latin 3b word study set 1 - quia his ab urbe condita, livy, writing in 1st century a.d., relates a...

1 Word Study #1 Latin 3b, 2020

LATIN 3B WORD STUDY SET 1

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WORD STUDY 1

Behind the Connotations: the True Meaning of Devovere

The various English definitions of devoveo, devovere found in translations of Latin classics seem

to contradict each other at first glance; sometimes translated “to curse,” sometimes “to devote.” Through

critical examination of the source material, however, a common thread can be determined. The authors

examined are all contemporaries, ranging from 100BCE to 18CE. They encompass a wide variety of genres,

including poetry, history, military records, and satire. In these six works from Virgil, Livy, Ovid, Caesar,

and Horace, devovere can be defined as “to guarantee an outcome.”

This passage of Virgil’s Aeneid tells of Aeneas’s defeat of Turnus, the main antagonist in the

epic. Turnus is the subject of this sentence: Ille quidem ad superos, quorum se devovet aris, succedet

fama vivusque per ora feretur, “That living man shall certainly advance to the gods, whose altar he

devotes himself to, and his fame shall be told through mouths” (Virgil, Aeneid 12.216.234). Turnus

devotes himself to the gods’ altar. Devotion is a promise of loyalty. In devoting oneself to a deity, one

guarantees to always stay true to that deity and give one's attention and reverence to him/her. The

implications of devovere in this passage are positive, but that is only clear via context. The Latin word

itself does not carry connotations, good or evil.

The english translation “to devote” is not limited to religious purposes. Livy details a debtor’s joy

and relief at being released from his debt: illi deuouere corporis uitaeque ac sanguinis quod supersit, “To

that man I devote my life and what survives of my family” (Livy, History of Rome 6.14.8). The debtor is

so thankful to his liberator that he dedicates his life to him. He guarantees that he will always be there if

his liberator needs him. Devovere perfectly captures the meaning of that promise.

One example of when devovere was used to indicate malicious intentions is this passage from

Ovid: pennas adspexit in undis devovitque suas artes corpusque sepulcro condidit, “He saw the wings in

the waves, and cursed his own creations, and put the body in a tomb” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.233-5).

Daedalus, the implied subject, is feeling grief and guilt at his failure to keep his son safe. He blames the

wings for his death, and curses them. “To curse” may have been the best choice for an English translation

of devovere here, but it falls short of the true Latin meaning. In “cursing” at the wings, Daedalus is

guaranteeing that he despises them, that he would destroy them if it were in his power. The outcome of

this guarantee is hypothetical, but “to guarantee an outcome” still proves true as the core meaning of

devovere.

Group 1: review & evaluate

numbers 9-16

Group 2: review & evaluate

numbers 1-8

Clara

Davis

Emily

Leela

Madeleine

Mariah

Meridian

Michael

Abigail

Anna

Catherine

Cleo

Jonah

Joshua

Samuel

Tan


Many authors are consistent in their favored use of any given word. In reading many examples of

the word devovere in texts by Ovid, one sees a pattern emerge: he very often uses the word in contexts

where it should be translated “to curse.” A different book in Metamorphoses shows this: qui, quoniam

prohibent anni bellare, loquendo pugnat et incessit scelerataque devovet arma, “Since the years prevent

him from fighting, he fights and attacks by speaking and he curses their awful weapons” (Ovid,

Metamorphoses 5.74.101-2). Emathion, the subject here, is an old man who is filled with bloodlust yet

physically incapable of carrying out his threats. So he turns to a verbal form of fighting and damns the

enemy. It is a very similar situation to Daedalus’s rage, the only difference being their motivation to

curse. Emathion guarantees his anger with words.

An apparent contradiction of cursing, devovere is best translated “to consecrate” in this passage:

Huic, cum proelio dimicare constituerunt, ea quae bello ceperint plerumque devovent, “For this, when

they set up to fight in battle, the majority of them consecrate those things which they might take into

battle” (Caesar, Gallic Wars 6.17.2). This text is explaining the Roman custom of soldiers blessing spoils

of war and things they took into war and also sacrificing animals to deities, resulting in heaps of

consecrated materials creating a kind of sanctity in the place of battle. Devovere in this case has a similar

nuance to its use in Aeneid 12, in that it is a religious usage intending a virtuous result. The act of

consecration is to declare something sacred and dedicate it to divine purposes, so by consecrating war

spoils, the soldiers are guaranteeing them to a deity, which Caesar expresses with devovere.

In his Satires, Horace is referring to a custom of giving offerings to the Church, and ponders the

ethics of offering a daughter rather than a beast: quid, siquis gnatam pro muta devovet agna, integer est

animi? “What, if a man might tribute his daughter instead of a mute lamb, is his soul uninjured?”

(Horace, Satyrarum libri 2.3.219-20). Devovere indicates an actual exchanging of goods, an immediate

concrete outcome of a guarantee. This is similar to Caesar’s use of the word, and a difference to Ovid’s

use. These examples demonstrate that the core meaning of devovere encompasses both a theoretical

guarantee and a physical one.

Devovere is derived from the Latin word voveo, which in turn, is derived from Proto-Indo-

European *h₁wegʷʰ- and Proto-Italic *wogʷeō. Its contemporary cognates include Greek εὔχομαι

(eúkhomai) and Sanskrit वाघत् (vāghát). Its travel through time ends up with modern day English

derivatives, including devote, devout, vote, votive, and vow, among many others. It is noteworthy that an

archaic meaning of English devote is “to invoke or pronounce a curse upon” as well as “to consecrate.”

The way one curses something is to dedicate it to the dark infernal gods, as opposed to merciful gods in

the case of consecration, so the two starkly contrasting outcomes are not so opposite as they seem. This

same concept is seen in Latin devovere.

Devovere can be confusing to translate into English because the context of the situation forces

the English to narrow down into a niche translation. In truth, Latin devovere has one very simple core

meaning: to guarantee an outcome, whether good or bad, theoretical or physical. This root meaning can

be detected by a study of many various sources and consideration of devovere’s lingual relatives.


WORD STUDY 2

Don’t Arce Me From Writing This Paper

Romans typically employed one word to demonstrate an overarching concept, whereas the

English language often uses multiple synonyms to express a similar idea. Arceo, arcere is an example of a

Latin word which expresses a unified concept.

In his Ab Urbe Condita, Livy, writing in 1st century A.D., relates a passage concerning Rome’s

reaction to the defeat suffered at the Battle of Cannae. He writes illud per patres ipsos agendum ut

tumultum ac trepidationem in urbe tollant, matronas publico arceant, “This is fit to be done through the

senators themselves so that the tumult and anxiety in the city may be suppressed, that they keep the

matrons away from public places” (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 22.55.6). Livy is telling of the measures which

the senate had to take in order to keep the anxiety of the Roman citizens contained. The first measure is to

keep the grieving matrons indoors to avoid fear and disquiet among the rest of the citizens. Arceo here is

employed to illustrate the matrons being kept away from public places for the sake of the other citizens,

rather than for their own protection. This points toward the general concept behind the word arceo, which

is “to keep away”.

Cicero, who wrote in the 1st century B.C., demonstrates another distinct use of arceo in his De

Officiis. He urges Maxime autem haec aetas a libidinibus arcenda est exercendaque in labore

patientiaque et animi et corporis, “These ages must be greatly restrained from passions and exercised in

work and endurance of both mind and body” (Cicero, De Officiis 1.122). Cicero is speaking of the

necessity of the Roman people to resist the inclinations of their passions and rather employ themselves in

useful studies and endeavors. “Restrain” is a more fitting translation in this context, as it demonstrates the

idea of curbing the passions. Nevertheless, arceo still maintains the core meaning, “to keep away”, as

Cicero proposes that the ages ought to be kept from the potential dangers associated with unruly passions.

This passage, however, offers a different connotation than the one mentioned above, as this one

demonstrates the idea of a person or thing keeping away from something for its own good rather than for

the good of another.

St. Augustine, in his Epistulae, offers an example of how arceo was understood in later Latin, as

he wrote in the 4th to 5th century A.D. He says Saltem de sanctorum corporum sepulcrum, saltem de

locis sacramentorum, de domibus orationum tantum dedecus arceant, “Let so great a disgrace be kept

away at least from the tombs of the bodies of the saints, at least from the places of the sacraments, and

from the houses of prayer.” (Augustine, Epistulae 8.3). St. Augustine is here speaking of a disgraceful

word or action which must be kept out of the sacred places. The use of arceo once again refers to the

general idea of keeping something away. In this case, the disgraceful conduct is kept away from the

sacred places both for the sake of the worshippers and out of reverence for God. Like the first example,

this use of arceo illustrates the idea of keeping something away for the sake of others, rather than for the

protection of that person or thing which is kept away.

Based on these three examples, it is evident that the Romans would have understood arceo,

arcere to mean “to keep away”, whether for the sake of others or for the sake of that person or thing.

While English translations for this word include “shut in”, “prevent”, “hinder”, and “protect”, the Latin

languages unifies all these concepts in one word, which at its core means “to keep away”.


WORD STUDY 3

The Green Eyed Monster: Invideo

The Latin word invidia and its corresponding verb invideo have several varying meanings in

English: look askance at, be jealous of, begrudge, envy, and hateful. Used by Latin authors such as Ovid

and Horace, while invideo has many interpretations in English, the Romans would not have experienced

any uncertainty about the meaning of their words.

