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Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Verbs & Tenses

3. Punctuation

4. Syntax

5. Figures of Syntax

6. Parts of Speech - 1




10. Punctuation

Learn English Contents

Introduction Words

Overview · Nouns and pronouns · Verbs · Adjectives and adverbs · Prepostions, conjunctions, and interjections · Verbals

Sentences Overview · Basic componenents · Phrases · Clauses · Fragments and run-on sentences

Usage Adjective and adverb usage · Pronoun usage · Subject-verb agreement · Verb usage

Punctuation End marks · Commas · Apostrophes · Quotations · Other common punctuation marks · Less common typographical marks

Other key topics Capitalization · Spelling · WRITING and composition · Syntax · Figures of syntax · Recent grammar restructure attempts

Appendices Glossary · Resources

Introduction to the English language English has become one of the most popular languages in the world. Proper English skills are becoming a valuable asset in business around the world. Do not put off learning English because of the great variety of word orders available (even for simple things). Have a go and keep trying. Practise.

It is well worth remembering that English is not a fixed language - it is shifting like sand and so these "rules" are in the process of change and are often ignored or bent - much to the disdain of erudite scholars. This may be one reason why English can be tricky to learn.

Purpose and structure - What will this book cover? This book will function as:

1. A guide to structure and grammar, 2. A usage guide, and 3. A manual of style

It is divided into six units: Words and usage, Sentences, Punctuation, Other key topics, Appendices, and Topics in detail. The eventual goal is to be usable in English classrooms around the world. This book will not include English vocabulary and pronunciation (covered in English

as an Additional Language). Advanced writing topics (covered in Rhetoric and Composition (PDF) ) will also be excluded.

Brief language history Modern English has evolved out of old Anglo-Saxon, a language much like modern German. In the process, it has borrowed many Latin words, and completely changed its grammar.

The story starts when the Romans left Britain, leaving the Celtic Britons in chaos. One Celtic king asked the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes to come and fight for him, but they decided to take over England instead, since the Celts couldn't put up a decent fight.

Soon, there were no Celts left in England, and hardly any trace of the Celtic languages. There are a few river names inherited from the Celts, or earlier, and maybe a dozen words, but no more. This complete obliteration of the Celts was unusually thorough for the times.

A few generations later the English converted to Christianity. The new religion brought with it a flood of new words, borrowed from Latin and Greek; religious terms such as Angel, priest, and nun, but also names of un-English things such lion, pepper, and oyster.

Around this time, the English began slurring the ends of words. This was the start of the process that created modern English grammar.

After a few centuries of peace the vikings invaded. They spoke Old Norse, a language related to English. After much fighting, they settled down in North East England, and introduced many Norse words into English, including the pronouns them, they, and their.

Just as the Viking invasions stopped, the French-speaking Normans invaded. Commoners continued speaking English, but for the next two centuries the noblemen spoke French.

A few French words trickled into English during the period, but the number stayed pretty low until the nobles stopped speaking French, in the mid thirteenth century. This precipitated a large influx of words of French origin into the English language as an entire class migrated from French to English. Many of the French words were anglicized, but some of the spelling of the words remained roughly intact. It should be noted that the Normans spoke an older version of French known as Old French that may sometimes actually seem to be closer to English than current French, because English took some words from Old French wholesale, such as mansion. Around the same time the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded.

During the Renaissance, the scholars of England added many more Greek and Latin words to the English language. As a result, much of the technical vocabulary in English consists of Greek or Latin words.

Since then, English has also borrowed many words from the major European languages, such as French, as well as a few words from almost every other language. It is still changing and developing.

Unit I: Words

Parts of speech overview English/Parts of speech overview

Nouns and pronouns English/Nouns and pronouns

Verbs General: Introduction - Grammar

Parts of speech: Nouns - Verbs - Pronouns - Adjectives - Adverbs - Conjunctions - Prepositions - Interjections

Other English topics: Gerunds and participles - Orthography - Punctuation - Syntax - Appositives -

Figures of Syntax

Verbs are action words (sometimes described as 'doing' words,) that show what the subject (a noun or pronoun) is doing. They are a requirement of any sentence in the English language.

Verbs can be Passive or Active.

An Active verb is a verb in an active sentence, in which the subject performs the verb. An example of an active verb in an active sentence is 'I hit the dog.'

A Passive verb is a verb in a passive sentence. In a passive sentence, the action is performed upon the subject. An example of this is: 'The dog was hit by me.'. The two sentences have the same denotative meaning, but their connotative meaning is quite different; active verbs are much more powerful and personal.

There are two forms of passive voice: "He gave me the book." => "The book was given to me." or "I was given the book." The second form is preferred.

English, like many Germanic languages, contains both strong (or irregular; they aren't quite the same thing) and weak (regular) verbs. Irregular verbs are one of the more difficult aspects of learning English. Each irregular verb must be memorized, because they are not often easy to identify otherwise.

For a regular verb, the changes in form are minimal.

When talking about actions that took place in the past, add ed to the end of the verb root. E.g., walk becomes walked.

When talking about actions that take place in the present, add s to the end of the verb root when the subject of the sentence is in the third person (not yourself or the person to whom you are speaking).

When talking about actions that take place in the future, add the word will before the verb.

To describe an action that takes place over a length of time, add the appropriate form of the verb to be before the verb and add ing to the end of the verb root.

To describe an action that has been completed, change the verb root to put it in the past tense (see the first point) and add the appropriate form of the verb to have (note that you can have to have in any tense you want, but keep the main verb in the past) before the verb.

Also note that you can combine the previous two points by putting the appropriate form of to have before the past participle of to be (been), and putting both of them before the verb.

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he loves. VERBS are so called, from the Latin Verbum, a Word; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence.

An English verb has four CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIPAL PARTS, ever needful to be ascertained in the first place; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle. The Present is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate.

The Preterit is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject of the assertion: as, I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended.

The Imperfect Participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

The Perfect Participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved.

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four classes; regular and irregular, redundant and defective.

A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, loved, loving, loved.

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen.

A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven.

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, beware, ought, quoth.

Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes; active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter.

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as,

"Cain slew Abel."

"Cassius loved Brutus."

An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as,

"John walks."

"Jesus wept."

A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as,

"I am compelled."

"Caesar was slain."

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as,

"There was light."

"The babe sleeps."

Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, Moods, Tenses, Persons and Numbers.

Moods.

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner.

There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative.

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as,

"To die,--to sleep;--To sleep!--perchance, to dream!" (from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as,

I write you know

or asks a question; as,

Do you know? Know ye not?

The Potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as,

I can walk. He may ride. We must go.

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as,

"If thou go, see that thou offend not." "See thou do it not."--Rev., xix, 10. God save the queen. It is a requirement that ... be done. It's high time you were in bed. If I were you,...

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as,

"Depart thou."

"Be comforted." "Forgive me." "Go in peace."

Tenses. Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect or Past, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second-future. You could even say there are twelve tenses because each of those comes in simple and in progressive forms, which have different meaning.

The Present tense simple is that which expresses what now exists, is normal or correlated to senses. It is used with adverbs like always, generally.

There is a house in New Orleans. I read a book every week. I hear a noise.

The Present tense continuous is that which expresses what is happening just now:

I am reading a letter. The car is running at high speed.

The Past tense simple is that which expresses what took place in time fully past. It is used with adverbs like yesterday, last week. (The past tense is sometimes called Imperfect, but this does not fit its meaning, as can be seen from the examples. This name is derived from Latin where it was correct.)

Last week, I read several of Shaw's novels.

The Past tense continuous is that which expresses what was taking place when (suddenly) something else occurred.

I saw him yesterday, and hailed him as he was passing. I was giving a presentation when the microphone broke.

The Present perfect tense simple is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past, or is still valid. It is used with adverbs like ever, never, today, this week.

I have read several of Shaw's novels. I have seen him to-day; something must have detained him. Have you ever tried fugu fish?

The Present perfect tense continuous is that which which started in the past and has not yet finished.

Since I have been standing here, five planes took off.

The Pluperfect tense simple is that which expresses what had taken place, at some past time mentioned, before something other happened.

I had seen him, when I met you. As soon as my car had been repaired, I could continue my trip.

The Pluperfect tense continuous is that which expresses what had started before and was still going on, when something else occurred.

I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in.

The First-future tense simple is that which expresses what will take place hereafter.

"I shall see him again, and I will inform him."

The First-future tense continuous is that which expresses what will be currently taking place at a certain time in future.

"I will be swimming in the sea by the time you'll awake."

The Second-future tense simple is that which expresses what will have taken place at some future time mentioned.

"I shall have seen him by tomorrow noon."

The Second-future tense continuous is that which expresses what will have started at some time and will still be ongoing, at some future time mentioned.

"I will have been swimming in the sea for four hours by the time you'll awake tomorrow."

Voice Voice of speech can be active or passive. Principally in passive voice the same tenses can be used as in active voice.

He gave me the book. The book was given to me. I was given the book.

There are however some things to note.

They build a house. The house is built.

Here active and passive do not really represent the same tense. If for example you describe a picture where people build a house, the first sentence is perfectly correct. The second sentence however will be interpreted as the static perfect of the sentence

The house has been built - it is built now.

This is, the house is now ready and not under construction. So the correct passive form is

The house is being built.

Passive voice can be built quite formally by adhering to some rules. You will however not find normally all tenses as in active voice. Formal rules will lead you to monstrosities like the following, you will certainly never hear (already the active sentence is quite monstrous):

The speech will have been being held for four hours when finally you'll arrive. (The president will have been holding a speech for four hours when finally you'll arrive.)

Verbs

Verbs are action words (sometimes described as 'doing' words,) that show what the subject (a noun or pronoun) is doing. They are a requirement of any sentence in the English language.

Verbs can be Passive or Active.

An Active verb is a verb in an active sentence, in which the subject performs the verb. An example of an active verb in an active sentence is 'I hit the dog.'

A Passive verb is a verb in a passive sentence. In a passive sentence, the action is performed upon the subject. An example of this is: 'The dog was hit by me.'. The two sentences have the same denotative meaning, but their connotative meaning is quite different; active verbs are much more powerful and personal.

There are two forms of passive voice: "He gave me the book." => "The book was given to me." or "I was given the book." The second form is preferred.

English, like many Germanic languages, contains both strong (or irregular; they aren't quite the same thing) and weak (regular) verbs. Irregular verbs are one of the more difficult aspects of learning English. Each irregular verb must be memorized, because they are not often easy to identify otherwise.

For a regular verb, the changes in form are minimal.

When talking about actions that took place in the past, add ed to the end of the verb root. E.g., walk becomes walked.

When talking about actions that take place in the present, add s to the end of the verb root when the subject of the sentence is in the third person (not yourself or the person to whom you are speaking).

When talking about actions that take place in the future, add the word will before the verb.

To describe an action that takes place over a length of time, add the appropriate form of the verb to be before the verb and add ing to the end of the verb root.

To describe an action that has been completed, change the verb root to put it in the past tense (see the first point) and add the appropriate form of the verb to have (note that you can have to have in any tense you want, but keep the main verb in the past) before the verb.

Also note that you can combine the previous two points by putting the appropriate form of to have before the past participle of to be (been), and putting both of them before the verb.

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he loves. VERBS are so called, from the Latin Verbum, a Word; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence.

An English verb has four CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIPAL PARTS, ever needful to be ascertained in the first place; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle. The Present is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate.

The Preterit is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject of the assertion: as, I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended.

The Imperfect Participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

The Perfect Participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved.

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four classes; regular and irregular, redundant and defective.

A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, loved, loving, loved.

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen.

A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven.

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, beware, ought, quoth.

Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes; active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter.

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as,

"Cain slew Abel."

"Cassius loved Brutus."

An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as,

"John walks."

"Jesus wept."

A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as,

"I am compelled."

"Caesar was slain."

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as,

"There was light."

"The babe sleeps."

Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, Moods, Tenses, Persons and Numbers.

Moods. Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner.

There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative.

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as,

"To die,--to sleep;--To sleep!--perchance, to dream!" (from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as,

I write you know

or asks a question; as,

Do you know? Know ye not?

The Potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as,

I can walk. He may ride. We must go.

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as,

"If thou go, see that thou offend not." "See thou do it not."--Rev., xix, 10. God save the queen. It is a requirement that ... be done. It's high time you were in bed. If I were you,...

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as,

"Depart thou." "Be comforted." "Forgive me." "Go in peace."

