language: an overview meichun liu chinese ii and iii
TRANSCRIPT
Language: Language: an overviewan overview
Meichun Liu Meichun Liu
Chinese II and IIIChinese II and III
Some basic questions:Some basic questions:• What is involved in language?• What is involved in language learning?• What is English?
– Characters of English
• What is Chinese?– Characters of Chinese
• How are they different?
What is Language?What is Language?
CommunicationCommunication
Function 1
Function 2
Function 3
Language: the mapping between Language: the mapping between FormForm and and FunctionFunction
Chinese
Form 1
Form 2
Form 3
.
.
English
Form 1
Form 2
Form 3
.
.
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Form - FunctionForm - Function
Functions Functions existence
ownership
Chinese
有 yǒu
.
.
English
There’s/re
have
.
.
Cognitive transfer: co-existence > ownership
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FunctionsFunctions• Communicative function:
– Things you want to express– Mostly shared by all languages
• Things in the world/of the body• Events/states• relations
– Culturally-specific concepts• 不好意思
Forms?Forms?• Words and word classes
– Content words: n, v, adj, adv– Function words: conj, prep, inflections
• Word order: – SVO or SOV? – Time and Space first or Time and Space last?
• Tense/aspect: – I go/went– I have done it./ I am doing it.
• Question/negation: – Do you like it? I don’t like it.
FormsForms
• Nouns– Mass or count– Singular/plural
• English: a book/3 pens/a chair• Chinese: ONE-Classifier N
– Articles: a vs. the• a book vs. the book
– Adj: • a beautiful flower vs. une fleur bonne
Consistent charactersConsistent charactersEnglish: Main point FIRST• Address writing:
200 Middlefield Rd., Palo Alto, CA 94306• S: There’s a party at Stanford yesterday.• NP: The book [on the table]
This is the book [I bought yesterday].• VP: Do it carefully• Comparative: John is taller than Bill.• Question: (Q-first) Do you like it?• Negation: I don’t like it.
Consistent charactersConsistent charactersChinese: Main point LAST• Address writing:
State, City, Street, number台湾省 台北市 新生路 200 号
• S: [Yesterday at Stanford] there’s a party • NP: [ZAI table on DE] book• This is [yesterday I bought DE] book 。 • VP: [Carefully DE] do it!• Comparative: John [than Bill] taller• Question: You like it Q?• Negation: I NEG like it.
What is language learning?What is language learning?• A PE class!• Requires:
– Understanding what’s going on– strategies of reaching the goal– Memorizing by repetition– Daily and repetitive practices– Real games in the fields
What is English?What is English?• Sentence-based: overt marking of SVO• Rigid main vs. subordinate structure:
– ONE main subj, ONE main V, ONE main clause
• Tense/aspect marked on the V• Inflections:
– Plural s, 3rd-p s, ed, er, est, ing, to V• Head-initial = Main point FIRST
– The cat on the corner– a friend of mine– Run carefully!
What is Chinese? -1What is Chinese? -1
• Discourse-basedEnglish A: Do you like Chinese? B: Yes, I like it. Chinese A: 你喜欢中文吗？
B: _ 喜欢 _!-> Whatever is understood in the
discourse may be omitted.
What is Chinese? -2What is Chinese? -2
• Topic-centered:– Topic > Clause 1, Clause 2, Clause 3 …. > Clause 1, Clause 2, Clause 3 ….
That tree, [leaves are green], [branches are long], [trunks are wide], and [looks like a giant].
What is Chinese? -3What is Chinese? -3
• Clause-chaining:
因為因為下雨了，下雨了，所以所以我沒去開會我沒去開會。。
**BecauseBecause it rained, it rained, soso I didn’t go to I didn’t go to the meeting.the meeting.
What is Chinese? -4What is Chinese? -4• Word order: • English: Foreground-Background
[We ate dinner] at 6 pm last night.
• Chinese: Background – ForegroundLast night 6 pm [we eat dinner].
zuótiān wănshàng liù diăn [wǒ mén chī wăn fàn].
What is Chinese? -6What is Chinese? -6• No inflections: 去 qù I go to the class. 我去 上课
He goes to the class. 他去 上课 They go to the class. 他们去 上课
They went to the class. 他们 [time] 去上课 or 他们 去上课 [ 了 ]
• He likes to play guitar. he like play guitar
Tā xǐhuān tán jítā 他 喜欢 弹 吉他
completion
No inflection/No inflection/No transformationNo transformation
I am called Liu Meichun. I call Liu Meichun. 我 叫 刘美君。 wǒ jiào liú měijūn
You are Chinese? -No Q-transformation You are Chinese Q 你是中国人吗 nǐ shì zhōng guó rén mā
Lesson 6Lesson 6• Teacher Liu is there Q? 刘老师在（那）吗？ Liú lăoshī zài （ nà ） mā ？• You are who? 你是谁？ 您是哪位？
nín shì na wéi ？• You have things Q? Time 你 有 事 吗？ Nǐ yǒu shì mā ？
Review Practice- Lesson 1Review Practice- Lesson 1A ： 你好，我叫 ＿＿＿＿ (name) 。 nǐhăo ， wǒ jiào ＿＿＿＿
我是美国人。你叫什麽名字？ wǒ shì měiguó rén 。 Nǐ jiào shémo míngzì ？
B ： 我叫 ＿＿＿＿。我也是美国人。 wǒ jiào ＿＿＿。 wǒ yě shì měiguó rén 我住在加州。 wǒ zhù zài jiāzhōu
A ： 你姓 ＿＿，我有一个朋友也姓 ＿＿。 nǐ xìng ＿＿， wǒ yǒu yíge péngyǒu yě xìng ＿＿
B ： 你的朋友也是学生吗？ nǐde péngyǒu yě shì xuéshēng mā ？
A ： 不是，他是老师。 bú shì ， tā shì lăo shī 。
The Chinese formal patternsThe Chinese formal patterns
• 來這裡的路上，看到一隻小鳥，羽毛是藍色的，很漂亮。但是一走近，就飛了！– subject?
•竹塹玻璃工藝博物館，建於西元 1936年，為日治時期自治會館，亦為日本昭和皇太子來台巡視時之行館，整體東方現代化的建築，不僅表現出歐洲風格的豪華氣派，更因座落於麗池旁，與人典雅幽緻的印象。- topic? topic?
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The English formal patterns The English formal patterns
• On my way here, I saw a bird. Its feathers are blue; it looked gorgeous. But when I came near to it, it then flew away.
• The Glass Art Museum was build in 1936, was build in 1936, and used as the local government building.and used as the local government building.
ItIt also served as the residence for the Japanese also served as the residence for the Japanese Prince, Zhaohe.Prince, Zhaohe. Its Its oriental design ….oriental design …. It It gives gives an impression of elegance and tranquilityan impression of elegance and tranquility..
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The Chinese GrammarThe Chinese Grammar• Discourse-orientedDiscourse-oriented
Whatever is understood clearly in the Whatever is understood clearly in the context may be omitted:context may be omitted:– 「「 __ __ 幾點起來的？」幾點起來的？」– 「「 __ __ 起來了以後 做什麼？」起來了以後 做什麼？」– 「「 __ __ 好不好吃？」好不好吃？」– 「什麼時候來的？」 「什麼時候來的？」 - tense?- tense?