In Ovid’s “Pyramus and Thisbe”, invide is translated as “hateful”. ‘invide’ dicebant ‘paries, quid

amantibus obstas, quantum erat, ut sineres toto nos corpore iungi aut, hoc si nimium est, vel ad oscula

danda pateres?’. “‘Hateful wall,’ they said, ‘why do you obstruct lovers, how great would it be for you to

allow us to join in body, or if this is too much, for you to lie open for giving kisses?’” (Ovid,

Metamorphoses 4.73-75). Invide is best translated as “hateful” because the wall is deserving of hate since

it is separating the two lovers. In this passage, invide could also be translated as “envious” because Ovid’s

wall between Pyramus and Thisbe is the personification of envy of Pyramus and Thisbe.

Another occurrence of invideo appears later in Ovid’s “Pyramus and Thisbe” as well: Hoc tamen

amborum verbis estote rogati, o multum miseri meus illiusque parentes, ut, quos certus amor, quos hora

novissima iunxit, conponi tumulo non invideatis eodem. “However, you shall be asked this one request by

the words of both, O very miserable parents, mine and his, that you would not be begrudging that those

whom of a certain love whom the most recent hour has joined be placed together in the same tomb.”

(Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.154-157). In this passage, invideatis is best translated to English as

“begrudging” because the parents of Pyramus and Thisbe do not approve of their relationship. Since “to

begrudge” means “to envy someone of the possession or enjoyment of something”, invideatis can also be

translated to English as “envious” in this case.

Horace, also a Golden Age Roman poet, uses invida in his famous poem “Carpe Diem”, or “Seize

the day”. Dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero. “While we

are speaking, hateful time will have fled, seize the day, trustful in the future to the least extent possible.”

(Horace, Carmina 1.11). In this instance, invida is best translated to English as “hateful” because time is

deserving of hate since it is fleeing. Romans might have understood invida in this passage as a feeling of

“envy” since the lack of time sparks a feeling of discontent or resentful longing in the speaker of the

poem.

Horace uses a form of invideo again in another of his odes called “Auream Quisquis

Mediocritatem Diligit”, or “Whoever Loves the Golden Mean”. Auream quisquis mediocritatem diligit,

tutus caret obsoleti sordibus tecti, caret invidenda sobrius aula. “Whoever chooses the golden mean safe,

he lacks the squalor of the shabby house and more sensibly, he lacks a palace deserving to be envied.”

(Horace, Carmina 2.10). Invidenda is a gerundive so it can be literally translated as “deserving to be

envied”. Horace is telling his readers to live in the Golden Mean because if one was too poor one would

have to live in poverty and vice versa that if one was too rich one might live in a palace, thereby

unnecessarily inviting the envy of others.

Cognates of the Latin word invidia include the Italian cognate, also invidia, and the Portuguese

cognate, inveja, which mean “envy” in English. Additionally, the French word jalousie is closely related

to the English word “jealousy”.


Overall, while the Latin word invidia and its associated verb invideo can be translated as

“be jealous of”, “begrudge”, “envy”, “jealousy”, or “hateful”, the core meaning that a Roman would have

interpreted it as is “envy”.

WORD STUDY 4

Hospes: Friend or Enemy?

Hospes has been around for many centuries. During those years it has taken on many diverse

meanings, some even contradicting others. But even though it has many different English meanings, the

Romans had one core concept when they used it, which is shown in the paragraphs below.

One of the two most frequent meaning of hospes is guest. In one of Ovid’s poems about King Midas,

he writes, “He (King Midas) gave a festival with the arrival of his guest (Silenus).” Hospitis adventu

festum genialiter egit. (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 11.95). In this instance, the guest is friendly, and King

Midas knows him. But earlier in the poem, the king’s people didn’t recognize the guest and thought he

was a stranger, or possibly an enemy. So here hospes is referring to a guest who was not recognized at

first and was thought to be a stranger.

The other most frequent meaning of hospes is host, the opposite of guest. In one sentence, Horace

writes, “…where the busy host almost burnt himself while turning over small thrushes on the flames.”

…ubi sedulus hospes paene macros arsit dum turdos versat in igni. (Horace, Satyrarum libri, 1.5.71-72).

Here Horace is describing something that happened when some travelers stopped at an inn for the night.

When the travelers are traveling, the host at the place where they will stop next is most likely going to be

a stranger to them, as he is here. So Horace uses hospes to mean a host who is a stranger.

In another one of Ovid’s poems, he uses hospes to mean both guest and host in the same sentence, “The

guest was not safe from the host.” Non hospes ab hospite tutus. (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 1.44). When

people are coming to an inn from far away, the host cannot know whether they are a friend or a stranger.

Likewise, when people are going to an inn from far away, they cannot know whether the host is a friend

or a stranger. So in both cases, the host and the guests are possible strangers. And strangers could be

enemies who might harm you.

In one of Catullus’ poems, he uses hospes to mean friends, “That light ship which you see, my friends,

says that it was the fastest of ships.” Phasellus ille, quam videtis, hospites,/ait fuisse navium celerrimus.

(Catullus, Carmina, 4.1-2). In this line, the friends Catullus is referring to are the readers of this poem.

Catullus is just using friends to sound friendly, he doesn’t actually know all the potential readers of this

poem. So when he uses friends, he is talking to people who could be strangers, but he is being friendly to

them and telling them about the ship. This adds to the idea that hospes means strangers or possible

strangers who are receiving or giving welcoming gestures.

Hospes can mean not only friend, but also stranger. Cicero writes, “Are you so much a stranger of this

city…?” Adeone hospes es huiusce urbis…? (Cicero, Pro C. Rabirio Perduellionis Reo ad Quirites

Oratio, 10.28). Here Cicero is asking another (Titus Labienus) whether he is so much a stranger to Rome

that he doesn’t know a custom of the senate. Labienus has brought an elderly senator (C. Rabirius) to trial

for a murder which was committed over 30 years ago. Cicero is defending Rabirius and so is against


Labienus. Consequently, Cicero is regarding Labienus as a potential enemy (since he is arguing against

him). So when Cicero asks Labienus if he is a stranger to some of Rome’s customs, he is implying that

Labienus could be an enemy, or that Labienus is a potential enemy who is taking advantage of Rome’s

acceptance of him.

Overall, hospes seems to mean a potential stranger (or in extreme cases enemy) who is either giving or

receiving welcoming gestures. This opinion is strengthened by looking at the origin of hospes. Hospes

came from the Proto-Italic word hostipotis, which is a compound of the Latin words hostis (meaning

stranger or foreigner and later enemy) and potis (a Latin verb meaning to be able, capable, possible).

When the two word meanings are put together, the meaning of hospes is a possible stranger or enemy.

Hospes also appears in some modern languages, for example an old meaning of the Russian word gost is

merchant. A merchant in Russia was looked upon as a stranger who was being welcomed by Russia. In

English the words hospital, hostel, and hospitality all come from hospes. People who come to both

hospitals and hostels are most likely strangers. So hospitals and hostels are places where people come

who are possible strangers and where they receive hospitality and attention. At hostels, hotels, and inns,

the host shows the guests hospitality, which is the act of receiving and hosting people who may be

strangers.

By looking at the Latin examples, the origin of hospes, and the modern words derived from hospes, the

core meaning becomes clearer. Even though hospes can mean guest, or host, or friend, or stranger, when

the Romans saw this word, the concept they thought of was: a possible stranger or enemy who is

receiving hospitality from another possible stranger or enemy, or giving hospitality to another possible

stranger or enemy.

WORD STUDY 5

A Stunning Study

In the modern era, to be thunderstruck means to be stunned into silence by a sudden shock to the

senses. In ancient times, it meant nearly the same but with an added connotation of the displeasure of the

fearsome Jupiter, king of the gods. The Latin verb attono means “to thunder at; hence, to stun, stupefy”

and is a syncopated form of the verb tono, “to thunder,” and the prefix ad, “toward.” Thus, the literal

meaning of the verb would be “to thunder toward.” The verb can also mean “to strike with lightning,”

which illustrates the connection that ancient people made between thunder and lightning. Attonitus, an

adjective formed from the perfect passive participle of the verb attono, can be used to portray one who is

“lightning/thunder-struck, blasted, astonished, fascinated, dazed, or inspired.” The use of the word

attonitus and its various forms throughout ancient literature reveals the general attitude of the ancient

Romans toward the gods and their works.

The primary meaning of the verb attono is generated from the phenomena of thunder and

lightning. Likely, the Romans would have felt the effects of this extremely loud, sudden sound and its

accompanying blinding light and connected it to a certain numbing or even temporary loss of the senses.

Hence, we see the meaning “to stun, stupefy.” They also may have witnessed the effects of an animal

struck by lightning, stunned where it stood or lying dead in a frozen stupor. The verb is not often used in


literature, but Seneca employs it in his Moral Letters to Lucilius when he warns against climbing too high

for power, for “indeed that very highest height is struck with lightning,” ipsa enim altitude attonat summa

(Seneca, Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales 19.9). Here, Seneca uses the verb literally to indicate that the

summit of a mountain is struck with lightning, but the entire clause is meant metaphorically to represent

the dangers that a lofty social or economic status might bring.

There was certainly an element of fear in the ancient Roman mind when hearing a clap of

thunder, predominantly because of its presumed association with Jupiter, who would use thunderbolts to

annihilate anyone who displeased him. Romans had a great sense of awe and terror of the gods because of

the deities’ mercurial temperaments and absolute power. Thus, if a Roman saw or heard thunder, he or

she would have entertained thoughts of imminent destruction because of Jupiter’s ire. This is illustrated

well by Virgil in his Aeneid: Talibus attonitus visis et voce deorum, “I was terrified by such visions and

the voice of the gods” (Virgil, Aeneid 3.172). This is written in the person of Aeneas, who had just heard

the voice of the gods telling him to go to Italy. He is afraid to be the subject of the gods’ direct attention.

