READING#2Clossey, Luke. “Global Jesus” Research Proposal. Unpublished manuscript.

1. SUMMAR Y

The crucial roles of Jesus in Christianity and Islam, the two most global religions, make him arguably the most central figure in world history. In recent years, scholars from many religious perspectives have paid increased attention to ideas of Jesus crossing cultural frontiers, but from a perspective that is either regional or theological, with an eye towards an improved understanding of the process of salvation.

In contrast, the proposed Global Jesus project offers a historical and a global perspective. Instead of exploring how Jesus should be understood today by the faithful, it seeks to describe how Jesus has been understood--by believers and non-believers alike--in cultural history. Instead of considering a single, regional instance of Jesus entering a new culture, it pursues a holistic analysis to present a global view of migration of the idea of Jesus throughout the world. This global historical strategy points directly to the early-modern period (ca. 1400-1800), which witnessed the development of global empires, global trading networks, and global missionary enterprises, each contributing to a moment of early globalization that spread ideas of Jesus worldwide.

Beyond contributing to our understanding of how cultural information circulates globally, this research will produce an ever-growing geographical database cataloging images of Jesus, both visual and verbal, from around the early-modern world. Each entry will supplement a description of the image with data on authorship, audience, provenance, and location. Geographic Information System (GIS) software will create animated mappings of this database, to facilitate global geographic analysis. This bird's-eye perspective will shed light on the dynamics of this system of global Jesuses: how the ideas of Jesus evolved, how they migrated beyond the Christian and Islamic worlds, how they found adaptive niches in indigenous environment worldwide, and how these wider-world understandings may have influenced in turn the original Jesus traditions. Jesus and globalization are both widely popular topics; a virtual-museum interface will make parts of the database accessible to the global public.

The collection of this data entails a multi-pronged strategy. A team of regional experts will serve as project advisors. Survey questionnaires will be directed to the appropriate religious and cultural institutions worldwide. Collaborators and surveys will thus assist in locating secondary and primary sources. The principal investigator will conduct the necessary field work in fourteen countries to reach locations with critical Jesus architecture (churches, mosques, imperial buildings) or rich collections of Jesus images. A team of student assistants will coordinate these efforts and translate the results into the database.

2. DETAILED DESCRIPTIONGoalTo enhance our existing knowledge of the cultural history of Jesus in geographical, global context to address questions of authority, identity, and modernity, and to shed new light on how information and images in general disseminate across cultural frontiers.

ObjectivesI. To locate and identify visual and textual strategically chosen expressions of Jesus

throughout the early-modern world (ca. 1400 to ca. 1800)II. To create and to map digitally a dataset indexing attributes of each expressionIII. To use correlations of these data to recreate routes of transmission and adaptation of

ideas of JesusIV. To use make the resulting database available to scholars and accessible to a global public audience

ContextIn current historiography of the early-modern world, Jesus appears amidst studies

of disparate but related phenomena, such as colonialism, sexuality, literacy, and syncretism. Of course, the scholarly literature on early-modern images or ideas of Jesus is vast, although no single study adopts a global perspective that looks at Jesus worldwide. Some locate Jesus in the European history of ideas (Bérulle, 1989; Brown, 1988; Erb, 1983; Feuer, 1986; Fox and Penney, 1911; Griffiths, 2001; Steere, 1984) or Western art (De Borchgrave, 2000; Drury, 1999; Doumergue, 1909; Finaldi and Avery-Quash, 2000; Levi Strauss, 1997; MacGregor, 2000; O'Grady, 2001; Sloyan, 1986; Steinberg, 1996). More recent approaches explore Jesus in terms of gender (usually female) or examine erotic understandings of him (Bornsteinand Rusconi, 1996; Bynum, 1982; Fogleman, 2003; Godbeer, 1995; Rapley, 1990; Schwartz, 1985; Tatlock, 1999; Winship, 1992). The role of Jesus in non-Christian religious traditions has often received attention, as in Judaism (Goldstein, 1950; Sandmel, 1973) and, especially, in Islam (Barkai, 1983; Cragg, 1985; Deleanu and Robson, 2002; Guillaume, 1980; Hayek, 1959; Khalidi, 2001; Leirvik, 1999; Robinson, 1991' Robson, 1929; Wismer, 1977; Zwemer, 1912).