Tenses. Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect or Past, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second-future. You could even say there are twelve tenses because each of those comes in simple and in progressive forms, which have different meaning.

The Present tense simple is that which expresses what now exists, is normal or correlated to senses. It is used with adverbs like always, generally.

There is a house in New Orleans. I read a book every week. I hear a noise.

The Present tense continuous is that which expresses what is happening just now:

I am reading a letter. The car is running at high speed.

The Past tense simple is that which expresses what took place in time fully past. It is used with adverbs like yesterday, last week. (The past tense is sometimes called Imperfect, but this does not

fit its meaning, as can be seen from the examples. This name is derived from Latin where it was correct.)

Last week, I read several of Shaw's novels.

The Past tense continuous is that which expresses what was taking place when (suddenly) something else occurred.

I saw him yesterday, and hailed him as he was passing. I was giving a presentation when the microphone broke.

The Present perfect tense simple is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past, or is still valid. It is used with adverbs like ever, never, today, this week.

I have read several of Shaw's novels. I have seen him to-day; something must have detained him. Have you ever tried fugu fish?

The Present perfect tense continuous is that which which started in the past and has not yet finished.

Since I have been standing here, five planes took off.

The Pluperfect tense simple is that which expresses what had taken place, at some past time mentioned, before something other happened.

I had seen him, when I met you. As soon as my car had been repaired, I could continue my trip.

The Pluperfect tense continuous is that which expresses what had started before and was still going on, when something else occurred.

I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in.

The First-future tense simple is that which expresses what will take place hereafter.

"I shall see him again, and I will inform him."

The First-future tense continuous is that which expresses what will be currently taking place at a certain time in future.

"I will be swimming in the sea by the time you'll awake."

The Second-future tense simple is that which expresses what will have taken place at some future time mentioned.

"I shall have seen him by tomorrow noon."

The Second-future tense continuous is that which expresses what will have started at some time and will still be ongoing, at some future time mentioned.

"I will have been swimming in the sea for four hours by the time you'll awake tomorrow."

Voice Voice of speech can be active or passive. Principally in passive voice the same tenses can be used as in active voice.

He gave me the book. The book was given to me. I was given the book.

There are however some things to note.

They build a house. The house is built.

Here active and passive do not really represent the same tense. If for example you describe a picture where people build a house, the first sentence is perfectly correct. The second sentence however will be interpreted as the static perfect of the sentence

The house has been built - it is built now.

This is, the house is now ready and not under construction. So the correct passive form is

The house is being built.

Passive voice can be built quite formally by adhering to some rules. You will however not find normally all tenses as in active voice. Formal rules will lead you to monstrosities like the following, you will certainly never hear (already the active sentence is quite monstrous):

The speech will have been being held for four hours when finally you'll arrive. (The president will have been holding a speech for four hours when finally you'll arrive.)

Persons and numbers. The person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject or nominative.

In each number, there are three persons; and in each person, two numbers: thus,

Singular. 1st per. I love, 3d per. He loves; Plural. 1. We love, 2. You love, 3. They love.

Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place.

Where the verb is varied, the third person singular is regularly formed by adding s or es: as, I see, he sees; I give, he gives; I go, he goes; I fly, he flies; I vex, he vexes; I lose, he loses.

Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number, these properties are inferred from its subject or nominative: as, If I love, if he love; if we love, if you love, if they love.

The conjugation of verbs. The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles.

There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle. A verb which wants any of these parts, is called defective; such are most of the auxiliaries.

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations.

To do.

Present tense; and sign of the indicative present.

Sing. I do, he does; Plur. We do, you do, they do.

Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect. Sing. I did, he did; Plur. We did, you did, they did.

To be. Present tense; and sign of the indicative present.

Sing. I am, he is; Plur. We are, you are, they are.

Imperfect tense; and sign of the indicative imperfect. Sing. I was, he was; Plur. We were, you were; they were.

To have. Present tense; but sign of the indicative perfect.

Sing. I have, he has; Plur. We have, you have, they have.

Imperfect tense; but sign of the indicative pluperfect. Sing. I had, he had; Plur. We had, you had, they had.

Shall and will. Often confused with each other in modern English. These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of the future, they are interchanged thus:

Present tense; but sign of the indicative first-future. Simply to express a future action or event:--

Sing. I shall, he will; Plur. We shall, you will, they will.

To express a promise, command, or threat:--

Sing. I will, he shall; Plur. We will, you shall, they shall.

Imperfect tense; but, as signs, aorist, or indefinite. Used with reference to duty or expediency:--

Sing. I should, he should; Plur. We should, you should, they should.

Used with reference to volition or desire:--

Sing. I would, he would; Plur. We would, you would, they would.

See also: Shall and will by Wikipedia

May. Present tense; and sign of the potential present.

Sing. I may, he may; Plur. We may, you may, they may.

Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect. Sing. I might, he might; Plur. We might, you might, they might.

Can. Present tense; and sign of the potential present.

Sing. I can, he can; Plur. We can, you can, they can.

Imperfect tense; and sign of the potential imperfect. Sing. I could, he could; Plur. We could, you could, they could.

Must. Present tense; and sign of the potential present.

Sing. I must, he must; Plur. We must, you must, they must.

If must is ever used in the sense of the Imperfect tense, or Preterit, the form is the same as that of the Present: this word is entirely invariable.

Verb may be conjugated in four ways. Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing; and so on.

Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing.

Interrogatively; as, Write I? Do I write? or, Am I writing?

Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not write? or, Am I not writing?

Simple form, active or neuter. The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative.

The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal parts.

Present. Preterit. Imperfect Perfect Participle. Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved.

Infinite mood.

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses.

Present tense.

This tense is the root, or radical verb; and is usually preceded by the preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word: thus,

To love.

Perfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle; and, like the infinitive present, is usually preceded by the preposition to: thus,

To have loved.

Indicative mood. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses.

Present tense.

The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the present infinitive, or radical verb; except that the verb be has am in the indicative.

The simple form of the present tense is varied thus:--

Singular. I love, He loves; Plural. We love, You love, They love.

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the verb: thus,

Singular. I do love, He does love; Plural. We do love, You do love, They do love.

Imperfect tense.

This tense, in its simple form is the preterit; which, in all regular verbs, adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously.

The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus:--

Singular. I loved, He loved; Plural. We loved, You loved, They loved,

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present: thus,

Singular. I did love, He did love; Plural. We did love, You did love, They did love.

Perfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. I have loved, He has loved; Plural. We have loved, You have loved, They have loved.

Pluperfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. I had loved, He had loved; Plural. We had loved, You had loved, They had loved.

First-future tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present: thus,

Simply to express a future action or event:--

Singular. I shall love, He will love; Plural. We shall love, You will love, They will love.

To express a promise, volition, command, or threat:--

Singular. I will love, He shall love; Plural. We will love, You shall love, They shall love.

Second-future tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. I shall have loved, He will have loved; Plural. We shall have loved, You will have loved, They will have loved.

Potential mood. The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses; but the potential imperfect is properly an aorist: its time is very indeterminate; as,

"He would be devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied."--Lord Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 11.

Present tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb: thus,

Singular. I may love, He may love; Plural. We may love, You may love, They may love.

Imperfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the radical verb: thus,

Singular. I might love, He might love; Plural. We might love, You might love, They might love.

Perfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. I may have loved, He may have loved; Plural. We may have loved, You may have loved, They may have loved.

Pluperfect tense.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or should have, to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. I might have loved, He might have loved; Plural. We might have loved, You might have loved, They might have loved.

Subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction; as, if, that, though, lest, unless, except. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is formed by a mere placing of the verb before the nominative; as, "Were I," for, "If I were;"--"Had he," for, "If he had;"--"Fall we" for, "If we fall;"--"Knew they," for, "If they knew." It does not vary its termination at all, in the different persons. It is used in the present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense; rarely--and perhaps never properly--in any other. As this mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite; as,

"It shall be in eternal restless change, Self-fed, and self-consum'd: if this fail, The pillar'd firmament is rottenness."--Milton, Comus, l. 596.

Present tense.

This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future.

Singular. If I love, If He love; Plural. If we love, If you love, If they love.

In this tense, the auxiliary do is sometimes employed; as,

"If thou do prosper my way."--Genesis, xxiv, 42.

"If he do not utter it."--Leviticus, v, 1.

"If he do but intimate his desire."--Murray's Key, p. 207.

"If he do promise, he will certainly perform."--Ib., p. 208.

"An event which, if it ever do occur, must occur in some future period."--Hiley's Gram., (3d Ed., Lond.,) p. 89.

"If he do but promise, thou art safe."--Ib., 89.

"Till old experience do attain To something like prophetic strain."--MILTON: Il Penseroso.

These examples, if they are right, prove the tense to be present, and not future, as Hiley and some others suppose it to be.

Imperfect tense.

This tense, like the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense; for it may refer to time past, present, or future: as,

"If therefore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there that an other priest should rise?"--Heb., vii, 11.

"They must be viewed exactly in the same light, as if the intention to purchase now existed."--Murray's Parsing Exercises, p. 24.

"If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect."--Matt., xxiv, 24.

"If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing?"--1 Corinthians, xii, 17.

"If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and grief to them."--Atterbury.

Singular. If I loved, If he loved; Plural. If we loved, If you loved, If they loved.

Imperative mood. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense.

PRESENT TENSE. Plural. Love [you,] or Do you love.

Participles. The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. Loving. Loved. Having loved.

The irregular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal parts.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. See. Saw. Seeing. Seen.

Infinitive mood.

PRESENT TENSE. To See.

PERFECT TENSE. To have seen.

Indicative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I see, He sees; Plural. We see, You see, They see.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I saw, He saw; Plural. We saw, You saw, They saw.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I have seen,He has seen; Plural. We have seen, You have seen, They have seen.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I had seen, He had seen; Plural. We had seen, You had seen, They had seen.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall see, He will see; Plural. We shall see, You will see, They will see.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall have seen, He will have seen; Plural. We shall have seen, You will have seen, They will have seen.

Potential mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I may see, He may see; Plural. We may see, You may see, They may see.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might see, He might see; Plural. We might see, You might see, They might see.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I may have seen, He may have seen; Plural. We may have seen, You may have seen, They may have seen.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might have seen, He might have seen; Plural. We might have seen, You might have seen, They might have seen.

Subjunctive mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. If I see, If he see; Plural. If we see, If you see, If they see.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. If I saw, If he saw; Plural. If we saw, If you saw, If they saw.

Imperative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Do thou see; Plural. See [you,] or Do you see.

Participles. The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect.

Seeing. Seen. Having seen.

The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively. Principal parts.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. Be. Was. Being. Been.

Infinitive mood.

PRESENT TENSE. To be.

PERFECT TENSE. To have been.

Indicative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I am, He is; Plural. We are, You are, They are.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I was, He was; Plural. We were, You were, They were.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I have been, He has been; Plural. We have been, You have been, They have been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I had been, He had been; Plural. We had been, You had been, They had been.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall be, He will be; Plural. We shall be, You will be, They will be.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. We shall have been, He will have been; Plural. We shall have been, You will have been, They will have been.

Potential mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I may be, He may be; Plural. We may be, You may be, They may be.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might be, He might be; Plural. We might be, You might be, They might be.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I may have been, He may have been; Plural. We may have been, You may have been, They may have been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might have been, He might have been; Plural. We might have been, You might have been, They might have been.

Subjunctive mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. If I be, If he be; Plural. If we be, If you be, If they be.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. If I were, If he were; Plural. If we were, If you were, If they were.

Imperative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. Be [you,] or Do you be.

Participles. The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. Being. Been. Having been.

Compound or progressive form. Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes; as,

"I am writing a letter."

"He is sitting idle."

"They are going."

This form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb.

The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively, in the Compound Form.

Principal parts of the simple verb.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. Read. Read. Reading. Read.

Infinitive mood.

PRESENT TENSE. To be reading.

PERFECT TENSE. To have been reading.

Indicative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I am reading, He is reading; Plural. We are reading, You are reading, They are reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I was reading, He was reading; Plural. We were reading, You were reading, They were reading.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I have been reading, He has been reading; Plural. We have been reading, You have been reading, They have been reading.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I had been reading, He had been reading; Plural. We had been reading, You had been reading, They had been reading.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall be reading, He will be reading; Plural. We shall be reading, You will be reading, They will be reading.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall have been reading, He will have been reading; Plural. We shall have been reading, You will have been reading, They will have been reading.