Ovid utilizes a slightly milder form of the adjective attonitus in his Metamorphoses. He wants to imply

less a state of terror than a state of confusion: Attonitus tanto miserarum turbine rerum, “dazed by so

much a whirlwind of unfortunate occurrences” (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 7.614). Here, the subject of the

story is in a stupor with his senses drowning in all the misfortunes that have befallen him at one time.

Attonitus can also convey a sense of shock or sudden realization. For Midas, this was certainly the

case when he realized that if everything that touched his body turned to gold, he could not eat or drink!

Attonitus novitate mali, divesque miserque, effugere optat opes, et quae modo voverat, odit,

“dumbfounded by the strangeness of the misfortune, both rich and miserable, he wishes to escape the

wealth, and that which he had only just now prayed for, he hates” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.127). Here,

Ovid describes Midas’s state as a sort of dreadful speechlessness; Midas did not know how to act upon

his epiphany of the grim prognosis that he would face if he were not able to undo the effects of his foolish

wish.

Finally, attonitus can be used to describe a person who has experienced a revelation from the

gods. Following in the vein of a sudden realization, this particular usage can rise to the level of an

“inspiration.” This can also be tied back to lightning, a sign of the gods, as it characterizes inspiration as a

flash of light that suddenly illuminates the mind. In Statius’s Silvae, book 5, the poet uses attonitus in this

way: Bacchus et attonitae tribuit vexilla catervae, “and Bacchus even presented a banner of his inspired

crowd” (Statius, Silvae 5.1.116). Here, the “inspired crowd” depicts a group of followers who have been

chosen by the god Bacchus and gifted with a certain wisdom and the honor of being his followers. Here

we see once again the connection of the word attonitus to a divine intervention into the everyday lives of

the ancient people.

Even though the word attono and its participle attonitus have various meanings, they can be unified into a

single concept. The Romans used the word attono and its forms to express a feeling of awe, terror, and

inspiration stemming from a penetrating fear of the gods, their actions, or their perceived natural

manifestations. Even though these meanings are scattered through selections of literature, we can catch a

snapshot of the Roman mind. The Romans possessed a strong sense of awe and great honor for the

supernatural power of the gods, but they also had a thin thread of fear running through their everyday

lives. They maintained a constant worry that perhaps they would offend the gods and have to face their

wrath.


WORD STUDY 6

Pyramus as Opposed to Icarus: What It Really Means to Be a “Iuvenis”

The ancient Romans used the word iuvenis to mean a young man or woman in the prime of life, the

time of greatest energy and potential. Since it is technically a substantive third declension adjective of

one ending, it can be either masculine or feminine, but in actuality it was most commonly used to refer to

young men.

In his vivid description of the aftermath of The Battle of Cannae, Livy uses this word to explain which

Romans had to take on what duties: Haec exploranda noscendaqueperimpigros iuvenes esse; illud

perpatres ipsos agendum ut tumultum ac trepidationem in urbe tollant, matronas public arceant,

comploratus familiarum coerceant, silentium perurben faciant, nuntios rerum omnium ad praetors

deducendos current, custodesque praeterea ad portas ponant qui prohibeant quemquam egredi urbe,

cogantque homines nullam nisi urbe ac moenibus salvis salute sperare, “These things are to be found out

and understood by the energetic young men; by the senators themselves that thing is to be done to

suppress the tumult and fear in the city, let them prevent the lamentations of matrons in public and shut

them in with their families, let them make silence throughout the city, let them accomplish that the

announcers of all matters be led to the praetors, and meanwhile let them put guards to the gates who may

prevent anyone from going out of the city, and let men learn to hope for no safety except in the city and

its safe walls” (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 306-313). Here, Livy demonstrates the core meaning of iuvenis

not only through its individual usage but through its context. In this passage, the older men in the society,

wiser and with more experience, are to do the authoritative brain work, such as organizing the other city-

dwellers and evaluating the reports of messengers, while the young men, the iuvenes, were to ride out of

the city and explore, collecting news and survivors, activities which required and befitted their youth and

its specific set of abilities.

This usage is also demonstrated by Ovid in his story of Pyramus and Thisbe. Pyramus et Thisbe,

iuvenum pulcherrimus alter, / altera, quas oriens habuit, praelata puellis, / contiguas tenuere domos, ubi

dicitur altam / coctilibus muris cinxisse Semiramis urben, “Pyramus and Thisbe, this one the most

handsome of young men, that one the preferred of all girls whom the Orient held, occupied adjoining

houses, where it is said that Semiramis had surrounded the lofty city with baked brick walls” (Ovid,

Metamorphoses 4.55-58). Ovid uses this word here to establish Pyramus as one of the young men in his

city, as a part of that group, but also to distinguish him from the rest of them as being the very most

handsome one of them. This usage in the particular context of this story again gives evidence for its one

core meaning being what it is: Pyramus is old enough in this story that he can fall deeply in love, carry

out complex plans, and even carry his own sword with him without it seeming strange, but he is also

young enough that he is clearly not yet married, and, like Thisbe, he is presumably still living with his

parents (since their parents were mentioned later in the story in that respect and since they have to sneak

out secretly at night).

Iuvenis was more commonly used in referring to young men than young women, and Ovid

demonstrates this trend here, by referring to Pyramus as a iuvenis in the first line but then to Thisbe as just

a puella in the second line. This could truly be a differentiation between their ages, but it is more likely

that it is just following the most common way of using this word which reflects the typical gender roles in

Roman society. Females could be more clearly distinguished as either a puella or a femina, since being a


girl or a woman was nearly synonymous with being a daughter or a wife; when someone was still living

with her parents, she was a girl, and when she was living with her husband (or, in rare cases, living as a

priestess) she was a woman. In the lives of men, however, there was a bit more grey area: they might

spend a few years after their childhood serving in the military, furthering their education at the college

level, or something like that prior to getting married, if they got married at all, so their age could not

necessarily be so clearly associated with their marital status. There was quite likely to be a time in men’s

lives when they would be more clearly defined as a iuvenis than as a boy or a man, a son or a husband.

Ovid helps to confirm this theory by using puer, approximately the male equivalent of puella, instead

of iuvenis to refer to a very young boy in another one of his stories in the Metamorphoses, laughing and

playing carelessly and still very dependent on his father: Puer Icarus una / stabat et, ignarus sua se

tractare pericla, / ore renidenti modo, quas vaga moverat aura, / captabat plumas, flavam modo pollice

ceram / mollibat, lusuque suo mirabile patris / impediebat opus, “The boy Icarus was standing together

with his father and, ignorant that his own dangers were attracting him, with a smiling face he was at one

time snatching at the feathers which were moved by a shifting breeze, at another time softening the

yellow wax with his thumb, and he was hindering his father’s work by means of his own wonderful

playing” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.195-200). Icarus is here presented as a boy of perhaps about 9 or 10

years old, certainly not yet a teenager, and this age difference is partly demonstrated by the fact that while

Pyramus, a iuvenis, brought himself to destruction by caring too deeply and responding too passionately

to his troubles, Icarus, on the other hand, an ignarus little puer, brought himself to destruction by not

knowing or caring at all about his troubles. Neither of these characters has gained the calm steadiness and

guiding wisdom of a senex yet, and they are both still prone to youthful errors of judgement and rebellion

against their authorities, but Pyramus has advanced to the stage in which, though he does not yet have that

wisdom, he firmly believes that he does and acts accordingly.

There have also been uses of this word in Latin church writings. St. Augustine, for example, addresses

an acquaintance in a letter as a iuvenis: Quod igitur libris tuis, iuvenis Iuliane, retinetur, “That which is

restrained in your books, Julianus” (Augustine, Opus Imperfectum 3.169). Here, iuvenis is not being used

substantively, but as an adjective describing the person being addressed; it is probably being used here to

distinguish Julianus as someone younger than St. Augustine himself. And needing his council and

advice. The word also cleverly alliterates with the name it describes, a literary effect which was most

likely intentional. It was also used by Paul, demonstrating the same core meaning of the word, a young

man: si praesentiam iuvenis habuissem, “if a young man were to have been present” (Paul, Epistles 2).

Based on all of these examples and the common ancient Roman usage of the word, the one core

meaning of iuvenis is a young man or woman. It was used either substantively as a noun, or as an

adjective to describe a person mentioned. This word describes the time of life of very early adulthood,

when someone is no longer a child and is at his or her height of energy and potential, but has not yet

gained the experience and steady wisdom of older adults. This word is closely related to many other

Latin words that are all associated with this particular time of life, including iuvenor, a deponent verb

meaning “to act like a youth;” iuventa, a feminine noun meaning simply youth itself as a state of being;

and even iuvenesco, a very fascinating verb with two closely related meanings, either “to grow up” or “to

become young again,” which, one could argue, are actually one and the same concept, the transitioning

between different ages so to speak.


The meaning of iuvenis has slightly changed over time. It comes down to English as meaning

something more like “just a child” as opposed to “a young person in the prime of life,” therefore

degrading its feel from connotations which are mainly either neutral or good to connotations which tend

to be unpleasant, as shown in English cognates such as “juvenile.” However, when thought of as an

adjective meaning simply “young” without reference to specific stages of a person’s life, it can still sound

quite good, as in “rejuvenate.” Interestingly, the short stories, plays, and other minor works that Jane

Austen wrote in her teenage years are commonly known collectively as her “Juvenilia,” a direct reference

to the fact that she wrote them when she was herself a iuvenis.