• Topic-prominent Topic-prominent
TOPIC + Clause ChainsTOPIC + Clause Chains– Topic > Clause 1 , Clause 2 , Clause 3 ….Topic > Clause 1 , Clause 2 , Clause 3 ….
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The English GrammarThe English Grammar
• Sentence-orientedSentence-oriented– Everything has to be Everything has to be markedmarked in a in a
sentencesentence– Subject + V-tense + ObjectSubject + V-tense + Object
• Do you like English?Do you like English? 你喜歡英文嗎？你喜歡英文嗎？• Yes, I like Yes, I like itit.. 我很喜歡我很喜歡 ..
• Subject-prominentSubject-prominent– Every sentence has to have a subjectEvery sentence has to have a subject
• It is raining. It is raining. 下雨了下雨了• It’s beautiful!It’s beautiful! 好美喔！好美喔！• There ‘s girl looking at us. There ‘s girl looking at us. 有個女孩在看我們有個女孩在看我們
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Different charactersDifferent characters
• EnglishEnglish– 主從分明、重點在前、由小到大主從分明、重點在前、由小到大
• Main vs. SubordinateMain vs. Subordinate
Clause 1 Clause 2
- to V or Ving (non-finite V)
- that [Subj2 + Verb 2]
Subj 1 + Verb 1
Tensed
Main Subordinate
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Main vs. SubordinateMain vs. Subordinate
• Because Because • Since Since • IfIf• In case that CLAUSEIn case that CLAUSEsubsub, ,
CLAUSECLAUSEmainmain
• WhenWhen• Provided thatProvided that• … …
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Information PatternInformation Pattern• 小明 比 小華 小明 比 小華 [[ 高 高 ]] [John is taller] [John is taller] than Tomthan Tom • 昨天晚上昨天晚上 88 點，點， [[ 我去參加舞會我去參加舞會 ]]
[I went to the dance] [I went to the dance] at 8 pm last night.at 8 pm last night.• 我昨天買的那本 我昨天買的那本 [[ 書書 ]] Modifier - NModifier - N
[The book][The book] I bought yesterday I bought yesterday N - ModifierN - Modifier• 小心的 小心的 [[ 人人 ]] Modifier - NModifier - N
小心的 小心的 [[ 檢查檢查 ]] Modifier - VModifier - V• Chinese: Chinese: 重點在後 重點在後 Head-finalHead-final English: English: 重點在前 重點在前 Head-initialHead-initial
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Foreground vs. backgroundForeground vs. background
• Address writing:Address writing:– 台灣 台北市 新生南路 三段 台灣 台北市 新生南路 三段 2222 巷 巷 100100 號號– No. 100, Lane 22, Section 3, Hsin-sheng No. 100, Lane 22, Section 3, Hsin-sheng
South Rd. Taipei, TaiwanSouth Rd. Taipei, Taiwan
• Essay writing:Essay writing:– Topic sentence (1Topic sentence (1stst sentence) sentence)– Thesis statement (1Thesis statement (1stst paragraph) paragraph)
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What is a Grammar?What is a Grammar?
• Language XLanguage X 到到 // 這裡這裡 // 我我 覺得覺得 // 高興高興 // 很很
首先首先 // 要問要問 // 你們你們 // 我我 嗎嗎 // 是是 // 什麼什麼 // 語法的英文語法的英文 不不 // 是是 // 規則的死板規則的死板 而而 // 是是 // 策略共通的達成溝通策略共通的達成溝通 //為了為了
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How to understand the How to understand the language?language?
• What are the words used?What are the words used?
到到 這裡 覺得這裡 覺得• How to order the words?How to order the words?
我 到 這裡 我 到 這裡 vs. vs. 到 這裡 我到 這裡 我• How to relate the words?How to relate the words?
覺得 覺得 [[ 高興 很高興 很 ]]
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區分 區分 Word ClassWord Class
• Nouns Nouns (( 東西東西 )) 朋友朋友 // 老師、書包老師、書包 // 便當便當 // 情書情書
• VerbsVerbs （動作狀態）（動作狀態） 追、趕、跑、跳、碰追、趕、跑、跳、碰
• AdjectivesAdjectives （特徵）（特徵） 美麗、可愛、安靜、好動、很ㄍㄧㄥ美麗、可愛、安靜、好動、很ㄍㄧㄥ
• AdverbsAdverbs (( 情態情態 // 方式方式 )) 快速地、高高興興地快速地、高高興興地
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排列排列 Word OrderWord Order • V + O + S V + O + S 到 這裡 我到 這裡 我• V + ADVJ V + ADVJ 覺得 高興很覺得 高興很• ADJ + ADV ADJ + ADV 高興 很高興 很• Time Adverbial + AUX Time Adverbial + AUX ＋＋ VOSVOS
首先 要 問你們我首先 要 問你們我• N + (N + ( 的的 ) MODIFIER ) MODIFIER 語法的英文語法的英文• Q word + VOSQ word + VOS 嗎 是什麼語法嗎 是什麼語法• NEG + V + SNEG + V + S 不 是 規則的死板不 是 規則的死板
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p b g a
wen fa
Grammar 文法
What is English grammar?
What is grammar?
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
SoundSound
SyllableSyllable
WordWord
SentenceSentence
DiscourseDiscourse
PhrasePhrase
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
Grammar is the coding devices …
Grammar is unique to human species.
English Grammar
組合：
由
小
到
大3232
IllustrationsIllustrations
SoundSound /th/, G, N, /th/, G, N, ㄓㄓ , , ㄔㄔ , , ㄕㄕ / / 二嘟嘟二嘟嘟 ||
SyllableSyllable *slpad, *dlag, ?duan *slpad, *dlag, ?duan ||
WordWord ‘water’ ‘water’ [form -meaning][form -meaning] un-un-birthdaybirthday
||
PhrasePhrase a black flower/une fleur noire a black flower/une fleur noire ||
SentenceSentence I like you I like you vs.vs. 我你喜歡我你喜歡 | |
DiscourseDiscourse 吃了沒？吃什麼？好吃嗎？吃了沒？吃什麼？好吃嗎？
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Properties of GrammarProperties of Grammar
• 單位的單位的區分區分 N, V, N, V, AuxAux
• 先後的先後的排列排列 A-NA-N
• 大小的大小的組合組合 Det-N > Det-N > NPNP
II saw saw a doga dog in the carin the car. .
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Why is there Grammar?Why is there Grammar?文法所為何來？文法所為何來？
• An Event:An Event:
cat chase cat chase dogdog
→
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How to describe the event?How to describe the event?• What we want to communicate must What we want to communicate must
be ‘be ‘markedmarked’ clearly in the grammar.’ clearly in the grammar.• What do you want to communicate?What do you want to communicate?
– What happened?What happened? - - verb formsverb forms– Who to whom?Who to whom? - - word order/roleword order/role – When?When? - - tensetense– How? How? - - aspectaspect– Is it true?Is it true? - modality - modality– Which one? Which one? - -
definite/indefinitedefinite/indefinite– Who’s in control? Who’s in control? - - active/passiveactive/passive– Can you understand? Can you understand? - - constraintsconstraints
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Who does what to whom?Who does what to whom?
• Word OrderWord Order (syntax)(syntax)
A cat chased a dog.A cat chased a dog.
A dog chased a cat.A dog chased a cat.• Word FormWord Form (morphology)(morphology)
HeHe chased chased himhim. .
SheShe chased chased herher..