Potential mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I may be reading, He may be reading; Plural. We may be reading, You may be reading, They may be reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might be reading, He might be reading; Plural. We might be reading, You might be reading, They might be reading.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I may have been reading, He may have been reading; Plural. We may have been reading, You may have been reading, They may have been reading.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might have been reading, He might have been reading; Plural. We might have been reading, You might have been reading, They might have been reading.

Subjunctive mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. If I be reading, If he be reading; Plural. If we be reading, If you be reading, If they be reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. If I were reading, If he were reading; Plural. If we were reading, If you were reading, If they were reading.

Imperative mood. Plur. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading.

Participles. The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. Being reading. --------- Having been reading.

Form of passive verbs. Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes: thus from the active-transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved.

The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively. Principal parts of the active verb.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved.

Infinitive mood.

PRESENT TENSE. To be loved.

PERFECT TENSE. To have been loved.

Indicative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I am loved, He is loved; Plural. We are loved, You are loved, They are loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I was loved, He was loved; Plural. We were loved, You were loved, They were loved.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I have been loved, He has been loved; Plural. We have been loved, You have been loved, They have been loved.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I had been loved, He had been loved; Plural. We had been loved, You had been loved, They had been loved.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall be loved, He will be loved; Plural. We shall be loved, You will be loved, They will be loved.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. I shall have been loved, He will have been loved; Plural. We shall have been loved, You will have been loved, They will have been loved.

Potential mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I may be loved, He may be loved; Plural. We may be loved, You may be loved, They may be loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might be loved, He might be loved; Plural. We might be loved, You might be loved, They might be loved.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. I may have been loved, He may have been loved; Plural. We may have been loved, You may have been loved, They may have been loved.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. I might have been loved, He might have been loved; Plural. We might have been loved, You might have been loved, They might have been loved.

Subjunctive mood. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. If I be loved, If he be loved; Plural. If we be loved, If you be loved, If they be loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. If I were loved, If he were loved; Plural. If we were loved, If you were loved, If they were loved.

Imperative mood. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. Be [or you] loved, or Do you be loved.

Participles. The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. Being loved. Loved. Having been loved.

Form of negation. A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not after it, or after the first auxiliary; but the infinitive and participles take the negative first: as, Not to love, Not to have loved; Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved.

First person singular. IND. I love not, or I do not love; I loved not, or I did not love; I have not loved; I had not loved; I shall not, or will not, love; I shall not, or will not, have loved.

POT. I may, can, or must not love; I might, could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must not have loved; I might, could, would, or should not have loved,

SUBJ. If I love not, If I loved not.

Third person singular. IND. He loves not, or He does not love; He loved not, or He did not love; He has not loved; He had not loved; He shall not, or will not, love; He shall not, or will not, have loved.

POT. He may, can, or must not love; He might, could, would, or should not love; He may, can, or must not have loved; He might, could, would, or should not have loved.

SUBJ. If he love not, If he loved not.

Form of question. A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary: as,

First person singular. IND. Love I? or Do I love? Loved I? or Did I love? Have I loved? Had I loved? Shall I love? Shall I have loved?

POT. May, can, or must I love? Might, could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must I have loved? Might, could, would, or should I have loved?

Third person singular. IND. Loves he? or Does he love? Loved he? or Did he love? Has he loved? Had he loved? Shall or will he love? Will he have loved?

POT. May, can, or must he love? Might, could, would, or should he love? May, can, or must he have loved? Might, could, would, or should he have loved?

Form of question with negation. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: as,

First person plural. IND. Love we not? or Do we not love? Loved we not? or Did we not love? Have we not loved? Had we not loved? Shall we not love? Shall we not have loved?

POT. May, can, or must we not love? Might, could, would, or should we not love? May, can, or must we not have loved? Might, could, would, or should we not have loved?

Third person plural. IND. Are they not loved? Were they not loved? Have they not been loved? Had they not been loved? Shall or will they not be loved? Will they not have been loved?

POT. May, can, or must they not be loved? Might, could, would, or should they not be loved? May, can, or must they not have been loved? Might, could, would, or should they not have been loved?

Irregular verbs. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen. Of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten, beside their several derivatives and compounds.

Methods of learning irregular verbs

To remember verbs:

1. Learn them by heart. 2. Write a reference lists of verbs. 3. Say the verbs aloud (not silently). 4. Set yourself targets, e.g. learn one verb a day. 5. Learn this verbs in groups.

6. Test yourself.

To learn how to use them:

1. Write you own example sentences. 2. Collect some examples of use for each verb, e.g. from books, magazines or newspapers. 3. Use an English grammar.

List of The Top Irregular Verbs:

English irregular verbs

Imperfect Perfect Present. Preterit. Participle. Participle. Awake, awoke, awoken. Arise, arose, arising, arisen. Be, was,were being, been. Bear, bore, bearing, borne. Begin, began, beginning, begun. Bend, bent, bent. Blow, blew, blow. Break, broke, breaking, broken. Bring, brought, bringing, brought. Build, built, built Buy, bought, buying, bought. Catch, caught, caught Choose, chose, choosing, chosen. Come, came, coming, come. Cost, cost, costing, cost. Cut, cut, cutting, cut. Do, did, doing, done. Draw, drew, drawing, drawn. Drink, drank, drinking, drunk. Drive, drove, driving, driven. Eat, ate, eating, eaten. Fall, fell, falling, fallen. Feel, felt, feeling, felt. Fight, fought, fighting, fought. Find, found, finding, found. Fly, flew, flying, flown. Forget, forgot, forgotten. Forgive, forgave, forgiven. Get, got, getting, gotten. Give, gave, giving, given. Go, went, going, gone. Grow, grew, growing, grown. Have, had, having, had. Hear, heard, hearing, heard. Hide, hid, hiding, hidden or hid. Hold, held, held. Hit, hit, hitting, hit. Hold, held, holding, held. Keep, kept, keeping, kept. Know, knew, knowing, known. Lay, laid, laid. Lead, led, led. Leave, left, leaving, left. Lend, lent, lending, lent. Let, let, letting, let. Lie, lay, lying, lain. Lose, lost, losing, lost.

Make, made, making, made. Mean, meant, meant Meet, met, meeting, met. Pay paid paid Put, put, putting, put. Read, r~ead, reading, r~ead. Rend, rent, rending, rent. Ride, rode, riding, ridden. Ring, rung or rang, ringing, rung. Rise, rose, rising, risen. Run, ran, running, run. Say, said, saying, said. See, saw, seeing, seen. Seek, sought, seeking, sought. Sell, sold, selling, sold. Send, sent, sending, sent. Set, set, setting, set. Shake, shook, shook. Shine, shone, shone. Shoot, shot, shooting, shot. Show, showed, shown. Sing, sang, singing, sung. Sit, sat, sitting, sat. Sleep, slept, slept. Speak, spoke, speaking, spoken. Spend, spent, spending, spent. Stand, stood, standing, stood. Steal, stole, stealing, stolen. Strike, struck, striking, struck. Swim, swam, swimming, swum. Take, took, taking, taken. Teach, taught, teaching, taught. Tear, tore, tearing, torn. Tell, told, telling, told. Think, thought, thinking, thought. Throw, threw, thrown. Wake, woke, woken. Wear, wore, wearing, worn. Win, won, winning, won. Write, wrote, writing, written.

Redundant verbs. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and compounds. List of the redundant verbs:

Imperfect Present. Preterit. Participle. Perfect Participle. Abide, abode or abided, abiding, abode or abided. Awake, awaked or awoke, awaking, awaked or awoke. Belay, belayed or belaid, belaying, belayed or belaid. Bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended. Bereave, bereft or bereaved, bereaving, bereft or bereaved. Beseech, besought or beseeched, beseeching, besought or beseeched. Bet, betted or bet, betting, betted or bet. Betide, betided or betid, betiding, betided or betid. Bide, bode or bided, biding, bode or bided.

Blend, blended or blent, blending, blended or blent.

Bless, blessed or blest, blessing, blessed or blest.

Blow, blew or blowed, blowing, blown or blowed. Build, built or builded, building, built or builded. Burn, burned or burnt, burning, burned or burnt. Burst, burst or bursted, bursting, burst or bursted. Catch, caught or catched, catching, caught or catched. Clothe, clothed or clad, clothing, clothed or clad. Creep, crept or creeped, creeping, crept or creeped. Crow, crowed or crew, crowing, crowed. Curse, cursed or curst, cursing, cursed or curst. Dare, dared or durst, daring, dared. Deal, dealt or dealed, dealing, dealt or dealed. Dig, dug or digged, digging, dug or digged. Dive, dived or dove, diving, dived or diven. Dream, dreamed or dreamt, dreaming, dreamed or dreamt. Dress, dressed or drest, dressing, dressed or drest. Dwell, dwelt or dwelled, dwelling, dwelt or dwelled. Freeze, froze or freezed, freezing, frozen or freezed. Geld, gelded or gelt, gelding, gelded or gelt. Gild, gilded or gilt, gilding, gilded or gilt. Gird, girded or girt, girding, girded or girt. Grave, graved, graving, graved or graven. Grind, ground or grinded, grinding, ground or grinded. Hang, hung or hanged, hanging, hung or hanged. Heat, heated or het, heating, heated or het. Heave, heaved or hove, heaving, heaved or hoven. Hew, hewed, hewing, hewed or hewn. Kneel, kneeled or knelt, kneeling, kneeled or knelt. Knit, knit or knitted, knitting, knit or knitted. Lade, laded, lading, laded or laden. Lay, laid or layed, laying, laid or layed. Lean, leaned or leant, leaning, leaned or leant. Leap, leaped or leapt, leaping, leaped or leapt. Learn, learned or learnt, learning, learned or learnt. Light, lighted or lit, lighting, lighted or lit. Mean, meant or meaned, meaning, meant or meaned. Mow, mowed, mowing, mowed or mown. Mulct, mulcted or mulct, mulcting, mulcted or mulct. Pass, passed or past, passing, passed or past. Pay, paid or payed, paying, paid or payed. Pen, penned or pent, penning, penned or pent. (to coop,) Plead, pleaded or pled, pleading, pleaded or pled. Prove, proved, proving, proved or proven. Quit, quitted or quit, quitting, quitted or quit. Rap, rapped or rapt, rapping, rapped or rapt. Reave, reft or reaved, reaving, reft or reaved. Rive, rived, riving, riven or rived. Roast, roasted or roast, roasting, roasted or roast. Saw, sawed, sawing, sawed or sawn. Seethe, seethed or sod, seething, seethed or sodden. Shake, shook or shaked, shaking, shaken or shaked. Shape, shaped, shaping, shaped or shapen. Shave, shaved, shaving, shaved or shaven. Shear, sheared or shore, shearing, sheared or shorn. Shine, shined or shone, shining, shined or shone. Show, showed, showing, showed or shown. Sleep, slept or sleeped, sleeping, slept or sleeped. Slide, slid or slided, sliding, slidden, slid, or slided. Slit, slitted or slit, slitting, slitted or slit. Smell, smelled or smelt, smelling, smelled or smelt. Sow, sowed, sowing, sowed or sown. Speed, sped or speeded, speeding, sped or speeded. Spell, spelled or spelt, spelling, spelled or spelt. Spill, spilled or spilt, spilling, spilled or spilt. Split, split or splitted, splitting, split or splitted. Spoil, spoiled or spoilt, spoiling, spoiled or spoilt.

Stave, stove or staved, staving, stove or staved.

Stay, staid or stayed, staying, staid or stayed.

String, strung or stringed, stringing, strung or stringed. Strive, strived or strove, striving, strived or striven. Strow, strowed, strowing, strowed or strown. Sweat, sweated or sweat, sweating, sweated or sweat. Sweep, swept or sweeped, sweeping, swept or sweeped. Swell, swelled, swelling, swelled or swollen. Thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Throw, threw or throwed, throwing, thrown or throwed. Wake, waked or woke, waking, waked or woke. Wax, waxed, waxing, waxed or waxen. Weave, wove or weaved, weaving, woven or weaved. Wed, wedded or wed, wedding, wedded or wed. Weep, wept or weeped, weeping, wept or weeped. Wet, wet or wetted, wetting, wet or wetted. Whet, whetted or whet, whetting, whetted or whet. Wind, wound or winded, winding, wound or winded. Wont, wont or wonted, wonting, wont or wonted. Work, worked or wrought, working, worked or wrought. Wring, wringed or wrung, wringing, wringed or wrung.