Outside of Europe, the region that has attracted the most studies of Jesus has been colonial America and the early United States, mostly in discussions of sermons and Indian strategy ( Aldridge, 1982; Allitt, 1988; Cogliano, 1992; Cole, 1988; Halttunen, 1978 Jehlen, 1990; Klein, 1968; Kukkonen, 1976; LaFontaine, 1976; Railton, 1988; Schattschneider, 1986; Signett, 1975; Smucker, 1989; Stephens, 1996; Terrell, 1982; Veto, 1996; Woolman and Gummere, 1922). Jesus in the context of slavery (Ferguson, 1996; Seeman, 1999; Vaughn, 1999) and in Jeffersonian thought ( Adams, 1975; Brent, 1967; Fox, 2002; Healey, 1984; Jefferson, 1983; Schulz, 1985; Wicks, 1967) have seen the most intense study. Instances of Jesus in areas that would become Canada have also attracted attention (Hiller, 1971; Simpson, 1999; Simard, 1989). The wider world has seen notably thinner coverage, although some works do turn to Africa (Hirsch and Kropp, 2003; Werbner, 1997; Barkai, 1983), southeast Asia (e.g. Hunt, 1989), eastern Europe (e.g.. Dimnik, 1988), Latin America (e.g. Dean, 1999), and east Asia (e.g. Cooper, 1974; Criveller, 1997; Malek, 2003).

The few global studies in existence are overwhelmingly theological rather than historical: As more Christians live outside of Europe and North America, recent decades have witnessed a flood of theological studies of cross-cultural Christs (see Buechner and Boltin, 1974; Küster, 2001; Pope-Levison and Levison, 1992; Smith, 1997; Sugirtharajah, 1993 and 2001; Thomas, 1969; Wessels, 1990). Focussed on theology, these uniformly lack any real historical depth. On the other hand, the broadest history of

ideas of Jesus is restricted to western culture: J. Pelikan’s Jesus through the Centuries (Pelikan, 1997; see also Pelikan, 1996). Its last chapter consists of a global collection of Jesuses, but one pulled out of time (ahistorical) and appearing almost as an afterthought or appendix. Rather than follow Pelikan by tracing ideas of Jesus across time from the first to the twentieth century, this study will trace them at a single period of time across space, globally. The proposed project intends to unite these previously discrete regional studies of Jesus into a single global study that looks at historical context rather than theological truth. Recent historical studies of religion have moved in the direction of greater sensitivity to space: Ean Begg (1985) has written a gazetteer of the cult of the black Madonna that incorporates geography. William Taylor (2005) has recently made limited use of quantitative methods in his study of Christ shrines in colonial Mexico. Looking beyond Jesus, a GIS panel at the 2006 American Historical Association included a paper discussing Spanish sacred sites (Owens, 2006), and the most recent ECAI conference featured an entire panel dedicated to “GIS and Religious Geographies” (ECAI/CAA, 2006).

Although the project's methodology is thus original, for the most relevant theoretical issues it can draw upon an established literature in cultural and globalization studies. Students of modern globalization recognize economic and cultural facets to the phenomenon, although most scholarship taking on global networks deal with economic commodities or biological agents (e.g. Abu Lughod, 1989; Crosby, 2003; Curtin, 1984; Frank, 1998; Wallerstein, 1974). Historians of the early-modern world have pushed the beginning of economic globalization into the sixteenth century, but the cultural side has remained neglected—although scholars have produced important theoretical work on cross-cultural contact (Clendinnen, 1990; Geertz, 1995; Obeyesekere, 1992; Sahlins, 1981 and 1995). By adopting a worldwide scope, the proposed research relies on both cultural history and globalization studies (see also Bentley, 1993). Globalization studies also provides the most useful theoretical framework for this research on a global religious figure. Anthony Giddens understands globalization as an evolving modernity, for “modern organisations are able to connect the local and the global in ways which would have been unthinkable in more traditional societies” (Giddens, 1990; see Kippenberg, 2002). He links the two concepts with an argument that modernization is the globalization of what were once independent regional cultures. Through globalization, regional ideas of Jesus lose their connections to particular places and times. As these suddenly rootless ideas of Jesus circulate along globalization networks they create a world of “more religious options and less religious certainty” (Taves, 2003). This is the seed of secularizing modernity. No religious tradition spread more globally than the cult of Jesus. It may be that Jesus's early-modern global celebrity, achieved through missionary agency and through the natural transmission of ideas, led to a pluralistic ecumenicism, and thence to modern secularism. Issues of modernity, as formulated by Giddens, may be most central to the project, as by linking modernity to globalization they most directly corollate meaning and content to network structure and geographical distribution (see also Christian, 2004, pp. 389-401, 430-32).