TheyThey chased chased themthem..3737
What happened?What happened?• VerbsVerbs encode events: encode events:
– I I mademade him leave. him leave.– She She looks like looks like a cat.a cat.– She She sawsaw a dog walk/walking along the street. a dog walk/walking along the street.– She She ranran fast./ She fast./ She ranran to catch the busto catch the bus..– SheShe plannedplanned to study abroadto study abroad. . – She She suggested suggested that he should leave right that he should leave right
awayaway..
• Verb types Verb types - event types:- event types:– 小明 小明 打打 // 罵罵 // 踢踢…… ..? (V + NP)..? (V + NP)– 小明 小明 想要想要 // 打算打算 // 開始開始 …… .? (V + VP).? (V + VP)– 小明 小明 說說 // 想想 // 以為以為…… .? (V + CL).? (V + CL) 3838
Classes of verbsClasses of verbs
• 請參考另一份請參考另一份 wordword 檔案檔案• Extended outline Extended outline
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French : French : venirvenir “come” “come”
je je viensviens ( (II) nous ) nous venonsvenons ((wewe))
tu tu viensviens ( (youyou) vous ) vous venezvenez ( (youyou))
il il vientvient ( (hehe) ils ) ils viennentviennent ((theythey))
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Ch. 5 Ch. 5 When does it happen?When does it happen?
Question: Question: 英文的動詞為什麼要加英文的動詞為什麼要加 ed?ed?
溝通目的：表達事件發生的時間？溝通目的：表達事件發生的時間？ 貓追狗事件：貓在什麼時候追狗？貓追狗事件：貓在什麼時候追狗？1.1. 時間有幾種區分？如何標記時間？時間有幾種區分？如何標記時間？
• 教科書只教三種：現在教科書只教三種：現在 // 過去過去 // 未來未來• 還有還有第四式第四式：習慣事實：習慣事實
2.2. 什麼是「現在」？如何定義「現在」？什麼是「現在」？如何定義「現在」？• 「說話的時間」就是現在「說話的時間」就是現在• 「現在」不是固定的時間，而是隨著「說話的人」「現在」不是固定的時間，而是隨著「說話的人」
而改變而改變4141
4 Tenses4 TensesDef: The relation between Event time Def: The relation between Event time
and Speech time and Speech time 事件發生的時間點事件發生的時間點
past present futurepast present future
<-----------*------------<-----------*------------|--------------*-----------|--------------*----------->>
Speech TimeSpeech Time
• Past: ET preceded STPast: ET preceded ST• Future: ET follows STFuture: ET follows ST• Present: ET is right at STPresent: ET is right at ST• Habitual: always, timeless, unspecifiedHabitual: always, timeless, unspecified4242
IllustrationsIllustrations
• Event timeEvent time (Tense) (Tense)PresentPresent: : A cat A cat isis chas chasinging a dog. a dog.HabitualHabitual: : Cats chase dogs.Cats chase dogs.PastPast: : A cat chasA cat chaseded a dog. a dog.FutureFuture: : A cat A cat willwill chase a dog. chase a dog.
• Present with different Verb types:Present with different Verb types:動作動詞的現在式＝現在進行動作動詞的現在式＝現在進行Active V: Active V: I am speaking; you are listeningI am speaking; you are listening..Stative V: Stative V: I know the answer.I know the answer.
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Present:Present: Active vs. Stative Active vs. Stative
• Active V Active V – PastPast: He : He choppedchopped wood. wood.– Present-progressivePresent-progressive: :
He is He is choppingchopping wood. wood.– HabitualHabitual: He (always) : He (always) chopschops wood. wood.
• Stative V (state)Stative V (state)– PastPast: He : He knewknew the answer. the answer.– PresentPresent: He : He knowsknows the answer. the answer.– HabitualHabitual: He (always: He (always) knows ) knows the the
answer.answer.– Present-progressivePresent-progressive: :
**He is knowing the answer.He is knowing the answer.4444
動詞類型與時態動詞類型與時態
• 狀態動詞：狀態動詞：– 現在式與習慣式的標記相同：現在式與習慣式的標記相同：
• He is late again (He is late again ( 現在現在 ).).• He is always late (He is always late ( 習慣習慣 ).).
• 動作動詞：動作動詞：– 現在式現在式 :: He is eating apples (now).He is eating apples (now).– 習慣式習慣式 : He eats apples (as a truth).: He eats apples (as a truth).
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Marking of Past Tense: Marking of Past Tense: Verbal morphologyVerbal morphology
• Regular Past: –ed Regular Past: –ed • Irregular Irregular base formbase form past tense form past tense form
sing sang sing sang
see sawsee saw
bring broughtbring brought
know knewknow knew
be was/werebe was/were
come came come came
go wentgo went
sit satsit sat
leave leftleave left
have hadhave had
begin beganbegin began
find foundfind found
put putput put
cast castcast cast
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HabitualHabitual 時間上無定點：時間上無定點： a truth/fact/habit that may a truth/fact/habit that may
happen in the past, in the present or in the happen in the past, in the present or in the future. future. 過去如此過去如此 // 現在如此現在如此 // 將來也如此將來也如此
The sun rises in the East.The sun rises in the East.
He goes to school by bus.He goes to school by bus.
I only eat 2 meals a day.I only eat 2 meals a day.• With With stative verbsstative verbs::
The habitual and the present tense are The habitual and the present tense are formally identical:formally identical:
He knows the answer.He knows the answer.
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盲點盲點• 中文的時間標記不在動詞上，而是依上下文中文的時間標記不在動詞上，而是依上下文
或時間詞：或時間詞：– 我昨天去跳舞我昨天去跳舞– 我今天去跳舞我今天去跳舞– 我明天去跳舞我明天去跳舞
• 但英文在動詞上一定要標記時間：但英文在動詞上一定要標記時間：– Where did you go yesterday?Where did you go yesterday?– II wentwent to a dance. to a dance.
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AA ：吃飯沒？：吃飯沒？BB ：吃了！：吃了！
功能與用法功能與用法
• 三種 三種 Future TenseFuture Tense 的標記：三種語意的標記：三種語意a) Modal Auxa) Modal Aux ‘will’ ‘will’
b) Complex Aux ‘be going to’(be b) Complex Aux ‘be going to’(be gonna)gonna)
c) Progressive Auxc) Progressive Aux ‘be…Ving’‘be…Ving’
e.g. e.g. I will leave soon.I will leave soon.
I am going to leave soon.I am going to leave soon.
I am leaving soon.I am leaving soon.4949
Functional Distinctions - Functional Distinctions - 33 different Future Markingsdifferent Future Markings
1. Formality1. Formality– Most formal: ‘will’Most formal: ‘will’
2. Time distance:2. Time distance:– Most distant future: ‘will leave’Most distant future: ‘will leave’– Most immediate: ‘am leaving’Most immediate: ‘am leaving’
3. Degree of certainty3. Degree of certainty– Higher certainty: will leave / am Higher certainty: will leave / am
leavingleaving
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Habitual PastHabitual Past
• She used to play guitarShe used to play guitar. (. ( 現在不彈現在不彈了了 ))
• She would play guitar when feeling She would play guitar when feeling down.down. ( ( 現在仍有可能彈現在仍有可能彈 ))
Semantic difference:Semantic difference:• She used to do it, but no longer She used to do it, but no longer
does.does.• She would, and still may do it.She would, and still may do it.