Defective verbs. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, beware, ought, quoth. List of the defective verbs:

Present. Preterit. Beware, ------ Can, could. May, might. Methinks, methought. Must, must. Ought, ought. Shall, should. Will, would. Quoth, quoth. Wis, wist. Wit, wot.

A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain English grammar "The Grammar of English Grammars" by Goold Brown, 1851.

Adjectives and adverbs English/Adjectives and adverbs

Prepostions, conjunctions, and interjections Prepositions

A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts from each other. Although overlooked in common speech, prepositional phrases should not be placed at the end of a question: as,

"Who do I give this to?" This is incorrect; the preposition is at the end of the question. When corrected, the sentence is: "To whom do I give this?" Prepositional phrases can be placed at the end of a sentence, however. See the following example:

"She did not sign up for tennis".

Prepositions are generally placed before a noun or a pronoun: as,

"The paper lies before me on the desk."

Commonly used English prepositions include:

about above across after against along amid(st)

among(st) around at before behind below beneath

beside(s) between beyond by during except for

from in into of off on over

past through to toward(s) under(neath) until with(out)

See also: List of English prepositions

Some words are linked with their prepositions, e.g. compared with, similar to, and different from (possibly different than in USA).

Conjunctions A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as,

"Thou and he are happy, because you are good."--Murray.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive.

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as,

"He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as,

"Though he were dead, yet shall he live."--St. John's Gospel.

"Be not faithless, but believing."--Id.

The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as,

"John came neither eating nor drinking."--Matt., xi, 18.

"But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come unto you."--Ib., xii, 28.

The Copulatives; And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.

The Disjunctives; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.

The Corresponsives; Both--and; as--as; as--so; if--then; either--or; neither--nor; whether--or; though, or although--yet.

Interjections An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!

The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate:--

Of joy; eigh! hey! io! yeah! Of sorrow; oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay! or welaway! Of wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed! Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the

nominative absolute;) O! Of praise; well-done! good! bravo! Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what! Of pain or fear; oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear! Oh, no! Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph! fine! Of aversion; foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy! Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt! Of calling aloud; ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy! hey! Of exultation; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah!

Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee. Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail! Of calling to attention; ho! lo! la! law! look! see! behold! hark! Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum! shhh! zip it! Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what! Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum! Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh! halt! Of parting; farewell! adieu! good-bye! good-day! see ya! Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay! Of interrogating; eh? ha? hey? no?

References A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain English grammar "The Grammar of English Grammars" by Goold Brown, 1851.

Verbals Overview

Infinitives

Gerunds

Gerunds are nouns built from a verb with an '-ing' suffix. They can be used as the subject of a sentence, an object, or an object of preposition. They can also be used to complement a subject. Often, gerunds exist side-by-side with nouns that come from the same root but the gerund and the common noun have different shades of meaning. Examples: breath and breathing, knowledge and knowing. Yet, distinguishing between a gerund, and a verb can sometimes cause trouble (For example): SWIMMING has to be the best sport ever (swimming=gerund). I went swimming today (not a Gerund, because it is not an idea)

Examples of gerunds as the subject of a sentence are:

Backpacking is a rewarding pastime. Stretching can loosen up muscles. No smoking. (I.e., no smoking is allowed / you may not smoke here.)

As an object:

We all love to go bowling on the weekend. He loves eating chips.

An object of preposition:

They complained of hearing strange sounds from the next cabin. They sang about being eaten by bears to allay their fears.

And as a complement to a subject:

One of the most dangerous things to do on the lake is ice-skating.

Participles Participles are forms of verbs which are used as adjectives.

In present participles, you usually add 'ing' to the end. Therefore:

Talk becomes talking Jump becomes jumping Open becomes opening See becomes seeing

In past participles, you usually add 'ed' to the end. Therefore:

Talk becomes talked Jump becomes jumped Open becomes opened

However,

See becomes seen

Notice how the irregular verb see also did not have a regular past participle. More irregular verbs with irregular past participles are:

Be, been Break, broken Eat, eaten Slide, slid

As with most irregular words, there is no good 'general rule' which applies, but often 'ed' is replaced by 'en'.

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled.

English verbs, not defective, have severally three participles; which have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most accurately thus: the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may be conveniently called the First, the Second, and the Third.

The Imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

The Perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved, defended, terminated.

The Preperfect participle is that which takes the sign having, and implies a previous completion of the being, action, or passion: as, having loved, having seen, having written; having been loved, having been writing, having been written.

The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb; as, look, looking: when compound, it is formed by prefixing being to some other simple participle; as, being reading, being read, being completed.

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are either irregular or redundant.

The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when the compound is double, and having been to the perfect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple: as, having spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking.

Examples He is talking to her. They are jumping into the pool. We had eaten the pie.

Each of these cases has a verb acting as an adjective, describing the subject.

In case you were wondering, 'had' plus a past participle is called a past perfect, or in the United Kingdom, the pluperfect.

References A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain English grammar "The Grammar of English Grammars" by Goold Brown, 1851.

Punctuation

Commas Introductory phrases

Appositives

An appositive is an interjection into a sentence. While this part of a sentence may provide useful information, the thought expressed by the sentence will stand fully on its own without the appositive.

For example, in the following sentence "my best friend's collie" is an appositive:

The dog, my best friend's collie, caught the frisbee every time.

While the appositive gives the sentence additional information and character, it is not necessary to communicate the primary thought: namely, the dog caught the frisbee every time.

Appositives are always separated from the main body of the sentence by punctuation, usually commas, but sometimes--when greater seperation is desired--dashes are used.

Parenthetical expressions Series

Clarity

Omissions

References

The organization of this chapter was adapted from the 1977 edition of Building English Skills Handbook by McDougal, Litell & Company.

Apostrophes Apostrophe in a punctuative context: An apostrophe can be used to form posessives for nouns, indicate the omission of letters in a word for stylistic purposes or as a colloquial form of a word, and be used to indicate plurality.

Apostrophe, a figure of speech in which an absent person, a personified inanimate being, or an abstraction, is addressed as though present.

The term is derived from the Latin word apostrophus itself derived from the Greek words αποστροφος meaning accident of elision αποστρεφειν meaning a turning away.

This sense is maintained when a narrative or dramatic thread is broken in order to digress by speaking directly to someone not there, e.g., “Envy, be silent and attend!”—Alexander Pope, “On a Certain Lady at Court.”

Quotations English Quotations

In English quotations and direct speech is donated using quotation marks

" is used as an opening quotation mark

" is also used as a closing quotation mark

Converting direct speech follows a pattern in English which may differ to reported speech in other languages. This pattern concerns statements (there are different rules for imperatives and questions):

Note that when converting from Direct speech to Indirect speech you usually have to move the tense backwards:

Similarly there are some changes to be made to other words in the sentence. Because we are reporting what someone said in the past we must use other words to talk about the past, e.g. 'today' becomes 'that day', 'here' becomes 'there', 'next week' becomes 'the following week' and 'last week' becomes 'the previous week'. There are other similar changes too.

Other common punctuation marks

Period/Full stop ( . )

Exclamation mark/point ( ! ) and question mark ( ? )

Parentheses/Brackets

Dash and hyphen ( � ) ( – ) ( — ) ( ― ) Colon ( : )

Semicolon ( ; )

Less common typographical marks English/Less common typographical marks

Capitalization The use of capital letters in English is generally similar to in other Germanic and Romance languages with a few exceptions. The following list shows when you should use a capital letter:

Capitalization Names of people (e.g. John Smith)

Places (e.g. London, Austria, Europe, Pluto)

Organizations and models of products(e.g. Wikipedia, Ford Fiesta)

Beginning of every sentence

Names of languages (e.g. I speak English)

Nationalities (e.g. I am Irish)

Names of courses (e.g. I am studying Applied Mathematics)

Titles (e.g. Dear Sir Cliff Richard)

First Person Singular (e.g. I)

Days (e.g. Wednesday), Months (e.g. September) and Public Holidays (e.g. Easter)

Religions (e.g. Islam) and Ethnic Groups (e.g. Aboriginal people)

Titles of books, magazines (e.g. Hello magazine), films and songs (e.g. Let it Be)

Notes It's generally not acceptable to use capital letters in the middle of words (unless it's part of a name) although this is quite common on the Internet. It's not necessary to capitalise styles of music, adjectives or the name of companies if they themselves don't use a capital letter (e.g. eBay) although the first letter will often be capitalized on the Internet due to technical reasons.

Spelling Sound to spelling correspondences

The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "•" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as 'au' for the ah sound in laugh.

Tense Changes

Direct Speech Reported Speech

"I am from England"

He said he was from England

"I am going to Italy"

He said he was going to Italy

"I have read it" He said he had read it.

Tense Changes

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present Simple Past Simple

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Simple Past Perfect or Past Simple

Will + Infinitive Would + Infinitive

Be + Going to Was/Were + Going to

Examples

"I am here" Reported Speech

"I am from England" He said he was there

"I will return next week"

He said he would return the following week

"I have worked here since last week"

He said he had worked there since the previous week

Consonants

IPA spelling example

/p/ p, pp, ph, pe, gh pill, happy, Phuket, tape, hiccough

/b/ b, bb, bh, be, p (in some dialects) bit, rabbit, Bhutan, tribe, thespian

/t/ t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct, te ten, bitter, topped, ptomaine, thyme, ctenoid, hate

/d/ d, dd, ed, dh, de, th (in some dialects) dive, ladder, failed, dharma, made, them

/g/ g, gg, gue, gh, gu go, stagger, catalogue, ghost, guilt

/k/ c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, q, cq, cu, que, kk, kh, ke

cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, Iraq, acquaint, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan, make

/m/ m, mm, mb, mn, mh, me mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, lame

/n/ n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, ne, mn, ng (in some dialects)

nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, vane, mnemonic, fighting

/ŋ/ ng, n, ngue, ngh sing, link, tongue, Singh

/ɹ/ r, rr, wr, rh, rrh, re ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrhea, more

/f/ f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u, th (in some dialects)

fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, BR lieutenant, thin

/v/ v, vv, f, ve vine, savvy, of, have

/θ/ th, chth, phth, tth thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew

/ð/ th, the them, breathe

/s/ s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch, cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects)

song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen

/z/ s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects)

has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity

/ʃ/ sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc

shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schist, crescendo

/ʒ/ si, s, g, z, j, zh, ti, sh (in some dialects)

division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, Zhytomyr, equation, Pershmg

/tʃ/ ch, t, tch, ti, c, cz, tsch chin, nature, batch, mention, cello, Czech, Deutschmark

/dʒ/ g, j, dg, d, di, gi, ge, dj, gg magic, jump, ledger, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, Djibouti, suggest

/h/ h, wh, j, ch he, whom, fajita, chutzpah

/j/ y, i, j, ll yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla

/l/ l, ll, lh, le line, hall, Lhasa, rule

/w/ w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects) we, queen, choir, Ouija board, what

/ʍ/ wh (in some dialects) wheel

Vowels

IPA spelling example

/i/

e, y, ee, ea, e•e, i•e, ie, ei, ei•e, ey, ae, ay, oe, eo, is, eip, ie▪e, i, ea▪e, it, eigh, ois

be, city, bee, beach, cede, machine, field, deceit, deceive, key, Caesar, quay, amoeba, people, debris, receipt, believe, ski, leave, esprit, Raleigh, chamois

/ɪ/ i, i•e, a•e, y, ie, ui, ei, ee, e, ia, u, o, u▪e, eig, ie•e

bit, give, damage, myth, mischief, build, counterfeit, been, pretty, carriage, busy, women, minute, sovereign, sieve

/u/ oo, u, o, u•e, ou, ew, ue, o•e, ui, eu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, ault, oup

tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver, canoe, through, two, Sioux, US lieutenant, Sault Sainte Marie, coup

/ʊ/ u, oo, ou, o, w full, look, should, wolf, cwm

/ei/ a, a•e, ai, ay, eigh, ea, ei, ey, au, et, er, ee, aigh, ie, eig, eg

paper, rate, rain, pay, eight, steak, veil, obey, gauge, ballet, dossier, matinee, straight, US lingerie, reign, thegn

/ə/ a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, gh

another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, BR borough, Edinburgh

/o(u)/ o, o•e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough

so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharoah, furlough

/ɛ/ e, ea, a, ai, ie, eo, u, ae, ay, ei, ue, eb, eg

met, weather, many, said, friend, jeopardy, bury, aesthetic, says, heifer, guess, debt, phlegm

/æ/ a, au, ai, a▪e, al, ag, ach hand, laugh, plaid, have, salmon, diaphragm, drachm

/ʌ/ u, o, ou, o•e, oo, oe sun, son, touch, come, flood, does

/ɔ/ a, au, aw, ough, augh, oa, al, uo

fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, broad, walk, BR fluorine

/ɑ/ o, a, eau, ach lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht

/ai/ i•e, i, y, igh, ie, ei, eigh, uy, ai, ey, ye, eye, y▪e, ae, ais, is, ig, ic, ay

fine, Christ, try, high, tie, eidos, height, buy, ailurophobia, geyser, dye, eye, type, maestro, aisle, isle, sign, indict, tayra

/ɑr/ ar, er, ear, a•e, aa car, sergeant, heart, are, bazaar

/εr/ er, ar, ere, are, aire, eir, air, aa

stationery, stationary, where, ware, millionaire, heir, hair, Aaron

/ɔɪ/ oi, oy, aw, uoy oy•e foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle

/aʊ/ ou, ow, ough, au out, now, bough, tau

/ɚ/ er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo

fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, courage, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel

/ju/ u, u•e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew

music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects, see Yod dropping

Syntax

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.