The breadth of its theme and its use of primary and secondary sources allow this study to play also the role of a synthetic history. For the past sixty-five years the principal synthesis of the early-modern expansion of Christianity has remained K. S.

Latourette’s Three Centuries of Advance (1939). This work remains authoritative, but its evidence rests primarily on (necessarily older still) secondary sources—including some venerable works from the earliest scholarship of the then-emerging field of historical missiology. Jesus has been arguably the central figure in the history of humanity; this will be the first history of ideas of Jesus in a truly global context, and will help pioneer the developing field of global history.

MethodologyInitial Strategy

In broad terms, the strategy will shift from global-network data collection to a more traditional textual/visual analysis as the project develops. The early research stages will concentrate on the areas with the fewest number of examples of Jesus—Africa and Asia. When looking for connections, it makes sense to start with the sparsest examples, and then proceed to Europe and the Americas armed with a knowledge of what characteristics we need to test for to verify these connections. (Starting in Europe and the Americas would yield us a much higher number of Jesus examples, but we would be unclear how to narrow the focus). Because so many of these African and Asian examples have made their way to Europe, the most efficient first field work will be there.

The Global Jesus project will be selective rather than truly comprehensive. Outside of microhistory, little historical research is. Rather than relying on the sampling best practices of modern statistics, this project operates in epistemological badlands. The centrality of Jesus of the project will guarantee a considerable amount of data. Equally crucial are geographical breadth (that is the heart of this project), chronological breadth (to encompass the sweep from Kamal Al-Din Al-Damiri to Thomas Jefferson), and thematic breadth (a study of Jesuses’ noses would be not particularly useful).

Detailed Descriptions of StepsThe chart below outlines the overall strategy of the Global Jesus project; details of

each step follow.Steps Year 1: 2007-2008 Year 2: 2008-

2009Year 3: 2009-2010

Summer Semester andFall Semester

Information collection

A, B, C

Initial Continuing

Database and map

E,F

Creation of database structure

Inputting collected data

Updating database; vitual museum

Analysis and interpretation

G, H

n/a Preliminary Final synthesis

Dissemination Conference World History Association (June, London) [initial results; feedback on methodology]

ConferenceF.E.E.G.I. (TBA)

Conference American Academy of Religion (November, Montréal)

Spring Semester

Field Work D Rome, Madrid, Lisbon, London

Africa and Asia

Latin America

A. We will first survey the relevant literature and execute initial research with the goal of identifying more specifically (1) the issues at stake and (2) the distribution of Jesuses in the early-modern world. This will be complemented in the first year with research on Asian and African Jesuses extant in Rome, Madrid, Lisbon, and London. [Objective I]

Partial list of archives and libraries for first-year researchRome: Archivio della Sancta Congregazione per l’Evangelizzazione dei

Populi, Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu, Biblioteca Angelica, Biblioteca Casanatense, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, Vatican Library and Secret Archives

Madrid: Archivo Histórico Nacional, Biblioteca Nacional, Biblioteca Real del Palacio, Real Academia de Historia

Lisbon: Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Biblioteca da Ajuda, Biblioteca Nacional, Secção dos Manuscritos, Instituto dos Arquivos Nacionais da Torre do Tombo