WORD STUDY 7

Statuo: Translations Set in Stone

Statuo, statuere, statui, statutum, is a third conjugation Latin verb. Just like other Latin verbs, it

carries a single, universally known Latin meaning, which we cannot translate in English with a single

word. Although many commonly employed meanings of statuo exist, statuo remains a very dynamic

word that utilizes its subject, object, and context in Latin to produce the most suitable translation in

English. Often, statuo yields more than one acceptable translation. In general, however, statuo is

employed in five particular contexts that call for the use of different translations in English.

Ille venena Colcha et quicquid usquam concipitur nefas tractavit, agro qui statuit meo Te, triste

lignum, te caducum in domini caput immerentis. "He has managed the Colchian poison and whatever

wicked act that is conceived, he who planted You in my field, dismal tree, you, ready to fall on the head

of an innocent master." (Horace, Odes 2.13.9-12).

Statuo here is translated as "cause [an object] to stand", "set up", "station", "place" or "arrange", usually

referring to people (such as soldiers on the battle field) or material things (such as army men). In this

particular excerpt, the context alone is sufficient to accurately estimate the meaning of statuo. The object

of this verb is lignum, and the ablative of place where (agro…meo) indicates lignum, "tree" sits stationary

"in [Horace's] field". It is reasonable to assume a stationary object such as a tree cannot be moved around

the field, and so a human can only "set up" or "place" it there. In this case, the object of the verb which is

being "set up" can be considered to produce a more accurate and efficient translation. A tree is not

necessarily said to be "placed" or "set up" in English, but, rather, it is said to be "planted". As a result,

statuo is translated here as "to plant".

Nunc cuncta veris frondibus annuis crinitur arbos, nunc volucrum novi questus inexpertumque

carmen, quod tacita statuere bruma. "Now all the trees are collectively covered in the leaves of the fresh

yearly spring, and now [there are] the unsung bird songs of a quibble, which the silent winter composed."

(Statius, Silvae 4.5.9-12)

In this sample, statuo carries a meaning of "build", "establish", "found" "fix", "construct", "erect", or

"make", often referring to cities or physical structures. This ode, written by Papinius Statius, praises the

character of fellow-poet Septimus Severus, which in turn Statius reflects on himself. Similar to another

poet Horace, Statius describes the country-side which is dear to him, particularly during the recent start of

spring, while later in the poem praising Severus' city life. Here, winter is personified as all the creatures

which waited during winter to sing their songs, and it is the subject of statuo. As all the birds waited


during winter to sing their songs, the text suggests the winter "built", "made" or "constructed" the songs

which the birds would sing. In English, the aforementioned meanings are working translations, but a more

efficient translation would be "composed", because the object of statuo is a song or poem. While this is a

rare translation, it is more exact, and still closely related to its other sister translations.

Ubi portu eximus, homines remigio sequi, neque aves neque venti citius. Quoniam sentio, quae

res gereretur, navem extemplo statuimus. "When we exit the harbor, the men followed with rowing, more

quickly than either the birds or the wind. Now that I noticed the things which were being conducted, I

stopped the ship immediately." (Plautus, Bacchides 2.3.55-7, some versions read 2.3.289-91)

Here statuo would be translated as "to cause to stand still", "hold up", "stop", or "end". This play by

Plautus includes dialogue between Nicobulus, a father of a young man Mnesilochus, and Chrysalus, his

crafty slave. Chrysalus, in order to allow Mnesilochus to buy his love interest from slavery, lies to

Nicobulus, saying his money was safely stored in Ephesus when pirates threatened the ship, when the

money in actuality remained onboard. According to the lie in the excerpt, the ship was in close proximity

to shore when the pirates came. Because of this, it would have been safer, with these pirates in close

pursuit, to turn back to shore, instead of gambling with losing them out at sea. In order to turn around, one

would not necessarily "station" the ship, but, more accurately, "station [the ship] in place" or "stop" the

ship, and so in this context "stop" is the best available English equivalent for statuo.

Sed ut illi quoque qui in ea provincia non fuerunt intellegere possint in quo homine tu statueris

exemplum eius modi, "But [I say that] those, too, who have not been in that province, might be able to

understand the man in whose way you established as an example." (Cicero, Verres 2.2.111)

In this passage, statuo is translated "to establish" or "to constitute", usually referring to law or authority.

Cicero's Against Verres is a series of speeches concerning the corruption of Gaius Verres during his trial.

After mentioning another vice of Verres, he reveals that citizens of the region began to follow his

example. When referring to an example, which is a form of authority, the translation "establish" is used

again, but this time referring to immaterial things. One does not "build up", "construct", or "erect" law or

authority, because these translations refer to material objects. When referring to authority figures, statuo

is best translated as "establish" or "constitute", the latter used mainly for laws or amendments.

Tum, murmere parvo multa prius questi, statuunt ut nocte silenti fallere custodes foribusque

excedere temptent… "Then, first with the small whisper of their complaint, they decided that they try to

elude the guards and go out from their doors…" (Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.83-85)

In this example, statuo is translated cognitively as "make up [in one's mind]", "fix [{an idea} in one's

mind]", "determine", or "decide". The passage from which this excerpt is derived tells the love story of

Pyramus and Thisbe. The two lovers, whose parents (the guards) do not support their intimate

relationship, formulated a plan to escape into the woods, away from their restrictive parents. In a sentence

where statuo is happening in the mind, none of statuo's aforementioned translations can be supplied. As a

result, different cognitive translations for statuo are provided. In this particular context, "decide" or

"determine" are the most accurate English translations available, the former less flawed than the latter.

Because physical translations for any Latin verb do not make a translated English sentence with a

cognitive verb efficient, cognitive translations must be supplied, and so statuo here means "establish [in

the mind]" or, more specifically, "decide".

Statuo has been used frequently and constantly in Latin over time. The verbs astituo, constituo,

destituo, instituo, praestituo, prostituo, restituo, and the noun statua are all derived from statuo. Statuo


also survives in modern day adaptations in English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. The word survives

in English as "statue", a noun, in French as statuter, "to rule" or "determine", in Portuguese as estatuir, "to

adjudicate", and in Spanish, also as estatuir, meaning "to establish" or "to ordain".

Statuo is a dynamic verb with a plethora of English translations. Based on the previously

presented information, it is reasonable to assume the word mainly carries the meanings "to cause to stand"

and "establish [in the mind]". Under "to cause to stand", more specific translations can be employed in

order to serve the intention of the passage better, referring to physical objects, which include "erect" and,

in rare cases, "stop". Under "establish [in the mind]" more meanings can be derived, in appropriate cases,

referring to immaterial objects, which include "decide" and "constitute". In conclusion, when statuo is

found in a Latin passage, it can be reasonably inferred that it carries the meaning of "to cause to stand" or

"establish [in the mind]" in English.

WORD STUDY 8

A Second Glance at Respicio

Respicio is translated into English in a variety of ways. Sometimes, it is used for the physical action of

looking back for something. However, instead of a physical action, it can describe people perceiving or

caring for someone. Despite these different translations, respicio’s meaning remains the same. Whether

referring to a thought process or a physical action, at its core, respicio means “to look again more closely

with hope”.

L. Aemili, iniquit, quem unum insotem culpae cladis hodierne dei respicere debent, cape equum…“

‘Lucius Aemilius,’ he said, ‘the one whom the gods should perceive as innocent of the blame of the

present defeat, take this horse’ ” (Livy, Hannibal and the Second Punic War 22.49.7-8). In this context,

English would render respicio most smoothly as “to perceive”. The idea is that the gods should examine

Aemilius more closely and see that he is innocent. The gods are not physically looking closely at

Aemilius. Instead, the speaker entreats the gods to take a second look at his motives.

Respicio, et quae sit me circum copia lustro, “I look again, and I seek the sort of troops which should

be around me” (Virgil, Æneid 2.564). Æneas is hoping to see the troops that have abandoned him. While

Livy used respicio to connote an action of the mind, respicio here refers to a physical action. Æneas is

physically looking for the soldiers that should be around him, but are not. Thus, Virgil implies that Æneas

is not just looking for the soldiers, but in hopeful expectation of seeing them.

Sive neglectum genus et nepotes respicis, “Or you look again at the neglected clan and its

descendants” (Horace, Carmina 1.2.35-6). In this passage, Horace laments the condition of his people.

He asks which of the gods will help. This is another example of respicio as a physical action of simply

looking. At first, the connotation of respicio seems less hopeful since the passage laments the gods’

neglect of the people. But, the passage does express a hope for change by expecting help from the gods.

Quod loquor et spiro caelumque et sidera solis / respicio, possimne ingratus et impius esse? “Because

I speak and I breathe the spirit of heaven and I look again at the stars of the sun, could I be able to be

ungrateful and wicked?” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 14.172-3). Here, Achæmenides rejoices at being alive.

He is grateful for his ability to look at the stars. This passage further confirms that respicio can mean the


action of looking more closely. The stars have always been there, but relief at being alive fuels his closer

examination of them.

Nam quod rogas ut respiciam generum meum, “On the other hand, what do you ask so that I may look

after my son-in-law,” (Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares 2.16). In this passage, Cicero is talking about how

much he cares for his son-in-law. Therefore, respicio most easily translates as to look after or care for

someone’s health. However, the underlying concept is to examine someone closely. Taking care of

someone involves examining his health and analyzing it. Examining someone’s decisions in a certain

way, as in the passage by Livy, fails to convey the meaning of respicio here. Looking for someone in the

physical sense does not work either in this instance. The idea is looking for or seeking someone’s health.