The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.

The government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.

The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.

A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as,

"Reward sweetens labour."

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,--the attribute, or finite VERB,--and the case put after, or the OBJECT governed by the verb: as,

"Crimes deserve punishment."

The other or subordinate parts depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary adjuncts; as,

"High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments."

Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.

A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as,

"David and Jonathan loved each other."

"If thine enemy hunger."

"Do violence to no man."

"Am I not an apostle?"--1 Cor., ix, 1.

"What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"--HOOKE: Mur. Seq., p. 71.

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as,

"Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who shall tell thee words, whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved."--Acts, xi, 13.

"The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."--HAYLEY: Mur. Seq., p. 250.

A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as,

"If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."--Prov., xxv, 21.

A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as,

"By the means appointed."

"To be plain with you."

"Having loved his own."

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing.

The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: as,

"At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged elm."

"See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, The sot a hero, lunatic a king."--Pope's Essay, Ep. ii, l. 268.

Exception.--The definite article used intensively.

The definite article used intensively, may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as,

"A land which was the mightiest."--Byron.

"The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity."--Dr. Johnson.

"He chooses it the rather"--Cowper.

Exception.--The indefinite article used to give a collective meaning.

The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number; as,

"Thou hast a few names even in Sardis."--Rev., iii, 4.

"There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory."--Spectator, No. 468.

"The centurion commanded a hundred men."--Webster.

A noun which is the subject of a finite verb. A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case: as,

"The Pharisees also, who were covetous, heard all these things; and they derided him."--Luke, xvi, 14.

"But where the meekness of self-knowledge veileth the front of self-respect, there look thou for the man whom none can know but they will honour."--Book of Thoughts, p. 66.

"Dost thou mourn Philander's fate? I know thou sayst it: says thy life the same?"--Young, N. ii, l. 22.

The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb; as,

"Peace dawned upon his mind."--Johnson.

"What is written in the law?"--Bible.

But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed after it, or after the first auxiliary:

Exception.--A question without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case.

When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case; as,

"Shall mortals be implacable?"--Hooke.

"What art thou doing?"--Id.

"How many loaves have ye?"--Bible.

"Are they Israelites? so am I."--Ib.

Exception.--A verb in the imperative mood.

When the verb is in the imperative mood; as,

"Go thou"

"Come ye"

But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood; as,

"Philip saith unto him, Come and see"--John, i, 46.

"And he saith unto them, Be not affrighted."--Mark, xvi, 5.

Exception.--An earnest wish, or other strong feeling.

When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed; as,

"May she be happy!"

"How were we struck!"--Young.

"Not as the world giveth, give I unto you."--Bible.

Exception.--A supposition made without the conjunction if.

When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as,

"Had they known it;" for, "If they had known it."

"Were it true;" for, "If it were true."

"Could we draw by the covering of the grave;" for, "If we could draw," &c.

Exception.--Neither or nor precedes the verb.

When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb; as,

"This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless."

"Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it."--Gen., iii, 3.

Exception.--Some word or words placed before the verb.

When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as,

"Here am I."

"Narrow is the way."--

"Silver and gold have I none; but such as I have, give I thee."--Bible.

Exception.--A verb which has no regimen.

When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; as,

"Echo the mountains round."--Thomson.

"After the Light Infantry marched the Grenadiers, then followed the Horse."--Buchanan's Syntax, p. 71.

Exception.--The verbs which introduce the parts of a dialogue.

When the verbs, say, answer, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue; as,

"'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who art thou?' 'My name,' replied the stranger, 'is Hassan.'"--Dr. Johnson.

Exception.--An adverb which precedes the verb.

When the adverb there precedes the verb; as,

"There lived a man."--Montgomery.

"In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound."--Owen.

This use of there, the general introductory adverb of place, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality; as,

"Because there was not much water there."--John, iii, 23.

A noun used to explain a preceding noun. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case: as,

"But it is really I, your old friend and neighbour., Piso, late a dweller upon the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of Palmyra."--Zenobia.

"But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."--Barbauld.

A noun in the possessive case. A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed: as,

"God's mercy prolongs man's life."--Allen.

"Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine; Touched by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine."--Pope.

The possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing noun, expressed or understood; as,

"All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace."--Pope.

"Lady! be thine (i. e., thy walk) the Christian's walk."--Chr. Observer.

"Some of AEschylus's [plays] and Euripides's plays are opened in this manner."--Blair's Rhet., p. 459.

And in this order one possessive sometimes governs an other: as,

"Peter's wife's mother;"

"Paul's sister's son."--Bible.

But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some exceptions: as,

Exception.--The governing noun which has an adjective.

When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene; as,

"Flora's earliest smells."--Milton.

"Of man's first disobedience."--Id.

In the following phrase from the Spectator,

"Of Will's last night's lecture,"

it is not very clear, whether Will's is governed by night's or by lecture; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose the latter; because, on this supposition, two possessives, each having the sign, will be governed by one noun.

Exception.--The possessive is affirmed or denied.

When the possessive is affirmed or denied; as,

"The book is mine, and not John's."

But here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place; and, in some such instances, it must be, else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word: as,

"Ye are Christ's [disciples, or people]; and Christ is God's" [son].--St. Paul.

Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable.

Exception.--The case which occurs without the sign.

When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by connexion; as,

"In her brother Absalom's house."--Bible.

"David and Jonathan's friendship."--Allen.

"Adam and Eve's morning hymn."--Dr. Ash.

"Behold the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's thy God."--Deut.,, x, 14.

"For peace and quiet's sake."--Cowper.

"To the beginning of King James the First's reign."--Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 32.

A noun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case: as,

"I found her assisting him"

"Having finished the work, I submit it."

"Preventing fame, misfortune lends him wings, And Pompey's self his own sad story brings." --Rowe's Lucan, B. viii, l. 66.

A noun put after a verb or participle not transitive. A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing: as,

"It is I."

"These are they."

"The child was named John."

"It could not be he."

"The Lord sitteth King forever."--Psalms, xxix, 10.

"What war could ravish, commerce could bestow, And he return'd a friend, who came a foe."--Pope, Ep. iii, l. 206.

A noun made the object of a preposition. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case: as,

"The temple of fame stands upon the grave: the flame that burns upon its altars, is kindled from the ashes of great men"--Hazlitt.

"Life is His gift, from whom whate'er life needs, With ev'ry good and perfect gift, proceeds."--Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95.

A noun or a pronoun put absolute in the nominative. A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word: as,

"He failing, who shall meet success?"

"Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"--Zech., i, 5.

"Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working?"--1 Cor., ix, 6.

"Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God?"--Rom., ix, 20.

"O rare we!"--Cowper.

"Miserable they!"--Thomson.

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as,

"Miserable comforters are ye all"--Job, xvi, 2.

"No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers of an immortal spirit."--Blair.

"Whatever faction's partial notions are, No hand is wholly innocent in war." --Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 191.

Exception.--A phrase which is made the subject of an intervening verb.

An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of an intervening verb; as,

"To insult the afflicted, is impious"--Dillwyn.

"That he should refuse, is not strange"

"To err is human."

Murray says, "Human belongs to its substantive 'nature' understood."--Gram., p. 233. From this I dissent.

Exception.--Combined arithmetical numbers.

In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates to an other, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun; as,

"One thousand four hundred and fifty-six men."

"Six dollars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every five days' service."

"In the one hundred and twenty-second year."

"One seven times more than it was wont to be heated."--Daniel, iii, 19.

Exception.--An infinitive or a participle denoting action in the abstract.

With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as,

"To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe."--Hawkesworth.

"Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold."--Crabb's Synonymes.

"Indeed, the main secret of being sublime, is to say great things in few and plain words."--Hiley's Gram., p. 215.

"Concerning being free from sin in heaven, there is no question."--Barclay's Works, iii, 437.

Better: "Concerning freedom from sin," &c.

Exception.--Adjectives substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns.

Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns; (perhaps, in most instances, elliptically, like Greek neuters;) as,

"The sensations of sublime and beautiful are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries."--Blair's Rhet., p. 47.

"The faults opposite to the sublime are chiefly two: the frigid, and the bombast"--Ib., p. 44. Better.

"The faults opposite to sublimity, are chiefly two; frigidity and bombast."

"Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and cruel."--Brown's Estimate, ii, 26.

"In a word, agreeable and disagreeable are qualities of the objects we perceive," &c.--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 99.

"Polished, or refined, was the idea which the author had in view."--Blair's Rhet., p. 219.

An adjective is placed immediately before its noun. The adjective, in English, is generally placed immediately before its noun; as,

"Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?"--Beattie.

The adjectives which relate to pronouns, follow them. Those adjectives which relate to pronouns, most commonly follow them; as,

"They left me weary on a grassy turf."--Milton.

Exception.--Convenience of emphasis.

But to both these general rules there are many exceptions; for the position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances, not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis: as,

"And Jehu said, Unto which of all us?"--2 Kings, ix, 5.

Exception.--Other words depend on the adjective.

In the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to which it relates: When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify it; as,

"A mind conscious of right,"

"A wall three feet thick,"

"A body of troops fifty thousand strong."

Exception.--The quality results from an action.

When the quality results from an action, or receives its application through a verb or participle; as,

"Virtue renders life happy."

"He was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza."--1 Kings, xvi, 9.

"All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, and aloes bitter."--Burke, on Taste, p. 38.

"God made thee perfect, not immutable."--Milton.

Exception.--The quality excites admiration.

When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; as,

"Goodness infinite,"

"Wisdom unsearchable."--Murray.

Exception.--A verb comes between the adjective and the noun.

When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun; as,

"Truth stands independent of all external things."--Burgh.

"Honour is not seemly for a fool."--Solomon.

Exception.--The adjective is formed by means of the prefix.

When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a; as, afraid, alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed, askew. To these may be added a few other words; as, else, enough, extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant.

Exception.--The adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle.

When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle; as,

"A queen regnant,"

"The prince regent,"

"The heir apparent,"

"A lion, not rampant, but couchant or dormant"

"For the time then present."

Exception.--Poetry.

In some instances, the adjective may either precede or follow its noun; and the writer may take his choice, in respect to its position: as, in poetry--provided the sense be obvious; as,

"Wilt thou to the isles Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, Fly in the train of Autumn?"--Akenside, P. of I., Book i, p. 27.

"Wilt thou fly With laughing Autumn to the Atlantic isles, And range with him th' Hesperian field?"--Id. Bucke's Gram., p. 120.

Exception.--Technical usage.

When technical usage favours one order, and common usage an other; as, "A notary public," or, "A public notary;"--"The heir presumptive," or, "The presumptive heir."

Exception.--An adverb precedes the adjective.

When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being infinitely wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical.

Exception.--Several adjectives belong to the same noun.

When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous woman." Here again, Murray, Comly, and others, approve only the former order; but I judge the latter to be quite as good.

Exception.--The adjective is emphatic.

When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last; as,

"Weighty is the anger of the righteous."--Bible.

"Blessed are the pure in heart."--Ib.

"Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his course."--1 Esdras, iv, 34.

"The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the country."--Goldsmith's Essays, p. 151.

Exception.--Adjective and its noun follow a verb as parts of the predicate.

When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the arrangement is fixed by the sense intended: thus there is a great difference between the assertions, "We call the boy good," and, "We call the good boy"

Exception.--An adjective is equivalent to an adverb.