London: British Library, Victoria & Albert MuseumB. Based on §A(2), we will identify possible research informants (major art

museums, manuscript and rare book libraries, bishoprics, and scholars). [Objective I]C. We will write survey letters to informants identified in §B regarding examples of

early-modern Jesuses in their collections or areas of expertise. The survey letter’s questions will attempt to get a precise and accurate description of these Jesuses, and will also inquire as to special resonance for the main issues identified in §A(1). Respondents will be offered access to the completed database. [Objective I]

D. We will conduct field work to more closely examine selected Jesuses, located by §A(2) and §C, and strategically chosen with respect to §A(1). [Objective I]

E. We will construct a database of Jesuses, using information obtained through §A(2), §C, and §D. [Objective II]

In the database, each example will have ten fields:1. Serial number2. Name of the source3. Type of source (manuscript, published work, painting, sculpture, inscription)4. Author or artist who created source, if known5. Language, for sources with textual elements6. Date of creation or publication; estimated if unknown7. Location8. Characteristics array

This will be an evolving data type. For example, if at some point I find a Jesus with a gnarled nose (a Buddhist influence), we will create a new “nose” column in this array, and enter “gnarled” for this Jesus. We will then review all previous Jesuses for unusual noses, and enter the appropriate descriptions. For most columns in this array, the various types of sources will make some columns less relevant: a textual Jesus would probably not include a description of the nose.

9. Representation This is a representation of the source itself. It could be a digital

reproduction of an image, a recording of music, or a transcript of text. For larger works (e.g. De Imitatione Christi) it might be a URL link to the complete text.

10. Identity numberThis would be used to relate closely related examples to each

other. For example, translations of the same work might have the same identity number. A relic that moves between places might have one entry (and one serial number) for each location, but we could code in that it is a single object by assigning both entries the same identity number. This could also be expanded to link, for example, a citation of a text with the original text itself—and thus allow us to map partially an example’s audience.

F. With GIS software (ArcView), we will be able to create animated global maps of any set of characteristics. This step will be executed in association with a clearinghouse such as the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (University of California, Berkeley). [Objective II]

G. We will use §F to analyze the distribution and general patterns of transmission of the Jesuses, and determine when and where specific mutations occur. [Objective III]

H. Interpretation. Because this project draws on and brings together a variety of scholarships, many possible issues of interpretation come readymade. The course of the research will no doubt suggest which of these to emphasize. I am particularly interested in seeing how these Jesuses support or undermine or create modernity, how they are used as markers of identity, and how they are used to bolster authority. [Objective III]

Communications of ResultsThe geographical breadth of the Global Jesus project will make it likely to attract

the interest of scholars from a broad range of regional historiographies. It will be most relevant, however, to the fields of global history, the history of religion, and cultural studies.

Because the methodology is particularly original, we will be presenting preliminary results at regular intervals. This is in part for the purpose of dissemination, and in part to get feedback early enough to improve upon our approach. Likely opportunities include the World History Association 2007 meeting in London, the Forum on European Expansion and Global Interaction (F.E.E.G.I.) 2008 meeting, and the American Academy of Religion 2009 meeting in Montreal. Studies of specific examples or specific relations between examples will also appear as conference papers or refereed journal articles (e.g. Journal of Global History, Journal of World History, History of Religions).

The long-term scholarly result of this Global Jesus project will be an academic book-length study. During the three years of this grant, notes on sources might appear as a research tool, guide to archival materials relating to the theme of Jesus. The dataset will be made available to survey respondents and to users of the ECAI Clearinghouse.

Globalization and Jesus are both extremely popular topics among the general public, as suggested by the success of 2000 exhibition Anno Domini: Jesus Through the

Centuries at the Royal Alberta Museum (then the Provincial Museum of Alberta), or by the recent controversy over the British Royal Mail's featuring a seventeenth-century Hindu Jesus on a stamp (BBC News, 2005). The database will be adapted to create an online museum, which could last longer than its predecessor in Alberta, and whose global subject could be presented to a global audience.

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