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延伸延伸• Stative vs. ActiveStative vs. Active V: V: • 動態化：有 動態化：有 Agent-controlAgent-control
– ‘‘See’See’• I see her.I see her.•**I am seeing her now.I am seeing her now. （＊不合文法）（＊不合文法）• I amI am seeingseeing her first thing tomorrow. her first thing tomorrow.• He’s He’s seeingseeing the delegation right now. (visit? the delegation right now. (visit?
meet?)meet?)– ‘‘Be’Be’
• Joe is tall.Joe is tall.• *Joe is being tall.*Joe is being tall.• Joe is Joe is beingbeing obnoxious. (act as?) obnoxious. (act as?)
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延伸延伸– ‘‘Have’Have’
• *Mary was having long legs.*Mary was having long legs.• Mary was Mary was havinghaving dinner at six. (eat) dinner at six. (eat)• Mary was Mary was havinghaving her first baby at six. (give her first baby at six. (give
birth)birth)• Mary was Mary was havinghaving a good time in Hawaii. a good time in Hawaii.
(enjoy)(enjoy)
• 結語：結語： McDonald’s advertisement:McDonald’s advertisement:– I’m loving itI’m loving it ！！── 將 將 love love 動態化：趕快行動動態化：趕快行動 // 趕快去買！趕快去買！
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AspectAspect 時貌時貌
Def.: Def.: The internal temporal property of an The internal temporal property of an eventevent 事件的進行樣貌狀態事件的進行樣貌狀態
Involves:Involves:• Temporal properties of the eventTemporal properties of the event• Notion of relevanceNotion of relevance• Speaker’s perspectivesSpeaker’s perspectives
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How does it happen?How does it happen?
• View of the event (View of the event ( 事件進行的狀態事件進行的狀態 ))• ProgressiveProgressive::
– a close view: event is a close view: event is on-goingon-going
• PerfectPerfect::– completed completed by a Reference Timeby a Reference Time– Relevant to RTRelevant to RT
Reference Point
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ProgressiveProgressive
• Marks three semantic properties:Marks three semantic properties:– ongoing v. terminatedongoing v. terminated– close perspectiveclose perspective– simultaneous (vs. sequential)simultaneous (vs. sequential)
She was cutting the logShe was cutting the log. . (ongoing & (ongoing & repeatedrepeated))
When I came in, all students were When I came in, all students were smiling.smiling. (ongoing and simultaneous(ongoing and simultaneous))
When I came in, a student smiled at me.When I came in, a student smiled at me. (bounded past(bounded past))
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• In DiscourseIn Discourse::– The horse circled it as warily as a The horse circled it as warily as a
wolf, wolf, studying istudying it from all angles.t from all angles.
– I mopped the floor, helping my I mopped the floor, helping my mom to clean the room.mom to clean the room.
– Past /perfective: Mainline, Past /perfective: Mainline, foregrounded sequence of eventsforegrounded sequence of events
– Progressive: backgrounded, Progressive: backgrounded, dependent clausedependent clause
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• The habitual progressiveThe habitual progressive
(no specific time reference)(no specific time reference)
– She is watching TV right now.She is watching TV right now.– Whenever I came in, she was Whenever I came in, she was
watching TV.watching TV.
– Q: What does he do for a living?Q: What does he do for a living?
Ans.: He works at a gas station.Ans.: He works at a gas station.
– Q: What’s he doing these days?Q: What’s he doing these days?
Ans.: He’s working at a gas station.Ans.: He’s working at a gas station.5858
Other Progressive AspectsOther Progressive Aspects
1. 1. Continuous-Repetitive Continuous-Repetitive Progressive:Progressive:
• Compare:Compare: He He waswas working. working.
He He keptkept working. working.
• ‘‘KeepKeep’:’:– The activity was going on for some time The activity was going on for some time
before: before: continuouscontinuous
The baby kept sucking his thumb The baby kept sucking his thumb
(on and on)(on and on)– Repetition or habitual action: Repetition or habitual action: repetitiverepetitive
He kept spraining his ankle (again and He kept spraining his ankle (again and again).again).
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• ‘‘ContinueContinue’:’:– Progressive V+V-ingProgressive V+V-ing
He continued playing basketballHe continued playing basketball. (=‘keep’). (=‘keep’)– He continued playing basketball for 3 hours.He continued playing basketball for 3 hours.
– Modality (V+ to V Modality (V+ to V 時間上不連貫、可分割時間上不連貫、可分割 ))
He continued to play basketball.He continued to play basketball.– After a year of rest, he continued to play After a year of rest, he continued to play
basketball.basketball.
• ‘‘Go onGo on’:’:– He went on singing. (He was singing before)He went on singing. (He was singing before)– He went on to sing. (after doing something He went on to sing. (after doing something
else)else)
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2. Inceptive-Progressive Aspect2. Inceptive-Progressive Aspect
‘‘start’ ‘begin’ ‘resume’start’ ‘begin’ ‘resume’
• He started singing, when I came in.He started singing, when I came in.
He started to sing after dinner.He started to sing after dinner.
• He started kicking the ball, then stopped.He started kicking the ball, then stopped. (Kicking several times before stopping)(Kicking several times before stopping)
He started to kick the ball, then stopped.He started to kick the ball, then stopped.(wanted/ready to, but didn’t )(wanted/ready to, but didn’t )
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3.Terminative-Progressive Aspect3.Terminative-Progressive Aspect‘‘stop’ ‘finish’ ‘quit’stop’ ‘finish’ ‘quit’
• 結束單一的動作或事件：結束單一的動作或事件：He stopped reading his book and He stopped reading his book and
listenedlistened..(termination of an on-going action) (termination of an on-going action)
• 結束多年的習慣：結束多年的習慣： He stopped reading comic books.He stopped reading comic books.
(termination of repetitive/habitual action)(termination of repetitive/habitual action)
• What about ‘finish’?What about ‘finish’?He finished reading comic books.He finished reading comic books.
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The Perfect AspectThe Perfect Aspect
Involves cluster of 4 features:Involves cluster of 4 features:• AnteriorityAnteriority• PerfectivityPerfectivity• Counter sequentialityCounter sequentiality• RelevanceRelevance
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1. Anteriority: 1. Anteriority: Prior to the Prior to the temporal referencetemporal reference::• Present Perfect:Present Perfect:
---------□--------------------------□-----------------|-------------|-------------event timeevent time reference timereference time
speech timespeech time
• Past PerfectPast Perfect::
-----□-----------------------□------------------|-----------------|----------------- ＊＊ ------------event timeevent time reference timereference time speech timespeech time
• Future PerfectFuture Perfect::
---------- ＊＊ -------------- □ -------------- □ ----------------|-----------------------|-------speech timespeech time event timeevent time reference timereference time
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Simple vs. Progressive Simple vs. Progressive EventEvent
6 pm 7 pm 8 pm6 pm 7 pm 8 pm Speech TimeSpeech Time
homeworkhomework dinnerdinner TVTV
I did my homework.I was doing my homework at 6.
I am eating dinner at 7. I will watch TV. I will be watching TV at
8. 6565
Present Perfect: Present Perfect: completed by the Presentcompleted by the Present
Past Present FuturePast Present Future
homeworkhomework dinnerdinner Reference Reference TVTV
I have done my homework.I have eaten dinner.
I have been a teacher for 3 years. I have been a teacher for 3 years.