In fact, the Roman goddess Fortuna also has the nickname Respiciens. Since she looks after the Romans,

it makes sense that respicio is associated with closely looking after someone.

In conclusion, the core meaning of respicio is “to look again more closely.” But beyond the

translation, respicio has an attachment to hope. In English, “examine” conjures up ideas of testing and a

search for defects. However, the Romans attached the idea of care to respicio. Similar to the English

phrase “on second thought”, respicio conveys the idea of a deeper second examination, a hopeful pause.

WORD STUDY 9

Attractive with a Dash of Deceit

Though the Latin adjective speciosus often demands the use of many English words to properly

translate it, its central meaning is simply “attractive”. It is the deceit often associated with this word,

especially in poetic writing, that proves difficult for English translators, but this deceit, more importantly,

sets speciosus apart from similar adjectives used around the Early Roman Empire.

First, in his De Arte Poetica Liber, Horace provides a wealth of advice to poets, including how a

good poet incorporates mythological and historical subjects in his work: Speciosa dehinc miracula

promat, / Antiphaten, Scyllamque, et cum Cyclope Charybdim, “He may then bring out attractive

wonders, Antiphates, and Scylla, and with Cyclops, Charybdis” (Horace De Arte Poetica Liber 144-5).

The four characters whom Horace references as speciosa miracula are well-known in classical mythology

and were familiar to most Romans during the Empire. Horace’s recommendation that poets include these

characters suggests further that they were popular among the readership of the day. Therefore, if

incorporating these mythological characters into one’s work increased its readership, then describing

them as speciosus logically deems them “attractive”. Additionally, there is no deceit involved; these

characters were simply popular and provided enjoyable reading material.

In contrast, the historian Livy references the deceitful side of speciosus in his Ad Urbe Condita,

specifically the temptation to exaggerate the truth. In his description of some of the earliest battles before

the founding of Rome, Livy depicts a general who, when discussing the cause for a war, says, Vera potius

quam dictu speciosa dicenda sunt, “Truth must be spoken more powerfully than the things deceitfully

attractive to say” (Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.23.7). Prior to stating this, the general had pondered some

rumors and found them to be appealing reasons for the start of the war. Despite the temptation to believe

them, however, he knew that these rumors were not the truth, and so he made the above assertion before

plainly stating the true cause for the war. Speciosus does mean “attractive” here, but it specifically


associates that attraction with something that is not accurate or truthful. Thus, in this portion of Livy’s

narrative, “attractive” has a deceitful connotation.

Livy continues the idea of deceit in speciosus as he narrates the various events of the Punic Wars.

While two consuls, Varro and Paulus, are arguing over the best course of action in battle, they reference

the philosophies of previous generals: Varro Paulo speciosum timidis ac segnibus ducibus exemplum

Fabium obiceret, “To Paulus, Varro was presenting Fabius a deceitfully attractive example among the

fearful and slow commanders” (Livy Ab Urbe Condita 22.44.5). Varro was personally opposed to Fabius’

slow battle stratagem, and so, knowing that Paulus favored the tactics of Fabius, argued that Fabius was

speciosum. Varro’s claim, then, is that although Fabius seems “attractive” to Paulus, he is not as good as

he seems: deceitfully “attractive”, in other words. By using speciosus here, Livy upholds the tension

between the two consuls and emphasizes the deceit that Varro perceives.

Similarly, in his poetic narrative Metamorphoses, Ovid retells the popular myth of King Midas

and uses speciosus to describe the curse of gold, maintaining the connotation of deceit. Midas prays,

Miserere, precor, speciosoque eripe damno, “Have mercy on me, I pray, and take me away from this

deceitfully attractive curse” (Ovid Metamorphoses 11.85.133). Previously, Midas was overwhelmed with

joy when he asked for and received the gift of the golden touch; at that time, then, the gift was

“attractive”. Ultimately, however, Midas was overtaken with shame at the actual, severe consequences the

gift held. Thus, the gift not only became a curse, but Midas also deemed that it had been “attractive” in a

deceitful manner. The thought of turning everything into gold initially attracted Midas, but it later nearly

killed him. Ovid upholds the idea of “attractive” yet deceitful by choosing speciosus here.

Finally, however, not in a narrative but in a serious essay, the philosopher Seneca eliminates the

deceit from speciosus and uses it literally, just as Horace did: In corpore nostro ossa nervique et articuli,

firmamenta totius et vitalia, minime speciosa visu, prius ordinantur, “The bones and tendons and joints in

our body, the main and vital parts of the whole, the least attractive to see, are arranged first” (Seneca De

Ira 2.1.2). Seneca then follows this assertion by stating that the truly beautiful things are added on top of

the foundation, and so speciosus creates a contrast between the functional insides and external beauty. It

is important to note that speciosus is used here in a simple assertion that one’s insides are not pretty, but

only functional, and so the connotations of the word are equally simple. Speciosus, then, simply means

“attractive” and does not imply any deceit.

Based on these textual examples, speciosus during the Early Roman Empire means “attractive”,

regardless of whether in poetry or prose. In more serious, philosophical works including Horace’s De Arte

Poetica Liber and Seneca’s De Ira, authors used speciosus literally and positively, but in lighter narrative

writings such as Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita and Ovid’s Metamorphoses, the word also suggests deceit and

negative connotations. An English translator should adapt accordingly, realizing that being “attractive” is

not always a positive quality, but sometimes a deceiving one.

WORD STUDY 10

Carpe Verbum

It seems that most people have heard the famous quote from Horace, carpe diem, but few really

stop to consider what carpe (specifically its root carpere) really means. Carpe itself is a derivative of the


Greek “karpos” which means “fruit;” the only way to get fruit off a tree is to “pluck”—the original

meaning of carpere, but especially in poetry it came to mean “to take advantage of.” This Latin verb can

be translated many ways, but its core meaning is clear: “to take,” specifically “to take advantage of.” This

definition is supported by the works of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Martial. Although it is a very versatile

word in translation – one could translate it into English as “seize,” “take,” “steal,” or “pluck” – carpere is

not used in many different scenarios in Latin literature, which bodes well for the modern Latin student.

Virgil wrote a massive epic poem called the Aeneid around 20 BC, in which he used an example

of carpe: Haec ubi dicta dedit Phoebī longaeva sacerdōs, 'Sed iam age, carpe viam…, “Having said this,

the aged prophetess of Phobeus said, “But now rise, take the path…” (Vergil, Aeneid 6.628-629). This

example is from where the modern idiom, “take” a road or path, comes. One does not literally “take” it;

instead, one “takes advantage of” it. One does not physically carry the road away with him. The oracle

told Aeneas what to do and what features of the land he must “take advantage of” in order to succeed.

Virgil’s contemporary, Horace, published his Odes around the same time and wrote what is

perhaps the most common Latin phrase used in the modern world: Dum loquimur, fugerit invida aetas:

carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero, “While we speak, the envied time has fled: seize the day,

trusting in the future as little as possible" (Horace, Odes 1.11). Most people translate carpe here as

“seize,” reminiscent of the original—and more physical—meaning that comes from the Greek, but that is

an English idiom. Literally grabbing a segment of time is not exactly what the term means here. Again,

one should not “take” a day and carry it around in his pocket; one should “take advantage of” all the time

that he has been given. So here again one can see that carpere means “to take advantage of.”

Around thirty years later in 8 AD, Ovid published his Metamorphoses, another of the great works

in the epic poetry style, in which he also used carpe more than once: …me duce, carpe viam! “…follow

me, take the way!” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.208) in “Daedalus and Icarus,” and in “Minos and the

Golden Touch:” …perque iugum Lydum labentibus obvius undis carpe viam… “and take the path

through the Lydian ridge, making your way near the falling waters” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.138-139).

In the first example, Daedalus had constructed wings to carry himself and his son, Icarus, across the sea,

and he is encouraging Icarus to “take advantage of” the opportunity to escape. In the second example

Dionysus is telling Minos the way he must “take advantage of” to rid himself of the golden touch. Ovid

used carpere to mean “to take advantage of” in both of these examples.

Martial used carpe in his Epigrams another seventy or so years later, writing: vive velut rapto

fugitivaque gaudia carpe, “live as if on taken goods, and take fleeting joys” (Martial, Epigrams 47.11-

12). In Martial’s life advice here, he is saying that one should “take advantage of” the good things in life

because they disappear so quickly. Here again, carpere means “to take advantage of.”

It may not occur to the average reader at once, but the root of carpere is carp-. Fishy, no?

Although a clear connection cannot be traced to that specific word, there are a few English derivatives of

carpere, including “decrepit,” describing a person who has not take advantage of his opportunities, and

“excerpt,” describing a piece taken out of a work to the advantage of the writer. It is also frequently seen

in Latin phrases that still remain in common English use such as carpe diem or carpe verbum, which is

usually used referring to the Bible. In these cases, from ancient to modern Latin and English, it is clear

that carpere means “to take advantage of.”