By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, "In particular;" that is, "In a particular manner;" equivalent to particularly. So "in general" is equivalent to generally. It has already been suggested, that, in parsing, the scholar should here supply the ellipsis.

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: as,

"This is the friend of whom I spoke; he has just arrived."

"This is the book which I bought; it is an excellent work."

"Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too."--Cowper.

"Speak thou, whose thoughts at humble peace repine, Shall Wolsey's wealth with Wolsey's end be thine?"--Dr. Johnson.

Exception.--A pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite.

When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite, or unknown to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable; because the person, number, and gender, are rather assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent: as,

"I do not care who knows it."--Steele.

"Who touched me? Tell me who it was."

"We have no knowledge how, or by whom, it is inhabited."--ABBOT: Joh. Dict.

Exception.--Creatures which are not distinguishable with regard to sex.

The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex; as,

"Which is the real friend to the child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only its health, resists its importunities?"--Opis.

"He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view it"--Murray's Gram., p. 301.

"The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the night."--Bucke's Gram., p. 52.

Exception.--The pronoun it.

The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent, and is sometimes a mere expletive, and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb; as,

"Whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy."--Chalmers.

"Seeking to lord it over God's heritage."--The Friend, vii, 253.

"It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink."--Prov., xxxi, 4.

"Having no temptation to it, God cannot act unjustly without defiling his nature."--Brown's Divinity, p. 11.

"Come, and trip it as you go, On the light fantastic toe."--Milton.

Exception.--A singular antecedent with the adjective many.

A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause; as,

"Hard has been the fate of many a great genius, that while they have conferred immortality on others, they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity."--Welwood's Pref. to Rowe's Lucan.

"In Hawick twinkled many a light, Behind him soon they set in night."--W. Scott.

Exception.--A plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular.

When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it does not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb; as,

"We [Lindley Murray] have followed those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribution."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 29.

"We shall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it."--Ib.

"My lord, you know I love you"--Shakspeare.

Exception.--The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent.

The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense, because it takes it in an other; as,

"I have perused Mr. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, and find it a very laborious, learned, and useful Work."--Tho. Knipe, D. D.

"Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one."--Smith's New Gram., p. 8.

"Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male."--Ib.

"The Utica Sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous."--Evening Post.

(Better: "The editor of the Utica Sentinel says, he has not heard," &c.)

"There is little Benjamin with their ruler."--Psalms, lxviii, 27.

"Her end when emulation misses, She turns to envy, stings, and hisses."--Swift's Poems, p. 415.

Nominatives.

Nominatives: (i.e., words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though mostly transposed:)

"Who art thou?"--Bible.

"What were we?"--Ib.

"Do not tell them who I am."

"Let him be who he may, he is not the honest fellow that he seemed."

"The general conduct of mankind is neither what it was designed, nor what it ought to be."

Nominatives absolute.

"There are certain bounds to imprudence, which being transgressed, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things."--Bp. Butler.

"Which being so, it need not be any wonder, why I should."--Walker's Particles, Pref., p. xiv.

"He offered an apology, which not being admitted, he became submissive."--Murray's Key, p. 202.

This construction of the relative is a Latinism, and very seldom used by the best English writers.

Possessives.

"The chief man of the island, whose name was Publius."--Acts.

"Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none can escape."--Dr. Johnson.

"To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is light."--Steele.

Objectives.

"Those whom she persuaded."--Dr. Johnson.

"The cloak that I left at Troas."--St. Paul.

"By the things which he suffered."--Id.

"A man whom there is reason to suspect."

"What are we to do?"--Burke.

"Love refuses nothing that love sends."--Gurnall.

"The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality; to inculcate which, is to be the design of his work."--Blair's Rhet., p. 421.

"Whomsoever you please to appoint."--Lowth.

"Whatsover [sic--KTH] he doeth, shall prosper."--Bible.

"What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think before God."--Sibs.

"Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do?"--Gen., xviii, 32.

"Shall I hide from Abraham what I am going to do?"

"Call imperfection what thou fanciest such."--Pope.

Objectives: (i.e., pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs, though they stand before them:)

"He is not the man that I took him to be."

"Whom did you suppose me to be?"

"If the lad ever become what you wish him to be."

"To whom shall we go?"--Bible.

"The laws by which the world is governed, are general."--Bp. Butler.

"Whom he looks upon as his defender."--Addison.

"That secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to."--Id.

"I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of whom I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy instance."--Steele.

"Grammar is the solid foundation upon which all other science rests."--Buchanan's Eng. Synt., p. xx.

In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently understood; as,

"The man [whom] I trust."--Cowper.

"Here is the letter [which] I received." So in the following sentences:

"This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are these the Gods they worship? Is this the woman you saw?"--Ash's Gram., p. 96.

This ellipsis seems allowable only in the familiar style. In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express this relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity; as,

"The next error [that] I shall mention [,] is a capital one."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 157.

"It is little [that] we know of the divine perfections."--Scougal, p. 94.

"The faith [which] we give to memory, may be thought, on a superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as that [which] we give to the immediate impressions of sense."--Campbell's Rhet., p. 53.

"We speak that [which] we do know, and testify that [which] we have seen."--John, iii, 11.

The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always inelegant; as,

"This is the worst thing [that] could happen."

"There were several things [which] brought it upon me."--Pilgrim's Progress, p. 162.

The latter ellipsis may occur after but or than, and it is also sometimes allowed in poetry; as, [There is]

"No person of reflection but [who] must be sensible, that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eye-witness, than when heard at second hand."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257.

"In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."--Pope, on Man.

"Abuse on all he lov'd, or lov'd him, spread."--Id., to Arbuthnot.

"There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools."--Id., to Augustus.

A pronoun must agree with a collective noun. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: as,

"The council were divided in their sentiments."

"The Christian world are beginning to awake out of their slumber."--C. Simeon.

"Whatever Adam's posterity lost through him, that and more they gain in Christ."--J. Phipps.

"To this, one pathway gently-winding leads, Where march a train with baskets on their heads."--Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, l. 657.

A pronoun which has two or more antecedents connected by and. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as,

"Minos and Thales sung to the lyre the laws which they composed."--STRABO: Blair's Rhet., p. 379.

"Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death they were not divided."--2 Sam., i, 23.

"Rhesus and Rhodius then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down the stony hills."--Pope, Il., B. xii, l. 17.

Exception.--Two or more antecedents describe one person or thing.

When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural pronoun; as,

"This great philosopher and statesman continued in public life till his eighty-second year."

"The same Spirit, light, and life, which enlighteneth, also sanctifieth, and there is not an other."--Penington.

"My Constantius and Philetus confesseth me two years older when I writ it."--Cowley's Preface.

"Remember these, O Jacob and Israel! for thou art my servant."--Isaiah, xliv, 21.

"In that strength and cogency which renders eloquence powerful."--Blair's Rhet., p. 252.

Exception.--Two antecedents are emphatically distinguished.

When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural pronoun; as,

"The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office."

"The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward."

"Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake."

"It is the sense in which the word is used, and not the letters of which it is composed, that determines what is the part of speech to which it belongs."--Cobbett's Gram., 130.

Exception.--Two or more antecedents are preceded by each, every, or no.

When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural pronoun; as,

"Every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind."

"It is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended your government."--Junius, Let. xxxv.

But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural; as,

"Each minister and each church act according to their own impressions."--Dr. M'Cartee.

A pronoun which has two or more antecedents connected by or. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as;

"James or John will favour us with his company."

"Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries."

"What virtue or what mental grace, But men unqualified and base Will boast it their possession?"--Cowper, on Friendship.

Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative. Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number: as,

"I know; thou knowst, or knowest; he knows, or knoweth"

"The bird flies; the birds fly."

"Our fathers' fertile fields by slaves are till'd, And Rome with dregs of foreign lands is fill'd." --Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 600.

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number: as,

"The council were divided."

"The college of cardinals are the electors of the pope."--Murray's Key, p. 176.

"Quintus Curtius relates, that a number of them were drowned in the river Lycus."--Home's Art of Thinking, p. 125.

"Yon host come learn'd in academic rules." --Rowe's Lucan, vii, 401.

"While heaven's high host on hallelujahs live." --Young's N. Th., iv, 378.

A verb which has two or more nominatives connected by and. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as,

"True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied."--Blair's Rhet., p. 11.

"Aggression and injury in no case justify retaliation."--Wayland's Moral Science, p. 406.

"Judges and senates have been bought for gold, Esteem and love were never to be sold."--Pope.

Exception.--The nominatives serve merely to describe one person or thing.

When two nominatives connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural verb; as,

"Immediately comes a hue and cry after a gang of thieves."--L'Estrange.

"The hue and cry of the country pursues him."--Junius, Letter xxiii.

"Flesh and blood [i. e. man, or man's nature,] hath not revealed it unto thee."--Matt., xvi, 17.

"Descent and fall to us is adverse."--Milton, P. L., ii, 76.

"This philosopher and poet was banished from his country."

"Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually provided for us."--Gurney's Essays, p. 386.

"Let us then declare what great things our God and Saviour has done for us."--Dr. Scott, on Luke viii.

"Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid unto them."--Ezra, iv, 20.

"Whose icy current and compulsive course Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on."--Shakspeare.

Exception.--The nominatives are emphatically distinguished.

When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural verb; as,

"Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned."--Goldsmith.

"Consanguinity, and not affinity, is the ground of the prohibition."--Webster's Essays, p. 324.

"But a modification, and oftentimes a total change, takes place."--Maunder.

"Somewhat, and, in many circumstances, a great deal too, is put upon us."--Butler's Analogy, p. 108.

"Disgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the certain consequence of attempting the latter."--Robertson's America, i, 434.

"Ay, and no too, was no good divinity."--Shakespeare.

"Love, and love only, is the loan for love."--Young.

Exception.--The nominatives are preceded by each, every, or no.

When two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural verb; as,

"When no part of their substance, and no one of their properties, is the same."--Bp. Butler.

"Every limb and feature appears with its respective grace."--Steele.

"Every person, and every occurrence, is beheld in the most favourable light."--Murray's Key, p. 190.

"Each worm, and each insect, is a marvel of creative power."

"Whose every look and gesture was a joke To clapping theatres and shouting crowds."--Young.

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest; as,

"The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof."--Murray's Exercises, p. 36.

"Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame."--Milton.

"------Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love."--Thomson.

A verb which has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as,

"Fear or jealousy affects him."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 133.

"Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: creation sleeps."--Young.

"Neither character nor dialogue was yet understood."--L. Murray's Gram., p. 151.

"The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks, Safest and seemliest by her husband stays."--Milton, P. L., ix, 267.

The infinitive mood is governed by the preposition to. The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb: as,

"I desire TO learn."--Dr. Adam.

"Of me the Roman people have many pledges, which I must strive, with my utmost endeavours, TO preserve, TO defend, TO confirm, and TO redeem."--Duncan's Cicero, p. 41.

"What if the foot, ordain'd the dust TO tread, Or hand TO toil, aspir'd TO be the head?"--Pope.

An infinitive preceded by for.

Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb, yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech, or even to an other infinitive. The preposition to being its only and almost universal index, we seldom find any other preposition put before this; unless the word about, in such a situation, is a preposition, as I incline to think it is. Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well as to; as,

"I went up to Jerusalem for to worship."--Acts, xxiv, 11.

"What went ye out for to see?"--Luke, vii, 26.

"And stood up for to read."--Luke, iv, 16.

Here modern usage rejects the former preposition: the idiom is left to the uneducated. But it seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech, except the article: as,

An infinitive subjoined to a noun.

"If there is any precept to obtain felicity."--Hawkesworth.

"It is high time to awake out of sleep."--Rom., xiii, 11.

"To flee from the wrath to come."--Matt., iii, 7.

To an adjective; as,

"He seemed desirous to speak, yet unwilling to offend."--Hawkesworth.

"He who is the slowest to promise, is the quickest to perform."--Art of Thinking, p. 35.

An infinitive subjoined to a pronoun.

"I discovered him to be a scholar."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 166.

"Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar?"--Luke, xx, 22.

"Let me desire you to reflect impartially."--BLAIR: Murray's Eng. Reader, p. 77.

"Whom hast thou then or what t' accuse?"--Milton, P. L., iv, 67.

An infinitive subjoined to a finite verb.

"Then Peter began to rebuke him."--Matt., xvi, 22.

"The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost."--Luke, xix, 10.

An infinitive subjoined to an other infinitive.

"To go to enter into Egypt."--Jer., xli, 17.

"We are not often willing to wait to consider."--J. Abbott.