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Past Perfect : Past Perfect : completed by a past time pointcompleted by a past time point
Past1 Past2 Present Past1 Past2 Present FutureFuture
homeworkhomework dinnerdinner Speech Time TVTV
I had done my homework before dinner.I had done my homework before I ate dinner.I had done my homework before eating
dinner.
ReferenceReference
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Future Perfect: Future Perfect: completed by a future pointcompleted by a future point
PastPast Present Future1 Future2 Present Future1 Future2
homeworkhomework Speech T Speech T TV TV go to bedgo to bed
I will have watched TV before I go to bed. I will have watched TV before going to
bed.
ReferenceReference
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2. 2. PerfectivityPerfectivity
Event has been terminated, Event has been terminated, completed or accomplished before completed or accomplished before the Reference Time.the Reference Time.
A: Why don’t you listen carefully?A: Why don’t you listen carefully?
B: I’ve already read the chapter.B: I’ve already read the chapter.
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3. Counter-Sequentiality3. Counter-Sequentiality
A event out of temporal sequence in A event out of temporal sequence in the narrativethe narrative
• Sequential (perfective):Sequential (perfective): He came back into the room (He came back into the room (AA), looked ), looked around (around (BB), spotted the buffet (), spotted the buffet (CC) and went to ) and went to get a sandwich (get a sandwich (DD).).
• Perfect:Perfect: He came back into the room and He came back into the room and looked around. looked around. He had spotted the buffet He had spotted the buffet earlier (earlier (AA)), so he went to get a sandwich., so he went to get a sandwich.
• Event sequence:Event sequence: ABCD ABCD BCAD BCAD
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4. Relevance4. RelevanceRelevant to the reference timeRelevant to the reference time
• Difference between event and Difference between event and states:states:
• Temporal Gap between event and Temporal Gap between event and reference time:reference time:
She has read this book.She has read this book.
She has been a club member.She has been a club member.
She has been reading this book. She has been reading this book. (she is still reading.)(she is still reading.) 7171
What is the main point?What is the main point?• OnlyOnly one major event one major event in a sequence:in a sequence:
– 1 main clause:1 main clause:1 main subject 1 main subject ++1 tensed 1 tensed VV
• A catA cat chased a dog chased a dog, biting and stretching his tail., biting and stretching his tail.• A catA cat chased a dog chased a dog to bite his tail.to bite his tail.• When I came homeWhen I came home,, I saw I saw a cat a cat chasing a dogchasing a dog..• After I came homeAfter I came home, , I sawI saw that a cat was chasing that a cat was chasing
a dog and biting his tail.a dog and biting his tail.
• Having bit his tailHaving bit his tail, , the cat was chasing the dog.the cat was chasing the dog.• Having been bittenHaving been bitten, the dog was running around., the dog was running around.
• A catA cat chased a dog, bit his tail chased a dog, bit his tail, , andand stretched his stretched his hairhair.. 7272
Main vs. subordinate:Main vs. subordinate:Relative ClauseRelative Clause
• I saw I saw a cat [who a cat [who was chasing a dog].was chasing a dog].• I saw a cat chasing I saw a cat chasing a dog [who a dog [who has while has while
hair].hair].
• I saw a dog I saw a dog whowho was chased by a cat. was chased by a cat.• I saw a dog I saw a dog whomwhom a cat was chasing __. a cat was chasing __.
• I like the food I like the food which which tastes good.tastes good. • I like the food I like the food whichwhich my mom made __. my mom made __.
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Subordinate ClauseSubordinate Clause
• When asked to choose an item, he picked the newest one.
• Built on a towering rock face, the church faces a forest.
Building a church, the architecture chose white bricks.
• The church, which faces a forest, is made of white bricks.
Relative ClauseRelative Clause
• I went to a park I went to a park in which in which I saw the dog.I saw the dog.• I went to a park I went to a park wherewhere I saw the dog. I saw the dog.• I bought a sharp knife I bought a sharp knife by which by which I cut I cut
the meat.the meat.• I bought a sharp knife I bought a sharp knife with which with which I I
opened the can.opened the can.• John is a nice guy John is a nice guy with whom with whom I went to I went to
the party.the party.
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‘‘that’ - Clausethat’ - Clause
• He told a story He told a story thatthat I heard _ several I heard _ several times.times.
• He told He told a storya story [[that a frog became a that a frog became a princeprince]]..
• He was sad for He was sad for the reasonthe reason [ [that his girl that his girl friend left himfriend left him].].
• He told me He told me (that) he likes the girl.(that) he likes the girl.• He said/thought He said/thought (that) she is pretty(that) she is pretty..
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限定與非限定關係子句限定與非限定關係子句• 限定：限定： ONEONE out of a possible setout of a possible set
The man The man [who I met yesterday] [who I met yesterday] is coming.is coming.
The Americans The Americans [who are sports-crazy] [who are sports-crazy] are are coming to the game. coming to the game.
• 非限定：無其他可能非限定：無其他可能 ,, 不需限定 不需限定 = y= y
The AmericansThe Americans,, who are sports-crazy, who are sports-crazy, all love all love the game.the game.
President MaPresident Ma, who studied law, , who studied law, is careful is careful about legislation.about legislation.
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X
X
XX
Which one? Which one? Can you Identify it or not?Can you Identify it or not?
• 名詞的標記名詞的標記 :: ‘ ‘aa’ vs. ‘’ vs. ‘thethe’’
A catA cat chased chased a doga dog.. >> oneone that you don’t know that you don’t know
The cat The cat chased chased the dogthe dog.. >> the one you knowthe one you know
• ‘‘aa’ : Not known to the hearer’ : Not known to the hearer 我知你不知我知你不知 ::
‘ ‘thethe’ : Known to the hearer’ : Known to the hearer 我知你也知 我知你也知 == identifiableidentifiable
• CompareCompare::I bought I bought a cara car yesterdayyesterday.. 聽者無法認定是哪一個聽者無法認定是哪一個I bought I bought thethe car car yesterdayyesterday. . 認定聽者知道是哪一個認定聽者知道是哪一個
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ReferenceReference
• Existence vs. Reference– Consider the following:
• The Queen of England is bald.The King of France is bald.
• I rode a horse yesterday.I rode a unicorn yesterday.
• There was an old elf who lived in the forest.He lived all by himself and [] was very lonely.One day the old elf met a frog near a pond.
Reference and realityReference and reality
• Future and type-referringFuture and type-referring (( 類別類別 )) ：： QQ ：： What do you want to buy?What do you want to buy?
AA ： ： I want to buy I want to buy a booka book. >not known to the hearer. >not known to the hearer - but I don’t know which one yet. (>Type) - but I don’t know which one yet. (>Type)
- but I can’t find it here. (> a particular one)- but I can’t find it here. (> a particular one)• Past and token-referringPast and token-referring (( 個體個體 ):):
I bought I bought a jerseya jersey at Mega 21. at Mega 21. >>Specific-unknownSpecific-unknown
I bought I bought the jerseythe jersey you saw last time. you saw last time. >>specific-known• Habitual and type-referring (Habitual and type-referring ( 類別＋習慣事實類別＋習慣事實 ))
Cats chase dogs. A/the cat chases a/the dog.Cats chase dogs. A/the cat chases a/the dog.