WORD STUDY 11

Caedes: Like Lambs to the Slaughter

Caedes is a complicated word, with several distinct, yet related definitions being associated with

its name. Sometimes the word is used differently in the same work, and even in the same section; for

example, Ovid writes in Pyramus and Thisbe, Arborei fetus adspergine caedis in atram / vertuntur

faciem, madefactaque sanguine radix / purpureo tinguit pendentia mora colore, “The fruit of the tree was

turned the appearance of black by the sprinkling of blood, and the root, drenched with blood, tinted the

mulberries with a purple color” (Metamorphoses 4.125-127). In this part of the story, the word means

blood, but later on in the passage, Ovid uses caedes in a different context, giving it another meaning:

Dixit et aptato pectus mucrone sub imum / incubit ferro, quod adhuc a caede tepebat, “She said this and,

placing the point at the lowest part of her chest, fell on the sword which was still warm from the

slaughter” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.162-163). In this context, the word means slaughter, because few

other words would convey the sheer drama of the story, and illustrate how much bloodshed had happened

previously. In both cases, caedes is used for actual, tangible things, and is used descriptively; however,

that is not the only use of the word, as shown by Catullus. In Catullus’ Carmina, he uses the word not to describe a physical object, but to talk about an

event that happened far in the past: Nam perhibent olim crudeli peste coactam / Androgeoneae poenas

exsolvere caedis / Electos iuvenes simul et decus innuptarum / Cecropiam solitam esse dapem dare

Minotauro, “For it is said that once having been forced by a cruel plague to free the penalty of the murder

of Androgeos, the Athenians were accustomed to give chosen young men and becoming maidens to the

Minotaur as a feast” (Catullus, Carmina 64.76-79). In this interpretation of the classic myth, Catullus uses

caedes not as blood; instead, it should be translated as murder, because he is talking about something

conceptual instead of physical. Here, he is not referring to the material aspect of Androgeos’ death; he is

describing its circumstances. This conceptual use of the word is similar to another work, written by Livy

around 27 BC.

In his Ab Urbe Condita, Livy states: Romanos ira eadem, quae per mediam aciem hostium

tulerat, et in castra pertulit. Ibi plus quam in acie sanguinis ad caedis factum praedaeque pars maior ira

corrupta, “The same anger that bore the Romans through the middle battle-line of the enemy bore them to

the camp. There was more bloodshed and slaughter there than in the battle, and a greater part of the spoils

of war was spoiled in their anger” (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 9.13.5). Livy, in this example, uses caedes

much in the same way that Ovid uses it, but instead, the word is used for a general circumstance, and

refers to a whole group of people and how they were killed, steering away from the trend of the word

describing one specific person. Caedes, in this case, refers not only to one death, but also the deaths of

many, depicting not a murder, but an overall slaughter. The usage of the word as something less general is

also shown later on in the Roman Empire’s history, when Seneca uses it around 64 AD.

Seneca writes in his De Providentia, a long rhetorical essay on human morals and the world in

general, Felix est L. Sulla, quod illi descendenti ad forum gladio summovetur, quod capita sibi

consularium virorum patitur ostendi et pretium caedis per quaestorem ac tabulas publicas numerat, “Is

Lucius Sulla happy, because when he goes down into the market, a way is cleared with a sword, because

he permits showing the heads of consular men to him and he counts the price of slaughter through the

quaestor and even public account books?” (Seneca, De Providentia 3.8). In this passage, Seneca uses the

word caedes as not a specific example of bloodshed, but instead as a general definition of a certain type of

death. In this case, caedes is not limited to just one time period, either; it surveys the entire history of

Sulla’s murders themselves, and instead of just focusing on one act, it broadens to the general concept,

disregarding how many times Sulla committed the crime. Finally, around 300 AD, St. Jerome uses caedes

in much the same way as Classical Latin authors did: Egressus est autem rex Sodomorum in occursum

eius postquam reversus est a caede / Chodorlahomor et regum qui cum eo erant in valle Save quae est


vallis Regis, “Moreover, the king of Sodom went out to meet him after he returned from the killing of

Chodorlahomor, and the kings which were with him in the valley of Save, which is in the valley of the

King” (St. Jerome, Vulgate, Genesis 14.17). Like the examples before, caedes here translates as a killing

or slaughter, showing that the word changes little over this time period.

Based off of these examples from history, it is safe to say that the word caedes means a killing,

murder, or slaughter, as all three can be used in many different situations and forms, including, but not

limited to, depicting evocative imagery, discussing events from the past, and defining general

circumstances of death. In these separate instances, the word slaughter is the one that functions best, as it

is not only more mutable than the other words, which are limited to one death, but it also conveys the

drama that has been distilled into caedes. While the other words may operate the same way in these

examples, they do not hold the same degree of severity required of caedes in many situations, so in this

respect, the act of slaughtering is the best interpretation of our word. While blood is one of the definitions

of the word in Cassel’s, it is only secondary to the meaning, and is, in this case, an outlier.

Today, the word has been assimilated into the English language, mainly from the form of a verb,

caedo, and now is used as a suffix, meaning the killing of something. This suffix, -cide, is used in many

different words, like genocide, insecticide, and suicide, and is extremely useful in our lives today. In the

end, caedes has changed little with time, and, despite its violent meaning, has not died out yet; it is still

alive and well, being used on an almost daily basis.

WORD STUDY 12

virga: The Not So Fine Line Between a Twig and a Magical Twig

The Latin word virga has a few straightforward definitions which are not hard to distinguish in

context. However, each meaning is not meant to be thought of alone by the reader. Usually, the genius of

Latin authors means that the connotations of each definition can be considered.A careful examination of

the definitions and their uses reveals some novel aspects of the word, resulting in a rather satisfying union

of the distinct meanings.

In his story of Midas and the Golden Touch, Ovid uses virga in its most common definition,

writing Laetus abit gaudetque malo Berecyntius heros, pollicitique fidem tangendo singula temptat,

vixque sibi credens non alta fronde virentemilice detraxit virgam; virga aurea facta est, “The happy

Phrygian hero leaves and rejoices at the bad gift, and tests the faith of the gift by touching things one at a

time, and, hardly believing himself, he pulled a green twig from a not high leafy bough of an oak tree; the

twig was made golden.” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.106-9). Here, virga means twig, and Midas watches a

twig turn to gold as he marvels at his new ability. To a modern reader using the first definition in the

dictionary, virga may not appear to carry a lot of weight. However, an astute reader might also observe

that virga participates in some literary devices like chiasmus: virentem… virgam; virga aurea. While

common, Chiasmus is not used flippantly; it has significance. The other meanings of virga must now be

considered in order to discover why Ovid not only uses virga as opposed to any of several other words for

“twig” but also seems to emphasize it using chiasmus.

Golden virgae seem to be somewhat common throughout Latin literature. Virgil uses the word in

this way, writing Primo avulso non deficit alter aureus, et simili frondescit virga metallo, “With the first

torn off, another golden one does not fail to grow, and a branch sprouts with a similar metal.” (Virgil,

Aeneid 6.143-4). Here, a magical tree with golden branches that regrow is being described to Aeneas. The

clearest similarity to the previous example is the fact that the virga here is gold. Important differences


from the previous example involve the source and nature of the apparent magic. When Midas touches the

twig, he is the source of the magic, and the twig is transformed by that magic. On the other hand, the tree

and by extension the virga described by Virgil seems imbued with magic, regrowing after damage. This

usage demonstrates that even virga meaning “twig” carries a mystical connotation that Ovid considers.

virga emphasizes the magical elements of Midas’s power. Additionally, Aeneas is asked to bring the

golden tree to Proserpina, Pluto’s wife, so, while the two examples provided here may be insufficient

evidence, it is possible virga also has a connotation of evil, linking Midas’s power and that of the golden

bough.

virga can also mean “staff,” and Livy uses this definition, writing Popilius pro cetera asperitate

animi virga quam in manu gerebat circumscripsit regem ac ‘priusquam hoc circulo excedas’ inquit

‘redde responsum, senatui quod referam,’ “Popilius, according to the rest of his temper, enclosed the king

in a circle with a staff which he carried in his hand, and said, ‘Before you go beyond this circle, provide

an answer, which I will bring to the senate.’” (Livy, The History of Rome 45.5). This is the first instance

of virga we have seen which is not connected to magic in any way. It is just a staff, nothing else, as might

be expected in a history. The big link that can be made between this and the previous examples of virga is

power. Midas has power, the golden bough has power, and, here, Popilius uses his staff to demonstrate

power over Antiochus, the king in the circle. Drawing a circle around a king and demanding an answer is

a bold act, and the virga is a symbol of Popilius’s power over Antiochus. Popilius actually has little real

power, but he creates the feeling that he does. So, we can add a sense of power to our understanding of

virga.

A similar meaning to staff with a supernatural component is “wand,” and Ovid himself uses this

definition, writing Illic tegimenque removit et posuit pennas, tantummodo virga retenta est, “He removed

his protection and put down his wings, only the wand is retained.” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.673-4). “He”

is Mercury, and his signature tools, his winged hat, winged sandals, and the caduceus staff are all depicted

here. I chose to translate virga as “wand” here because, while the caduceus is usually called a staff today,

the point of the definition “wand” is the magic, not the length. In fact, there is a good chance that the

“wand” and “staff” meanings are entirely identical aside from the magical component because it greatly

simplifies the meaning of virga. The usage of virga here very explicitly reinforces the word’s magical

association and also subtly demonstrates power. The caduceus is capable of powerful magic, but

Mercury’s hat and sandals are also powerful. Yet, when choosing one to keep at the ready, Mercury

chooses the caduceus, showing that it is particularly strong.

As defined with all the above usages taken into consideration, virga means “a potentially

supernatural twig or branch of a tree associated with great power.” This definition elegantly combines

“twig,” “staff,” and “wand” into a single meaning and considers some of the word’s connotation. Using

this definition, we see Ovid’s choice to be much clearer. Midas’s virga is the result of his power

channeled into a twig and is a symbol of his power, just as Popilius’s staff is a symbol of power. virga

does not do the job of a more explicit adjective or adverb, but it does contribute to the atmosphere of a

story beyond just meaning “twig.” The aspect of the definition meaning “power” creates irony in Midas

losing power by gaining more of it. The negative connotation of virga foreshadows Midas’s downfall.