"For what had he to do to chide at me?"--Shak.

An infinitive subjoined to a participle.

"Still threatening to devour me."--Milton.

"Or as a thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich burgher."--Id.

To an adverb; as, "She is old enough to go to school."

"I know not how to act."--Nutting's Gram., p. 106.

"Tell me when to come, and where to meet you."

"He hath not where to lay his head."

An infinitive subjoined to a conjunction.

"He knows better than to trust you."

"It was so hot as to melt these ornaments."

"Many who praise virtue, do no more than praise it."--Dr. Johnson.

An infinitive subjoined to a preposition.

"I was about to write."--Rev., x, 4.

"Not for to hide it in a hedge."--Burns's Poems, p. 42.

"Amatum iri, To be about to be loved."--Adam's Gram., p. 95.

An infinitive subjoined to an interjection.

"O to forget her!"--Young's Night Thoughts.

The uses of the infinitive.

The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation, without person or number, and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. But, in most instances, it is not without limitation of the being, action, or passion, to some particular person or persons, thing or things, that are said, supposed, or denied, to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is taken abstractly, and has some resemblance to a noun: because it then suggests the being, action, or passion alone: though, even then, the active infinitive may still govern the objective case; and it may also be easy to imagine to whom or to what the being, action, or passion, naturally pertains. The uses of the infinitive are so many and various, that it is no easy matter to classify them accurately. The following are unquestionably the chief of the things for which it may stand:

An infinitive stands for the supplement to an other verb.

For the supplement to an other verb, to complete the sense; as,

"Loose him, and let him go."--John, xi, 44.

"They that go to seek mixed wine."--Prov., xxiii, 30.

"His hands refuse to labour."--Ib., xxi, 25.

"If you choose to have those terms."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 374.

"How our old translators first struggled to express this."--Ib., ii, 456.

"To any one who will please to examine our language."--Ib., ii, 444.

"They are forced to give up at last."--Ib., ii, 375.

"Which ought to be done."--Ib., ii, 451.

"Which came to pass."--Acts, xi, 28.

"I dare engage to make it out."--Swift.

An infinitive stands for the purpose.

For the purpose, or end, of that to which it is added; as,

"Each has employed his time and pains to establish a criterion."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 374.

"I shall not stop now, to assist in their elucidation."--Ib., ii, 75.

"Our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known."--Ib., ii, 74.

[A] "TOOL is some instrument taken up to work with."--Ib., ii, 145.

"Labour not to be rich."--Prov., xxiii, 4.

"I flee unto thee to hide me."--Ps., cxliii, 9.

"Evil shall hunt the violent man to overthrow him."--Ib., cxl, 11.

An infinitive stands for the object of an affection or passion.

For the object of an affection or passion; as,

"He loves to ride."

"I desire to hear her speak again."--Shale.

"If we wish to avoid important error."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 3.

"Who rejoice to do evil."--Prov., ii, 14.

"All agreeing in earnestness to see him."--Shak.

"Our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond."--Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335.

An infinitive stands for the cause of an affection or passion.

For the cause of an affection or passion; as,

"I rejoice to hear it."

"By which I hope to have laid a foundation,"--Blair's Rhet., p. 34.

"For he made me mad, to see him shine so brisk, and smell so sweet."--Beauties of Shak., p. 118.

"Thou didst eat strange flesh, which some did die to look on."--Ib., p. 182.

"They grieved to see their best allies at variance."--Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 165.

An infinitive stands for the subject of a proposition.

For the subject of a proposition, or the chief term in such subject; as,

"To steal is sinful."

"To do justice and judgement, is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice."--Prov., xxi, 3.

"To do RIGHT, is, to do that which is ordered to be done."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 7.

"To go to law to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than of love to justice."--Seattle's Mor. Sci., i, 177.

An infinitive stands for the predicate of a proposition.

For the predicate of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate; as,

"To enjoy is to obey."--Pope.

"The property of rain is to wet, and fire, to burn."--Beauties of Shak., p. 15.

"To die is to be banished from myself."--Ib., p. 82.

"The best way is, to slander Valentine."--Ib., p. 83.

"The highway of the upright is to depart from evil."--Prov., xvi, 17.

An infinitive stands for a coming event.

For a coming event, or what will be; as,

"A mutilated structure soon to fall."--Cowper.

"He being dead, and I speedily to follow him."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 111.

"She shall rejoice in time to come."--Prov., xxxi, 25.

"Things present, or things to come."--1 Cor., iii, 22.

An infinitive stands for a necessary event.

For a necessary event, or what ought to be; as,

"It is to be remembered."

"It is never to be forgotten."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 2.

"An oversight much to be deplored."--Ib., ii, 460.

"The sign is not to be used by itself, or to stand alone; but is to be joined to some other term."--Ib., ii, 372.

"The Lord's name is to be praised."--Ps., cxiii, 3.

An infinitive stands for what is previously suggested.

For what is previously suggested by another word; as,

"I have faith to believe."

"The glossarist did well here not to yield to his inclination."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 329.

"It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord."--Ps., xcii, 1.

"It is as sport to a fool to do mischief."--Prov., x, 23.

"They have the gift to know it."--Shak.

"We have no remaining occupation but to take care of the public."--Art of Thinking, p. 52.

An infinitive stands for a term of comparison or measure.

For a term of comparison or measure; as,

"He was so much affected as to weep."

"Who could do no less than furnish him."--Tooke's D. P., ii, 408.

"I shall venture no farther than to explain the nature and convenience of these abbreviations."--Ib., ii, 439.

"I have already said enough to show what sort of operation that is."--Ib., ii, 358.

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition to: as,

"If he bade thee depart, how darest thou stay?"

"I dare not let my mind be idle as I walk in the streets."--Cotton Mather.

"Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, Shall neither hear thee sigh, nor see thee weep." --Pope's Homer.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed by prepositions. The true or regular syntax of the English Participle, as a part of speech distinct from the verb, and not converted into a noun or an adjective, is twofold; being sometimes that of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and sometimes that of government, or the state of being governed by a preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an adjective; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive mood: for the participle after a preposition is governed as a participle, and not as a case. To these two constructions, some add three others less regular, using the participle sometimes as the subject of a finite verb, sometimes as the object of a transitive verb, and sometimes as a nominative after a neuter verb. Of these five constructions, the first two, are the legitimate uses of this part of speech; the others are occasional, modern, and of doubtful propriety.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions: as,

"Elizabeth's tutor, at one time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato."--Hume.

"I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and failing, than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it."--Dr. Johnson.

"Now, rais'd on Tyre's sad ruins, Pharaoh's pride Soar'd high, his legions threat'ning far and wide."--Dryden.

Exception.--A participle relates to a preceding phrase.

A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which it forms no part; as,

"I then quit the society; to withdraw and leave them to themselves, APPEARING to me a duty."

"It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we have heard his being continued in office DEFENDED."--Professors' Reasons, p. 23.

(Better, "his continuance in office," or, "the continuing of him in office.")

"But ever to do ill our sole delight, As being the contrary to his high will."--Milton.

Exception.--A participle is taken abstractly.

With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is sometimes also taken abstractly; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as,

"To seem compelled, is disagreeable."

"To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible."

"It must be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."--Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 323.

"To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill, Doing and suffering, his unquestion'd will." --Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88.

Exception.--A participle used as a substitute for the infinitive mood.

The participle is often used irregularly in English, as a substitute for the infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity; as,

"I saw him enter, or entering"--Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 230.

"He is afraid of trying, or to try."--Ibid.

"Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous drinking:"--Collier's Tablet of Cebes.

"It will be but ill venturing thy soul upon that:"--Bunyan's Law and Grace, p. 27.

"Describing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language:"--Kames, El. of Crit., i, 93.

"In English likewise it deserves remarking:"--Harris's Hermes, p. 232.

"Bishop Atterbury deserves being particularly mentioned:"--Blair's Rhet., p. 291.

"This, however, is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that predominates:"--Campbell's Rhet., p. 43.

"Habits are soon assum'd; but when we strive To strip them off, 'tis being flay'd alive."--Cowper, Vol. i, p. 44

Exception.--A participle is treated as a noun.

An other frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of participles; as,

"Your having been well educated will be a great recommendation."--W. Allen's Gram., p. 171.

(Better: "Your excellent education"--or, "That you have been well educated, will be," &c.)

"It arises from sublimity's expressing grandeur in its highest degree."--Blair's Rhet., p. 29.

"Concerning the separating by a circumstance, words intimately connected."--Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104.

"As long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with them."--Literary Convention, p. 114.

"Which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all hearts."--West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 180.

"But this again is talking quite at random."--Butler's Analogy, p. 146.

"My being here it is, that holds thee hence."--Shak.

"Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see, And deem aspersing others, praising thee."--Savage, to Walpole.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs. The syntax of an Adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies; just as the syntax of an English Adjective, (except in a few instances,) consists in its simple relation to a noun or a pronoun.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as,

"Any passion that habitually discomposes our temper, or unfits us for properly discharging the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency."--Blair.

"How bless'd this happy hour, should he appear, Dear to us all, to me supremely dear!"--Pope's Homer.

Exception.--The adverbs yes, ay, yea, no, and nay.

The adverbs yes, ay, and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs? No.

"Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honour hath no skill in surgery then? No."--SHAK.: First Part of Hen. IV, Act v, 1.

Exception.--The word amen.

The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer; and is itself a prayer, meaning, So let it be: as,

"Surely, I come quickly. Amen: Even so, come Lord Jesus."--Rev., xxii, 20.

When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used substantively; as,

"The strangers among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed amen to the blessings."--Wood's Dict.

"These things saith the Amen."--Rev., iii, 14

Exception.--An adverb before a preposition.

An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter, rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object; as,

"This mode of pronunciation runs considerably beyond ordinary discourse."--Blair's Rhet., p. 334.

"Yea, all along the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that preserved the witnesses."--Penington's Works, Vol. iv, p. 12.

"Right against the eastern gate, Where the great sun begins his state."--Milton, L'Allegro.

Exception.--The words much, little, far, and all.

The words much, little, far, and all, being originally adjectives, are sometimes preceded by the negative not, or (except the last) by such an adverb as too, how, thus, so, or as, when they are taken substantively; as,

"Not all that glitters, is gold."

"Too much should not be offered at once."--Murray's Gram., p. 140.

"Thus far is consistent."--Ib., p. 161.

"Thus far is right."--Lowth's Gram., p. 101.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences. The syntax of Conjunctions consists, not (as L. Murray and others erroneously teach) in "their power of determining the mood of verbs," or the "cases of nouns and pronouns," but in the simple fact, that they link together such and such terms, and thus

"mark the connexions of human thought."--Beattie.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as,

"Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herdmen and thy herdmen; for we are brethren."--Gen., xiii, 8.

"Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules. What can she more than tell us we are fools?"--Pope.

Exception.--The conjunction that serves to introduce a sentence.

The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb; as, "That mind is not matter, is certain."

"That you have wronged me, doth appear in this."--Shak.

"That time is mine, O Mead! to thee, I owe."--Young.

Exception.--Two corresponding conjunctions.

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word; as,

"Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared."--Acts, xxvii, 20.

"Whether that evidence has been afforded [or not,] is a matter of investigation."--Keith's Evidences, p. 18.

Exception.--Either and neither.

Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence; as,

"Where then was their capacity of standing, or his either?"--Barclay's Works, iii, 359.

"It is not dangerous neither."--Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 135.

"He is very tall, but not too tall neither."--Spect., No. 475.

Prepositions show the relations of words. The syntax of Prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, (though this alone is the scope which most grammarians have given it,) but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations, such as appear by the sense of the words uttered.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them: as;

"He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent men, and passed with them through many cities"--Analectic Magazine.

"Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, By truth illumin'd, and by taste refin'd?"--Rogers.

Exception.--The preposition to.

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation; as,

"To learn to die, is the great business of life."--Dillwyn.

"Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."--ST. PAUL: Phil., i, 24.

"To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction."

"Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame; And every godfather can give a name."--Shakspeare.

Exception.--The preposition for.

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation; as,

"For us to learn to die, is the great business of life."

"Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."

"For an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction."

"For man to tell how human life began, Is hard; for who himself beginning knew?"--Milton.

Interjections have no dependent construction. Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as,

"O! let not thy heart despise me."--Dr. Johnson.

"O cruel thou!"--Pope, Odys., B. xii, l. 333.