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Referring or notReferring or notIndefinite ‘a’: refer to a particular token or type?Indefinite ‘a’: refer to a particular token or type? 1. not real/non-fact:1. not real/non-fact:
Richard wants to marry Richard wants to marry a rich womana rich woman,,• though he doesn’t know though he doesn’t know herher well. -referring well. -referring• though he doesn’t know though he doesn’t know anyany. - non-. - non-
referringreferring
2. Real/fact2. Real/fact
Richard Richard married a rich womanmarried a rich woman,,
……though he didn’t know though he didn’t know herher well. well.
……??though he didn’t know ??though he didn’t know anyany..
3. Presupposition3. Presupposition
Because Richard married Because Richard married a rich womana rich woman, ,
he bought a fancy car.he bought a fancy car.
Reference and ModeReference and Mode• Indefinite ‘a’: two possible readingsIndefinite ‘a’: two possible readings
Richard wants to marry aRichard wants to marry a rich woman rich woman he dated.he dated.– Fact: referring to a particular womanFact: referring to a particular woman– Non-fact: Non-fact: eithereither referring referring oror non-referring non-referring
• Definite ‘the’ - must be referringDefinite ‘the’ - must be referring– Richard wants to marry Richard wants to marry the rich woman the rich woman he dated.he dated.
• Interpretation:Interpretation:Referring: He has a Referring: He has a particularparticular woman in mind. woman in mind.
Non-referring: He has Non-referring: He has nono particular woman in particular woman in mind; wishes to marry someone of that type.mind; wishes to marry someone of that type.
Reference and ModeReference and Mode• Grammatical environments for non-referring Grammatical environments for non-referring
‘a’:‘a’:– Non-fact modalityNon-fact modality
1.1. condition: condition: If he meets a rich woman,If he meets a rich woman,2.2. yes/no question: yes/no question: Did he meet a rich woman?Did he meet a rich woman?3.3. Command: Command: Go meet a rich woman!Go meet a rich woman!4.4. Modals: Modals: He may meet a rich woman.He may meet a rich woman.5.5. Epistemic Adverb: Epistemic Adverb: Maybe he met a rich woman.Maybe he met a rich woman.6.6. Modality and Manipulative V:Modality and Manipulative V:7.7. He He wantswants to meet a rich woman. to meet a rich woman.8.8. They They urgedurged him to meet a rich him to meet a rich
woman.woman.9.9. Non-factive PCU V: Non-factive PCU V: He He dreameddreamed that he met a that he met a
rich woman.rich woman.
ReferenceReference
• Reference and pluralityReference and plurality– He’s planning to sell a house.He’s planning to sell a house.– He’s planning to sell houses.He’s planning to sell houses.– He always meets a girl for lunch.He always meets a girl for lunch.– He always meets girls for lunch.He always meets girls for lunch.– (realis) What did he do last year?(realis) What did he do last year?
• He sold houses. (as a real estate broker)He sold houses. (as a real estate broker)• He sold a house.He sold a house.
Observations:Observations:• Plural NP: downgrades the referential intent.Plural NP: downgrades the referential intent.• Non-referring even under fact modality.Non-referring even under fact modality.
ReferenceReference
• Pronouns and referencePronouns and reference– Indefinite pronounsIndefinite pronouns ‘one’‘one’– Definite pronounsDefinite pronouns ‘he’ ‘she’ ‘he’ ‘she’
‘them’…‘them’…• I am looking for a white horse.I am looking for a white horse.
……but couldn’t find one. (non-referring)but couldn’t find one. (non-referring)
……and finally found one. (referring)and finally found one. (referring)• Richard wanted to marry a rich girl.Richard wanted to marry a rich girl.
……but she also had to be pretty.but she also had to be pretty.
……though she wasn’t pretty.though she wasn’t pretty.• If you see anybody, tell him/them I am here.If you see anybody, tell him/them I am here.
ReferenceReference• Indefinite DET ‘any’ ‘no’ ‘some’
– A. ‘any’ and ‘no’: non-referring• He will date any woman.• *He dated any woman. (realis)• He will date/dated no woman.
– B. ‘some’:• Referring with factive Mode.• Non-referring with non-factive mode
Fact:• I know that he joined some club.• He joined some club yesterday.
Non-fact: I will join some student club,• …and I know it welcomes me (referring).• …but I don’t know which one yet (non-referring).
ReferenceReference
– As pronouns (alone or with –one, -body)• I was looking for books on syntax,
…and I found some.…but I couldn’t find any/*some.
• If anybody/somebody shows up, tell them…If anything/something happens, let me know.
• Someone did/may do it.Something happened/may happen.
But, ‘any’ is incompatible with realis mode:• Anybody *did it/ may do it.• Anything *happened/ may happen.
ReferenceReference
– Four-way contrast in the use of pronouns:Four-way contrast in the use of pronouns:
Richard was planning to marry Richard was planning to marry a rich girl,a rich girl,• A. definite, referring:A. definite, referring:
……but but sheshe rejected him. rejected him.• B. definite, non-referring:B. definite, non-referring:
……provided provided sheshe was also smart. was also smart.• C. indefinite, referring:C. indefinite, referring:
……and he finally found and he finally found oneone..• D. indefinite, non-referringD. indefinite, non-referring
……and he is still looking for and he is still looking for oneone..
the - the - 我知你知的那個我知你知的那個• What is ‘What is ‘knownknown’ and ’ and ‘identifiable‘identifiable’?’?
– Shared situation:Shared situation:•the room, the desk, the windowthe room, the desk, the window
– Shard discourse:Shard discourse:• Once upon a time, there’s a princess. She is Once upon a time, there’s a princess. She is
young and beautiful. young and beautiful. The princess The princess met a met a handsome man in a forest.handsome man in a forest.
– Shared background knowledge:Shared background knowledge:•I saw I saw the Presidentthe President yesterday. yesterday.•The Sun The Sun rises in the east.rises in the east.•We loved We loved the movie the movie we saw yesterday.we saw yesterday.
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DefinitenessDefinitenessA: A: You know what?!You know what?!
B: I bought B: I bought a cara car yesterday. yesterday.
- referring, specific but non-identifiable- referring, specific but non-identifiable
vs. I bought vs. I bought the carthe car yesterday. yesterday.
- referring, specific and identifiable- referring, specific and identifiable• Definite ‘the’:Definite ‘the’:
– The speaker assumes that the hearer can The speaker assumes that the hearer can identifyidentify the specific referent of the NP. the specific referent of the NP.
– The referent is The referent is identifiableidentifiable to the hearer. to the hearer.
DefinitenessDefiniteness• Sources for identifiability:Sources for identifiability:
– 1) The shared background knowledge.1) The shared background knowledge.– 2) The shared current situation.2) The shared current situation.– 3) The shared current discourse.3) The shared current discourse.
• Situation-based (“deictic”) DefinitesSituation-based (“deictic”) Definites– 1) Speaker & hearer: 1) Speaker & hearer: I, you, weI, you, we– 2) Demonstrative: 2) Demonstrative: this whiteboard, that this whiteboard, that
deskdesk– 3) Adverbs of time: 3) Adverbs of time: now, later, tomorrownow, later, tomorrow– 4) Adverbs of place: 4) Adverbs of place: here, therehere, there
DefinitenessDefiniteness
• Culture/Knowledge-based DefinitesCulture/Knowledge-based Definites– 1) Shared universe: 1) Shared universe:
the Sun, the Mars, the Moonthe Sun, the Mars, the Moon– 2) Shared 2) Shared
experience/society/culture/environment:experience/society/culture/environment:the President, the Major, the Chair, ‘the bank’, the President, the Major, the Chair, ‘the bank’, the activity centerthe activity center
– 3) Shared frames invoked by a preceding NP:3) Shared frames invoked by a preceding NP:He bought He bought a housea house, but , but the living roomthe living room was too was too small.small.He was sent to the emergency room, and He was sent to the emergency room, and the the doctordoctorHeHe told us that told us that his fatherhis father was ill. was ill.