Surely analysis of more uses of the word would lead to more connections! The point here is not only

about virga. When defining a word, use the closest definition, but also read the other definitions because

each one is important.


WORD STUDY 13

What’s this about? Read the corpus!

The Latin noun corpus has many English meanings. It can be used to discuss a physical body such as

a human body, but also as a word for a collection of items. Although these meanings are drastically

different, the following examples will reveal the fact that the Romans only understood one of these to be

the true meaning of the word corpus.

Pennas aspexit in undis devovitque suas artes corpusque sepulcro, condidit, et tellus a nomine dicta

sepulti, “He caught sight of the feathers in the waves, and he cursed his own art, and he buried the body in

the tomb; and the land is called from the name of the buried,” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.233-235). In this

passage, corpus is what is being buried in the tomb. The French word for body is corps which, if this

passage were translated into French, would fit very well because it discusses the body of dead Icarus after

he fell from the sky because his feathers on the wings his father made him had melted off. Daedalus is

burying his only son and mourning over the fact that his art caused the death of his son.

Quantum erat, ut sineres toto nos corpore iungi aut, hoc si nimium est, vel ad oscula danda pateres?

“How great a matter is it to allow our whole bodies to join or, if this is too much, whether you allow the

giving of kisses?” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.75-76). In this passage Pyramus and Thisbe want to be with

each other but they are not allowed to because their parents won’t allow them to be together and there is a

wall separating them. They are complaining to the wall, and in this excerpt, asking what the problem is

with literally putting their bodies together. Therefore, the best translation of corpus here is body.

Reliquas omnes munitiones ab ea fossa pedes quadringentos reduxit, [id] hoc consilio, quoniam

tantum esset necessario spatium complexus, nec facile totum corpus corona militum cingeretur, ne de

improviso aut noctu ad munitiones hostiu multitudo advolaret aut interdiu tela in nostros operi destinatos

conicere possent, “He drew back all the other fortifications by four hundred feet from this ditch; with this

plan, since so much space was necessarily embraced, that the whole work could not easily be surrounded

by a circle of a body of soldiers, so that either a multitude of the enemy should not sally out to the

fortifications unexpectedly by night or by day that they might be able to throw weapons at our men

destined for the work.” (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 7.72). This passage discusses Caesar’s work on

building a fortification. Although the word corpus is used in this passage it should not be translated as a

body as in a physical body, but a body as in a group. Julius Caesar is talking about a group of soldiers in

this passage.

Noluerunt feris corpusobicere ne bestiis quoque quae tantum scelus attigissent immanioribus

uteremur..., “They did not wish to throw his body to wild beasts, also so that we may find the same beasts

who head touched such wickedness more savage...” (Cicero, S. Rosc. 26). In this passage, the Latin noun

corpus is translated as a physical body because Cicero is discussing Sextus Roscia of Ameria who was

accused for patricide and who was murdered in the streets after a dinner (Husband, R. W. “The

Prosecution of Sextus Roscius: A Case of Parricide, with a Plea of Alibi and Non-Motive). Therefore,

Cicero is explaining what was done to Sextus’ body and so the word collection, or group would not be a

good translation of corpus.

The meanings of corpus in general mean the same thing: a body. However, the Romans would not

read the word corpus and identify it as the word meaning a collection, but as a body. They had a different

word for a collection.


Works Cited

Husband, R. W. “The Prosecution of Sextus Roscius: A Case of Parricide, with a Plea of Alibi and Non-

Motive (Concluded).” The Classical Weekly, vol. 8, no. 13, 1915, pp. 98–100. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/4387008. Accessed 24 Feb. 2020.

WORD STUDY 14

Eternities and Ages. Old People Are Very Old.

The Latin word aevum is interesting, mostly because it seems to encompass several different

English ideas, such as old age, generations, and time. However, all of those seemingly different ideas are

tied together by the common bond of elapsed years, so despite the fact that English differentiates them,

aevum has a clear meaning that is consistent in the following passages.

One example of aevum was used by Catullus, Iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum / omne aevum

tribus explicare cartis... / Doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis! / Now when you have dared to set forth every

age of Italy in three skilled and painstaking volumes, by Jupiter! (Catullus 1.5-7). This passage was

written by the poet Catullus as a dedication of his book of poetry to Cornelius Napos, who wrote a three-

volume history of Italy. In this sentence, aevum can be translated as “age,” as in a long period of time,

because Catullus is saying that Cornelius’ work chronicles the ages of Italy’s past.

Another usage of aevum is the much smaller idea of generations passing. An example of this is

from Horace: At non ter aevo functus amabilem / ploravit omnes Antilochum senex / annos, nec impubem

parentes / Troilon aut Phrygiae sorores / flevere semper. But the old man did not weep for loved

Antilochus for all years, having been engaged in three generations, nor did the parents or the Phrygian

sisters always cry for youthful Troilus (Horace, Odes 2.9.13-17). These lines are talking about Nestor,

who was a very old man. It would not be correct to translate aevo in this sentence as “ages,” or “times,” or

something of that sort, because Nestor was not alive for three ages or three times or three eternities. He

was just alive for three generations. This still contains the basic idea of an elapsed period of time, but a

generation is much smaller than an age.

In the Aeneid, it says, Vos o, quibus integer aevi / sanguis, ait, solidaeque suo stant robore vires,

/ vos agitate fugam. / ‘Oh you, whose blood is untouched by old age,’ he said, ‘and whose strengths stand

solid with your own force, you lead your flight (Virgil, Aeneid 2.638-640).’ In this passage, aevum is

translated as “old age” because the point of that word is to indicate that the people being addressed are

young and can escape. Instead of being an abstract idea of time, this conveys the idea of how much time

has gone by since these men were born. Still a space in time, but a much smaller one than either ages or

generations.

Omnia destruitis: vitiataque dentibus aevi / Paulatim lenta consumitis omnia morte. / Time, you

destroy all things: and your teeth spoil all things little by little, slowly you consume all things with death.

(Ovid, Metamorphoses 15.83-84). In this passage “time” is suitable because this is saying that time wears

down everything and kills everything, eventually, after the years have progressed for a long while. This is

an even broader and more abstract version of the idea of elapsed time-- itself.

The first translation of aevum above had the idea of ages flowing by. The second talked about

generations passing. The third conveyed the short number of years that had passed for the people listening


since birth. With these examples, it can be decided that aevum’s main meaning is a space of elapsed time,

since ages, generations, and time since birth are all periods of time.

Medieval religious writers used the word aevum or aeviternity (a cross between aevum and

eternity) to describe the state of the human soul after death. The concept expressed a timelessness that

bridged mortality and the eternity of God. Thomas Aquinas said in Summa Theologiae, “Aeviternity

differs from time, and from eternity, as the mean between them both. This difference is explained by

some to consist in the fact that eternity has neither beginning nor end, aeviternity, a beginning but no end,

and time both beginning and end.” This passage shows that medieval thinkers had an understanding of the

word aevum as a kind of time that starts and then goes on forever.

This medieval interpretation works with the core meaning of the word aevum as a “space of

elapsed time.” While “time” is a frequently used translation, “age” as in periods of hundreds of years

works is often use, as well as “old age,” which starts at birth and slowly progresses over time until death.

Each option starts at a point in time and then arcs over a long space, rather like aeviternity. From this, it

can be gathered that the core meaning of aevum is a period of time that has a beginning and then

progresses through some undetermined but usually long space of time afterwards.

Works Cited

Aquinas, T. (n.d.). Question 10. The eternity of God. Retrieved from

http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1010.htmaa

WORD STUDY 15 -- NOTE TO MRS. BARR: 26 POINT DEDUCTION

The Gifts of a Word Study

The 3rd declension, neuter noun munus, -eris, has one universally thought meaning by the

Romans which can be found by analyzing various different passages by authors of different time periods

that use this word. These passages range from works by Caesar, Catullus, and Ovid.

To start, an early work in which this noun appears is by Julius Caesar—his De bello Gallico—

and can be found in a passage from book 6, chapter 18 describing certain traditions of the Gauls. It is as

follows: In reliquis vitae institutis hoc fere ab reliquis different, quod suos liberos, nisi cum adoleverunt,

ut munus militia sustiner possint…, “On the other customs of their lives, they differ with this strange

custom from other people because they prohibit their own peoples’ liberty until when they could endure

military service so that…” (De bello Gallico 6.18.3). Obviously, this word appears in its nominative

singular form in this particular sentence and, as shown in this English translation, has a meaning of

‘service’. This is the case because most people serve in the military because they are forced to due to law,

financial need, or pressure from others rather than because of their own love of war. Therefore, this word

unlikely means ‘gifts’, because of the context, or ‘duty’, a more fitting alternative—some serve in the

military for a job, not solely because they are forced to.

Another passage including this noun comes from a passage from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, a later

work. Here, in his recounting of the story of King Midas’ golden touch, he writes about how the god,

Bacchus, solemnly grants Midas’ wish that, whatever he touches turns to gold in the sentence, Adnuit

optatis nocituraque munera solvit Liber et indoluit quod non meliora petisset., “Bacchus assented to the

wishes, about to harm and granted the gifts and, he grieved because he might not have asked for better.”

(Metamorphoses 11.104-105). Furthermore, this in turn shows us that the meaning in this particular

http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1010.htmaa


passage for the noun munus, here in its accusative plural form, munera, is ‘gifts’. This is so because the

god, Liber, who represents Bacchus in this particular passage, is obviously granting Midas’ wish that he

gave and not orders, therefore making ‘duty, function, and service’ rather illogical translation choices in

this context.

