 8

Gra3/5ositi"! bact!ria Gra3/n!6ati"! bact!riaThe bacteria remain colored with 7ram

staining even after washing with alcohol

or acetone.

The bacteria do not retain the stain when

washed with alcohol or acetone.

uter membrane is absent. uter membrane is present.

3. The differences between eubacteria and cyanobacteria 8

Eubact!ria C2anobact!ria

Smaller in si#e 9arger in si#e

%ay be autotrophic or heterotrophic Fsually autotrophic

Spore formation is endogenous Spore formation is not endogenous

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Post &ab , 7u!stions

Aow are 7ram&positive and 7ram&negative bacteria different in terms of cell wall

composition and resistance to antibioticsG

Bact!ria Gra3/5ositi"! Gra3/n!6ati"!

C!&& 8a&& co35osition 1.Thick and single layered

0.9ow content of lipid but

high content of %urein

1. Thick and two layered

0.Aigh content of lipid but

low content of %urein

R!sistanc! to antibiotics %ore susceptible to

antibiotics

%ore resistant to antibiotics

1.=hat is the function of the heterocyst and which type of symbiosis explains association

between Anabaena and the water fern AzollaG

5unction of heterocyst is for nitrogen fixation. Type of symbiosis between Anabaena and

Azolla is mutualism ,they get benefit from each other.

0. The water fern Azolla may be found in abundance in paddy fields. -xplain why Azolla is

considered a natural fertili#er.

=ater fern Azolla is considered as fertili#ers as it grows faster and can be harvested. "t

consider as natural fertili#ers because it contain nitrates and other key minerals such as

phosphates.

/onclusion

1. There are three different shapes of bacteria that are bacillus, coccus and spiral.

0. The difference between 7ram&positive and 7ram&negative was distinguished.

. The differences between eubacteria and cyanobacteria were described.

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R!4!r!nc!:

1(http://biologyboom.com/!iral-diseases-&-their-economic-importance/ . 'n.d.(. etrieved

ctober 0, 012, from http8;;biologyboom.com;viral&diseases&?4&their&economic&importance;

2)http://st$dy.com/academy/lesson/shapes-of-a-!ir$s-helical-icosahedral-prolate-comple-

en!eloped.html . 'n.d.(. etrieved ctober 0, 012, from

http8;;study.com;academy;lesson;shapes&of&a&virus&helical&icosahedral&prolate&complex&

enveloped.html

#)http://!ir$ses-bipin.blogspot.my/200/2/economic-importance-of-!ir$ses.html . 'n.d.(.

etrieved ctober 0, 012, from http8;;viruses&bipin.blogspot.my;01;10;economic&

importance&of&viruses.html

lab 1 '15

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