A man A man the man the man
Do you see Do you see something there?something there?
someonesomeone
some mansome man
a man a man
a man in blacka man in black
a man in black sitting on a man in black sitting on the rock with a cat by his feet.the rock with a cat by his feet.
the man/John?the man/John?
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ReferenceReference• 7. Gradation of indefinite referential intent
– Weakest • Did you see anything there?• Did you see anybody there?• Did you see any man there?• Did you see some man there?• Did you see a man there?• Did you see a tall man there?• Did you see a tall man wearing a blue shirt there?• Did you see a tall man there wearing a blue shirt and
sitting on a red rock with a hat in his left hand?
– Strongest referring -> Definite• Did you see the man/John there?
WhyWhy
• 指涉的強度：John = the man
• *The President Ma– The President of President Ma
• *The John– The person there or John
• The 2nd WW vs. WW II
A Rule?A Rule?
• ‘‘Any’Any’ can only be used in can only be used in NegativeNegative and and InterrogativeInterrogative sentences? sentences?
• But: But: The cat will chase The cat will chase anyany dog.dog.
You may take You may take anyany of these. of these.
• Why?Why?
• ‘‘Any’:Any’: Non-referring with Non-referring with non-non-eventevent..
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Non-EventNon-Event• Non-eventNon-event: non-fact, not real: non-fact, not real
– QuestionQuestion: Do you have : Do you have anyany idea? idea?– NegativeNegative: I don’t have : I don’t have anyany money. money.– CommandCommand: Take : Take anyany of these! of these!– FutureFuture: I will do : I will do anyanythingthing for you. for you.– ConditionalConditional: If you see : If you see anyoneanyone, please ask …, please ask …
• Factual eventFactual event: must have a specific : must have a specific participantparticipantSomeoneSomeone stole the PC, though we don’t know stole the PC, though we don’t know
who.who.
*Anybody did it. => Anybody will do it! *Anybody did it. => Anybody will do it! 9797
What is a rule?What is a rule?
• 不可數名詞不可數名詞 : : Literature, riceLiterature, rice • But every rule has an exception:But every rule has an exception:
– 外文系外文系 : : Department of Foreign Department of Foreign Languages Languages and and LiteraturesLiteratures
– I boughtI bought a number of rices. (5 a number of rices. (5 種種 ))
• What kind of rule is this?What kind of rule is this?
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A Rule is…A Rule is…• A A useuse patternpattern (form-function pairing pattern)(form-function pairing pattern)
– by the by the majoritymajority of speakers of speakers– for the for the majoritymajority of purposes of purposes– in the in the majoritymajority of contexts. of contexts.
大多數人，在大多數的情境下，為了大多數的大多數人，在大多數的情境下，為了大多數的目的所使用的模式目的所使用的模式
• An exception is:An exception is:– an exceptional use pattern for exceptional an exceptional use pattern for exceptional
purposes purposes 較特殊、較不常見的使用模式較特殊、較不常見的使用模式
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Count vs. Mass NCount vs. Mass N
• Count vs. uncountable:– Used to refer to an individual or not– 並非物理上可不可以數
• Go to college/go to school– Not the physical countable entity, but
the function of school
溝通原則溝通原則 22 ：形義配搭的異化原則 ：形義配搭的異化原則 The principle of differentiationThe principle of differentiation
• Different formsDifferent forms must communicate must communicate different functionsdifferent functions::– e.g.e.g. Continue/start Continue/start 後可接 後可接 V-ing or V-ing or To-V??
• John John continued talkingcontinued talking about his trip about his trip for 3 hours. for 3 hours. > > talked non-stop
• After dinner, John After dinner, John continued to talkcontinued to talk about his trip. about his trip. > > stopped and resumed talking
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Translate the following Translate the following sentencessentences
•書昨天買了• 今天的報紙送來沒？•房子賣了 1000萬。•許明財選上了新竹市長• 作業上星期就交了• 作業已經交了
Who is in control? Who is in control? 主動主動 // 被被動動
• 追貓事件： 兩個角色追貓事件： 兩個角色– 控制事件發生的人：控制事件發生的人： ChaserChaser ？？– 被控制的人：被控制的人： ChasedChased ？？
• 主詞和動詞的關係：主詞扮演何種角色？主詞和動詞的關係：主詞扮演何種角色？– 主動：發出動作的人主動：發出動作的人 as subjectas subject– 被動：被追的人 被動：被追的人 as subjectas subject
• Who is moving?Who is moving?– The chairs The chairs are are movingmoving. (Horror movie?). (Horror movie?)– The chairs The chairs are are movedmoved..
• Emotional change as non-voluntary change:Emotional change as non-voluntary change:• I I am interestedam interested inin English English • I I am impressedam impressed withwith English English • I I am amazedam amazed atat English. English.
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主動 主動 vs.vs. 被動被動V-ing vs. V-edV-ing vs. V-ed• John moved the heavy box,John moved the heavy box,
- helping- helping his father his father
- helped by - helped by his father.his father.• The bookThe book is is boring. boring.
He is boring!He is boring! vs. He is vs. He is boredbored..• a health-threatening man a health-threatening man （＿＿＿＿ 人）（＿＿＿＿ 人） a health-threatened man ( a health-threatened man ( ＿＿＿＿ 人）＿＿＿＿ 人）
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Active vs. PassiveActive vs. Passive• Have you walked the dog? The dog was walked.
I was supposed to walk the dog, but I was walked by the dog.• The ship sank. vs. The ship was sunk. We sank the ship.• The vase broke. vs. The vase was broken.
John broke the vase.• The ice melts. vs. The ice was melted.
Please melt the ice.• own vs. belongs to; sell vs. buy
Participle as adjectivesParticiple as adjectives
• a sold car a selling agent. a baked cake a baking machine a broken record a record-breaking winner
Three main functional dimensions Three main functional dimensions of de-transitive voice:of de-transitive voice:
• Agent demotion:– Unknown / unimportant / predicable/
everyone
• Promotion of a non-agent– topic/focus on the patient
• Verb stativization:– BE + PP
Promotion of Non-agentPromotion of Non-agent
• Promotional de-transitive constructions:– Be-passive:
John was killed in an accident.– Get-passive:– John got killed in the accident.
Mary got elected on her second try.– Middle voice:
The window suddenly broke.– Potential middle:
This book sells easily.
What am I talking What am I talking about? about? 主題焦點主題焦點
• I have I have a doga dog whose name is Spark. whose name is Spark.
HeHe is a friendly dog who is afraid is a friendly dog who is afraid of cats and of cats and is always chasedis always chased by by them.them.
• Mr. LinMr. Lin went to the US and showed went to the US and showed up in a talk show. He up in a talk show. He was was interviewed byinterviewed by the talk show host. the talk show host.