Lastly, a final passage that was written a little earlier than the prior one but later than the first is

selected from Catullus’ Carmina and includes the neuter noun in its ablative plural forum. Catullus was a

neoteric poet, meaning ‘new-era’ poet because his works, along with his peers’, were based off

Alexandrian, poetic ideals which can be found in this poem where he is writing about Berenice’s Lock--

Berenice is a constallion and the lock is her lights. The passage, including the muneribus, goes as follows:

Tu vero, regina, tuens cum sidera divam placebis festis luminibus Veneram, unguinis expertem non siris

esse tuam me, sed potuis largis adfice muneribus, “You truly, queen, when you will please the goddess

Venus with festive light, looking at the stars, let your own me not to be experienced with unguent noises

but, influence me with large gifts.” (Catullus, Carmina 66.89-92). From this, we can deduce that the

meaning of this neuter noun, in this particular passage, is ‘gifts’. This is the case because, based off the

context, Catullus is obviously not asking for services from Venus, the only other coherent meaning for

this noun for, it was not like a Roman to boldly ask for favors from the gods. Furthermore, the word

‘gifts’ in this context makes perfect sense because that is exactly what the poet is asking for from this

constellation.

After contemplating the uses of this neuter noun in the three above passages composed by authors

with different writing styles, it is safe to conclude that the usage and meaning of this word has not

changed at all over the centuries and its core meaning—how the Romans would have interpreted this

noun in works—is simply ‘gift’. This is the case because, as can be seen in the various above examples,

this noun is always a gift, whether in the forms of services and actions or objects and privileges.

WORD STUDY 16

What is a Bird

“Avis” is a third declension feminine noun translating as “bird”.

Velut aves, ab alto quae teneram prolem produxit in aera nido, “Just as birds, who lead forth

young offspring into the air from a high nest.” (Ovid, Metamorphosis, 8) In this passage, Ovid can be

found comparing Daedalus to the birds, as he is teaching his son the ways of flight simply by urging him

into the air. Ovid finds this exactly the same as the manner in which birds teach their youth to fly, and

thus uses the word “aves” very literally. He uses the most basic meaning of a bird, aiming to show that all

birds practice this same manner of tutoring and nurturing, representing the species as a whole.

Atque ita conpositas parvo curvamine flectit, ut veras imitetur aves, “And also he bends the

composition into a small curve, so that it imitates the wings.” (Ovid, Metamorphosis, 8) Here Ovid is

using “Aves” to imply that the creation Daedalus made is similar to a bird. He focuses on the attributes of

birds and their typical appearances. Daedalus is fastening feathers together and binding them into the

shape of wings, finally placing them on his arms to escape from his captivity in Crete. Through his

creation, Daedalus is attempting to mimic the power of the bird and achieve flight; the reasons for Ovid’s

comparison. Ovid uses a translation of “Aves” to pinpoint one particular aspect of birds that is relevant to


this passage. He uses the exact same word, however, with context, stretches it to highlight one certain part

of the bird.

Aedes nobis area est, auceps sum ego, esca est meretrix, lectus inlex est, amatores aves, “Our

house is the area, I am the fowler, the harlot is the food, the couch is the decoy, the lovers the birds.”

(Plautus, Asinaria, 1.3) In this passage, Platus is using birds in a close manner to Ovid. He is comparing

them to lovers, hinting at the similar actions of the two groups. He uses the character of Cleaereta to

explain the nearness of luring birds into a trap to that of luring two lovers to her home. Again, the word

“Aves” refers entirely to the literal meaning of a bird and how they are attracted to a spot by the

sprinkling of food. Plautus is recounting the nature of birds and explaining their actions.

Ab auguribus, simul aves rite admisissent, ex conposito tolleretur signum, “Waiting for the signal

from the augurs as the omens might prove rightly.” (Livy, The History of Rome, 4.18) Here Livy uses the

word “Avis” to touch on the message that a bird could carry. He is telling the story of the Battle between

the Romans and the Etruscans. In this passage, the Dictator of the Etruscans was watching a Citadel of

Rome, and waiting for a good omen before advancing on the attack. He was waiting for a signal from a

group of birds, indicating that the battle would be successful for his forces. While we can use the word

omens in translation for “Aves”, we could just as easily use the word birds as an indication of the signal.

Livy is touching very lightly on the fact that birds carried some sort of supernatural power through their

signals and were commonly used as fortunetellers before battle.

inclitus ea tempestate augur, neque mutari neque novum constitui, nisi aves addixissent, “a

celebrated augur at that time, insisted that no alteration or new appointment of that kind could be made,

unless the omens approved of it.” (Livy, The History of Rome, 1.36) Here Livy writes regarding a battle

between the Romans and the Sabines. After a battle resulting in great losses on both sides, the two forces

ceased fighting and retreated to their camps. In an attempt to determine their next move, the Roman

leaders take up the advice of a famous soothsayer, who claims that no advancements should be made

without the approval of the omens. In this sentence, the word “aves” is used, with the intention of

indicating that these omens were delivered by birds. At first, it would appear as if Livy is using “aves” to

not imply the actual and literal birds, but rather the signs that those birds represent. However, Livy is

instead using the word “Aves” to mention an aspect of birds, their powers in signals, similar to the second

translation from Ovid.

Through these examples, it is clear that “Avis” has a simple core meaning of “bird”. Through

each of the translations, authors are shown translating the word “Avis” in multiple different ways, some

carrying a meaning representing the signals that a bird brings, and some simply the literal bird. Many

writers using the word “Aves” would stretch it’s meaning to focus in on one certain aspect of a bird, while

still retaining the core meanig. They were tacking a seemingly basic word and adding to it in a very subtle

and fascinating way. Regardless of the actual word that each author uses in their translation, they all carry

the exact same core meaning through the word. In ancient history, birds were commonly thought of as

mythical creatures that could provide an interpretation of events simply through their appearance. Birds

were thought of as one of the principal ways that the gods unveiled their intentions and plans to mortals.

And thus the species as a whole represented a sort of godlike figure to humans. Thus, anytime the word

“Avis” was used, it carried along with it a spiritual interpretation not needing to be specified by the

author. In each of these translations, the word “bird” could be used in the English translation and the

meaning would be retained. However, “omen” is used as a substitute because many people today fail to

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=aedes&la=la&can=aedes1&prior=nos

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=nobis&la=la&can=nobis1&prior=aedes

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=area&la=la&can=area0&prior=nobis

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=est&la=la&can=est6&prior=area

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=auceps&la=la&can=auceps1&prior=est

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=sum&la=la&can=sum1&prior=auceps

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ego&la=la&can=ego5&prior=sum

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=esca&la=la&can=esca0&prior=ego

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=est&la=la&can=est7&prior=esca

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=meretrix&la=la&can=meretrix0&prior=est

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=lectus&la=la&can=lectus0&prior=meretrix

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=inlex&la=la&can=inlex0&prior=lectus

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=est&la=la&can=est8&prior=inlex

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=amatores&la=la&can=amatores0&prior=est

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=aves&la=la&can=aves1&prior=amatores

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ab&la=la&can=ab1&prior=si

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=auguribus&la=la&can=auguribus0&prior=ab

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=simul&la=la&can=simul0&prior=auguribus

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=aves&la=la&can=aves0&prior=simul

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=rite&la=la&can=rite0&prior=aves

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=admisissent&la=la&can=admisissent0&prior=rite

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ex&la=la&can=ex0&prior=admisissent

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=conposito&la=la&can=conposito0&prior=ex

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=conposito&la=la&can=conposito0&prior=ex

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=tolleretur&la=la&can=tolleretur0&prior=conposito

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=signum&la=la&can=signum0&prior=tolleretur

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=inclitus&la=la&can=inclitus0&prior=Navius

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ea&la=la&can=ea1&prior=inclitus

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ea&la=la&can=ea1&prior=inclitus

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=tempestate&la=la&can=tempestate0&prior=ea

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=tempestate&la=la&can=tempestate0&prior=ea

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=augur&la=la&can=augur0&prior=tempestate

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=augur&la=la&can=augur0&prior=tempestate

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=neque&la=la&can=neque0&prior=augur

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=neque&la=la&can=neque0&prior=augur

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=mutari&la=la&can=mutari0&prior=neque

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=mutari&la=la&can=mutari0&prior=neque

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=neque&la=la&can=neque1&prior=mutari

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=neque&la=la&can=neque1&prior=mutari

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=novum&la=la&can=novum0&prior=neque

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=novum&la=la&can=novum0&prior=neque

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=constitui&la=la&can=constitui0&prior=novum

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=constitui&la=la&can=constitui0&prior=novum

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=nisi&la=la&can=nisi0&prior=constitui

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=nisi&la=la&can=nisi0&prior=constitui

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=aves&la=la&can=aves0&prior=nisi

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=aves&la=la&can=aves0&prior=nisi

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=addixissent&la=la&can=addixissent0&prior=aves

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=addixissent&la=la&can=addixissent0&prior=aves


understand the historical importance of birds and the signals they could relay. This directly refers to the

fact that older translations would have most likely just used the word “bird” in translation, rather than

including the word “omen”. In fact, this would have been unnecessary to include since in ancient times

the understanding of bird’s powers through delivering signals was widespread. Thus, a change in the

translation of this word is visible over time, seeing as “omen” is included more and more as time goes on.

The word “Aves” comes from the proto-italic *awis and the Proto-Indo-European *h₂éwis. Some

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82%C3%A9wis

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82%C3%A9wis

latin 3b word study set 1 - quia his ab urbe condita, livy, writing in 1st century a.d., relates a...

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