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active passive
Text-type N % N %
academic 49 82 11 18
fiction 177 91 18 9
news 45 92 4 8
sports 64 96 3 4
The Frequency-distribution of Voice
Can people understand?Can people understand?
• I I turned on turned on the radio.the radio.• I I turnedturned it it onon..
? I turned ? I turned [[the small radio that was the small radio that was on the green table near the large on the green table near the large living room window in the house] living room window in the house] on.on.
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AmbiguityAmbiguity
• Flying planesFlying planes can be dangerous. can be dangerous.• I saw the dog I saw the dog in the carin the car..• I am looking for someone I am looking for someone to to
teachteach..• He plans to teach a course on He plans to teach a course on
the mysterious civilization at the mysterious civilization at India.India.
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Lexical AmbiguityLexical Ambiguity
• FineFine for Parking ! for Parking !
• She cannot She cannot bearbear children. children.
• An apple a day keeps the An apple a day keeps the doctordoctor away. away.
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Ambiguity Ambiguity 大賞 大賞 (( 中文版中文版 ))
• Lexical AmbiguityLexical Ambiguity
報告班長，我只有兩樣不會 報告班長，我只有兩樣不會 !!• Morphological AmbiguityMorphological Ambiguity – Acronym – Acronym
NTU : Naturally Truly UglyNTU : Naturally Truly Ugly
NCTU : National Certainly Terminal UglyNCTU : National Certainly Terminal Ugly• Structural AmbiguityStructural Ambiguity
這場球我看完了這場球我看完了 大富大貴沒有大災難要小心大富大貴沒有大災難要小心 不可移動不可移動
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• 你要避免在晚上修課 你要避免在晚上修課 vs. vs. 休克休克 流汗髒死了 流汗髒死了 vs. vs. 劉漢臧死了劉漢臧死了 你要試 你要試 ( vs. ( vs. 四四 ) ) 吃活魚嗎吃活魚嗎 ??
• Bilingual AmbiguityBilingual Ambiguity 哩基咧希 “林” 舍哩基咧希 “林” 舍 ? ? 挖林五泥呀挖林五泥呀
Oral AmbiguityOral Ambiguity
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Comics 1Comics 1
•男男 11 ：我和小紅的關係已發展到如果有：我和小紅的關係已發展到如果有 一天不去找她，我就會很 一天不去找她，我就會很難難
受受。 。 男男 22 ：真的還是假的？：真的還是假的？
(( 兩人一起去找小紅）兩人一起去找小紅）小紅小紅：渾球，昨天你為什麼沒來我？！：渾球，昨天你為什麼沒來我？！
（啪！敲男 （啪！敲男 11 頭）頭） 男男 11 ：沒騙你吧，一天不去找她，我：沒騙你吧，一天不去找她，我就就 會很 會很難受難受。。
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Comics 2Comics 2
• 男：哪，送妳男：哪，送妳花花。。 女：我好喜歡女：我好喜歡花 花 ㄡ。ㄡ。 男：妳最喜歡什麼男：妳最喜歡什麼花花？？ 女：「花錢」的女：「花錢」的花花。。
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Comics 3Comics 3
• 男：和她愛情長跑九年，既勞民又傷財，娶不男：和她愛情長跑九年，既勞民又傷財，娶不 到她，我不甘心！（敲門） 到她，我不甘心！（敲門）
男：你這個臭女人，今天說什麼也得男：你這個臭女人，今天說什麼也得敲定敲定咱們咱們 的婚事！ 的婚事！
（扣！高跟鞋敲上男的頭）（扣！高跟鞋敲上男的頭） 男：男：敲定了敲定了……
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造句練習 造句練習 - Syntax- Syntax• 第一題：第一題：如果如果 小瓜呆：開水不如果汁好喝！小瓜呆：開水不如果汁好喝！• 第二題：第二題：難過難過 呆呆：這座橋，很長，很難過。呆呆：這座橋，很長，很難過。• 第三題：第三題：他媽的他媽的 小乃：我一拿起吉他，媽的臉色就很難看。小乃：我一拿起吉他，媽的臉色就很難看。• 第四題：第四題：去你的去你的 笨呆呆：時光逝去，你的身影依舊在我心底。笨呆呆：時光逝去，你的身影依舊在我心底。• 第五題：第五題：小白痴小白痴 小新：小白痴痴的等我回來。 小新：小白痴痴的等我回來。
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造句練習 造句練習 -- SyntaxSyntax• 第六題：月經第六題：月經 老闆：你這個月經常遲到喔！老闆：你這個月經常遲到喔！• 第七題：第七題：性交性交 你這種個性交不到朋友的！ 你這種個性交不到朋友的！ • 第八題：第八題：吃大便吃大便 小平總是吃大便當。小平總是吃大便當。• 第九題：第九題：電燈電燈 一停電，燈就不亮了。一停電，燈就不亮了。• 第十題：第十題：和尚和尚 已註冊和尚未註冊的同學請分開坐。 已註冊和尚未註冊的同學請分開坐。
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同音義異詞同音義異詞 - - MorphologyMorphology• 抹抹黑 （政治 黑 （政治 > > 油輪）油輪）• 辛辛知知杜杜明明• 碎碎碎碎平安平安• 性不性性不性由你由你• 醉醉不上道不上道• 憂心沖沖憂心沖沖• 股股往今來往今來• 無齒無齒• 李義李義連恥連恥 內優 內優外換外換• 前途無前途無亮亮• 雪中雪中宋炭宋炭 閣閣不入 閣閣不入• 冰冰不厭炸不厭炸• 毒家毒家快挺快挺• 杉布杉布午時午時
• 爵地爵地大反攻大反攻• 無無蟲蟲下手下手• 會計會計• 詐詐彈彈• 經濟經濟• 踩死青蛙 整頓交通踩死青蛙 整頓交通• 量聲量聲訂做訂做• 危機分危機分• 純橄嚼純橄嚼• BBSBBS• 生於生於優優宦 死於安樂宦 死於安樂• 舞舞力犯台力犯台• 無無劑劑可施可施• 王王朝朝馬馬汗汗
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Linguistics in ComicsLinguistics in Comics
• “ “ Mommy said to behave, so Mommy said to behave, so I’m I’m beinbein’ as ’ as hayvehayve as I can. ” as I can. ”
• “ “ Looks like we spend most of Looks like we spend most of our time our time inginginging…You know, like …You know, like sleeping, eating, running, sleeping, eating, running, climbing…” climbing…”
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Linguistics in ComicsLinguistics in Comics
• 路標 路標 NO LEFT TURNNO LEFT TURN
LEFT NO TURNLEFT NO TURN
TURN NO LEFTTURN NO LEFT
NO TURN LEFTNO TURN LEFT
“ “ We get a lot of foreign visitors.”We get a lot of foreign visitors.”
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ConclusionConclusion• Language is used for communication by Language is used for communication by
mapping mapping formsforms with with functionsfunctions::– rules in a grammar are codingrules in a grammar are coding strategies strategies
used in the majority of communicative used in the majority of communicative contexts.contexts.
• There is always a way There is always a way (form)(form) for for whatever you want to say whatever you want to say (function).(function).
• What What formform one should choose depends one should choose depends on what on what functionfunction one intends to convey. one intends to convey.
• All rules are All rules are functionally motivated functionally motivated and and follow the follow the principle of economyprinciple of economy and the and the principle of differentiation.principle of differentiation. 130130