"Ah wretched we, poets of earth!"--Cowley,

"Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starr'd rage Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age?" Pope, Dunciad, B. iii,

General rule. The following comprehensive canon for the correction of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax, and the several critical or general notes under it, seem necessary for the completion of my design; which is, to furnish a thorough exposition of the various faults against which the student of English grammar has occasion to be put upon his guard.

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout.

Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong.

The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood.

A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing, or class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name.

A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism.

Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth.

Absurdities, of every kind, are contrary to grammar, because they are contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foundation of grammar.

Every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style.

To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding.

Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted.

Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted.

Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved.

Proof-texts in grammar, if not in all argument, should be quoted literally; and even that which needs to be corrected, must never be perverted.

Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not.

Any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning, or of their proper orthography, is particularly unscholarlike; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning, disgraceful.

Silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and, when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted.

Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criticised, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them.


Figures of syntax

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge, and Hy-per'-ba-ton.

Ellipsis. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said, in technical phrase, to be understood; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, though they are not uttered.

Of compound sentences, a vast many are more or less elliptical; and sometimes, for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple sentence, are suppressed; as,

"But more of this hereafter."--Harris's Hermes, p. 77.

This means, "But I shall say more of this hereafter."

"Prythee, peace."--Shak.

That is, "I pray thee, hold thou thy peace."

There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole clause, when this repeats what precedes; but the omission of mere articles or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis, because these parts of speech, wherever they are really necessary to be recognized, ought to be expressed.

Of the article.

"A man and [a] woman."

"The day, [the] month, and [the] year."

"She gave me an apple and [a] pear, for a fig and [an] orange."--Jaudon's Gram., p. 170.

Of the noun.

"The common [law] and the statute law."

"The twelve [apostles]."

"The same [man] is he."

"One [book] of my books."

"A dozen [bottles] of wine."

"Conscience, I say; not thine own [conscience], but [the conscience] of the other."--1 Cor., x, 29.

"Every moment subtracts from [our lives] what it adds to our lives."--Dillwyn's Ref., p. 8.

"Bad actions mostly lead to worse" [actions].--Ib., p. 5.

Of the adjective.

"There are subjects proper for the one, and not [proper] for the other."--Kames.

"A just weight and [a just] balance are the Lord's."--Prov., xvi, 11.

True ellipses of the adjective alone, are but seldom met with.

Of the pronoun.

"Leave [thou] there thy gift before the altar, and go [thou] thy way; first be [thou] reconciled to thy brother, and then come [thou] and offer [thou] thy gift,"--Matt., v, 24.

"Love [ye] your enemies, bless [ye] them that curse you, do [ye] good to them that hate you."--Ib., v. 44.

"Chastisement does not always immediately follow error, but [it] sometimes comes when [it is] least expected."-- Dillwyn, Ref., p. 31.

"Men generally put a greater value upon the favours [which] they bestow, than upon those [which] they receive."--Art of Thinking, p. 48.

"Wisdom and worth were all [that] he had."--Allen's Gram., p. 294.

Of the verb.

"The world is crucified unto me, and I [am crucified] unto the world."--Gal., vi, 14.

"Hearts should not [differ], though heads may, differ."--Dillwyn, p. 11.

"Are ye not much better than they" [are]?--Matt., vi, 26.

"Tribulation worketh patience; and patience [worketh] experience; and experience [worketh] hope."--Romans, v, 4.

"Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits [are engraved] on sand."--Art of Thinking, p. 41.

"To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke].--Milton.

Of the participle.

"That [being] o'er, they part."

"Animals of various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [adapted] to the wave."--Melmoth, on Scripture, p. 13.

"His knowledge [being] measured to his state and place, His time [being] a moment, and a point [being] his space."--Pope.

Of the adverb.

"He can do this independently of me, if not [independently] of you."

"She shows a body rather than a life; A statue, [rather] than a breather."--Shak., Ant. and Cleo., iii, 3.

Of the conjunction.

"But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long suffering, [and] gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temperance."--Gal., v, 22.

The repetition of the conjunction is called Polysyndeton; and the omission of it, Asyndeton.

Of the preposition.

"It shall be done [on] this very day."

"We shall set off [at] some time [in] next month."

"He departed [from] this life."

"He gave [to] me a book."

"We walked [through] a mile."

"He was banished [from] the kingdom."--W. Allen.

"He lived like [to] a prince."--Wells.

Of the interjection.

"Oh! the frailty, [oh!] the wickedness of men."

"Alas for Mexico! and [alas] for many of her invaders!"

Of phrases or clauses.

"The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less" [than they are bound to do].

"Young men, angry, mean less than they say; old men, [angry, mean] more" [than they say].

"It is the duty of justice, not to injure men; [it is the duty] of modesty, not to offend them."--W. Allen.

Pleonasm. PLEONASM is the introduction of superfluous words; as,

"But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it."--Gen., ii, 17.

This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly; as,

"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear."--Bible.

"All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth."--Id.

"There shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down."--Id.

"I know thee who thou art."--Id.

A Pleonasm, as perhaps in these instances, is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing.

Syllepsis. SYLLEPSIS is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore in general connected with some figure of rhetoric: as

"The Word was made flesh, and dwelt amongst us, and we beheld his glory."--John, i, 14.

"Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them."--Acts, viii, 5.

"The city of London have expressed their sentiments with freedom and firmness."--Junius, p. 159.

"And I said [to backsliding Israel,] after she had done all these things, Turn thou unto me; but she returned not: and her treacherous sister Judah saw it."--Jer., iii, 7.

"And he surnamed them Boanerges, which is, The sons of thunder."--Mark, iii, 17.

"While Evening draws her crimson curtains round."--Thomson, p. 63.

"The Thunder raises his tremendous voice."--Id., p. 113.

Enallage. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modification, for an other. This figure borders closely upon solecism; and, for the stability of the language, it should be sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it which can appeal to good authority: as,

"You know that you are Brutus, that say this."--Shak.

"They fall successive[ly], and successive[ly] rise."--Pope.

"Than whom [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found."--Thomson.

"Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen].--Gay.

"So furious was that onset's shock, Destruction's gates at once unlock" [unlocked].--Hogg.

Hyperbation. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as,

"He wanders earth around."--Cowper

"Rings the world with the vain stir."--Id.

"Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."--Acts, xvii, 23.

"'Happy', says Montesquieu, 'is that nation whose annals are tiresome.'"--Corwin, in Congress, 1847.

This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity, absurdity or solecism.


Week #1 SPELLING LIST

Week #1 1. innocuous 2. shriek

9. caffeine 10. exercise

17. referred 18. advertise

3. yield 4. disappear 5. seizure 6. conceited 7. revise 8. accidental

11. reign 12. weird 13. equipped 14. suddenness 15. misstate 16. worshiper

19. quizzed 20. retained 21. annulled 22. misspelling 23. coolly 24. receive 25. shield

Week #2

1. deficient 2. prohibited 3. criticize 4. acquitted 5. referred 6. sincerely 7. bookkeeper 8. newsstand

9. vacillate 10. villain 11. unskillful 12. parallel 13. all right 14. leisure 15. forfeit 16. sieve

17. collaborate 18. mischievous 19. omniscient 20. hierarchy 2l. mischief 22. surprise 23. sovereign 24. perceive 25. feign

Week #3

1. inflexible 2. satellite 3. appearance 4. parallel 5. accelerate 6. occurrence 7. supersede 8. manageable

9. dissimilar 10. relevance 11. traceable 12. antecedent 13. enforceable 14. judgment 15. preference 16. abundance

17. rarefy 18. anoint 19. battalion 20. assess 21. grievous 22. innuendo 23. valuable 24. specify 25. eligible

Week #4

1. passable 2. admirable 3. forfeit 4. decisively 5. arguable 6. commitment 7. preferred 8. argument

9. consensus 10. sustenance 11. occasional 12. energy 13. quotient 14. gullible 15. discernible 16. desirable

17. sufficient 18. movable 19. irresistible 20. livable 2l. embarrassed 22. demagogue 33. deterrence 24. sheriff 25. miscellaneous

Week #5 1. privilege 2. exhilarate 3. colossal 4. numskull 5. superintendent

9. trespass 10. resuscitate 11. absence 12. allege 13. supersede

17. insistence 18. rhythm 19. minimize 20. occurrence 2l. adolescent

6. merchandise 7. khaki 8. sacrilegious

14. concede 15. conscience 16. disagree

22. abscess 23. pastime 24. analyze 25. precede

Week #6

1. synagogue 2. repetition 3. hypocrisy 4. sensitive. 5. obsession 6. arrival 7. harass 8. proceed

9. ecstasy 10. relief 11. compelled 12. forty 13. tobacco 14. threshold 15. ancient 16. separate

17. committee 18. presumptuous 19. agreeable 20. exceed 2l. disheveled 22. heresy 23. concurred 24. tariff 25. accommodate

Week #7

1. complement 2. counterfeit 3. dilemma 4. broccoli 5. corroborate 6. negligible 7. financier 8. conscientious

9. contemptible 10. bachelor 11. appalling 12. necessary 13. obscene 14. excise 15. loneliness 16. usable

17. governor 18. foreign 19. susceptible 20. fierce 21. indispensable 22. vacancy 31. succumb 24. copyright 25. secession

Week #8

1. suppress 2. irascible 3. wield 4. stationery 5. believe 6. besiege 7. orator 8. anonymous

9. adamant 10. wholly 11. hemorrhage 12. withhold 13. profited 14. oppressive 15. plausible 16. thoroughly

17. facetious 18. repressible 19. maneuver 20. brief 21. skepticism 22. dumbfound 23. sergeant 24. omitted 25. occurred

Word Choice List

Week 1:

affect: (verb) means to influence. The flood will affect the harvest. effect: (almost always a noun) means "result." The effect of the flood was frightening. effect: (as a verb) means to cause. He will effect many changes in the agricultural rules. allude: to make an indirect reference to something. President Clinton alluded to the

problems of past Republican administrations when defending his record. (Note: To refer to something means to mention it directly.) elude: to escape or avoid detection. Newt Gingrich eluded the fashion police. among: implies a "distribution" involving three or more persons or object that have no explicit relationship. The lottery money was divided among Oregon's five lucky winners. between: refers to position or action of two persons or objects, and is also used if there is a "definite relation" between persons or objects. Between you and me, this building will never be completed. Negotiations have broken down between architects, builders and the owner. anxious: afraid or worried. Sally was anxious about the championship game. eager: excited. Sally was eager to play in the championship game.

Week 2:

accept: to receive. Gail Devers accepted the gold medal. except: to exclude. Every swimmer received an Olympic medal except for Janet Evans. aid: assistance. Students often ask their parents for aid. aide: an assistant. A congressional aide said the senator was unavailable for comment. because of: shows cause and effect. Because of a tuition increase, students were angry. due to: use only with a linking verb. The riot at Johnson Hall was due to a tuition increase. because: gives reason or cause for something. The bridge was closed because the river flooded. since: denotes a period of time. The bridge has been closed since the river flooded. compose: made up of other things, to create or put together (e.g., parts, ingredients). The car is composed of many mechanical and electrical systems. comprise: takes in, includes or embraces other things, contains. The United States comprises 50 states. Note: The whole comprises the parts -- the whole is never comprised of the parts.

Week 3:

compared to: to liken one thing to another type or category of things as in a metaphor. He compared playing goalie to being a drill sergeant. compared with: to examine similarities and differences within the same type or category. We compared Big Macs with Whoppers. convince: to be secure about a decision or principle. Jody Runge is convinced the Ducks will win the game.

persuade: to induce someone to do something or embrace an idea. Jody Runge persuaded the referee to call a foul. complement: (noun or verb) denotes completeness or the process of supplementing something. Susan's Doc Marten's complement her leather jacket. compliment: (noun or verb) denotes praise. Sean was proud of the compliments on his writing. continual: a steady repetition. The senator's drinking was the source of continual rumors. continuous: uninterrupted, unbroken. Ahead of them was a continuous stretch of desert. discreet: prudent, circumspect. British royalty seem to have forgotten how to be discreet. discrete: detached, separate. There have been six discrete incidents of plagiarism this year.

Week 4:

elicit: (verb) to bring out or draw forth. Her lecture on prison reform elicited a strong reaction. illicit: (adjective) illegal or unlawful. Bob Packwood's illicit actions led to his downfall. enormity: wickedness. The enormity of the crime was revealed in Technicolor. enormousness: very great in size. The enormousness of the national debt boggles the mind. fewer: refers to a number of indivdual items. Lisa made fewer free throws than Cindy. less: refers to bulk, amount, sum, or period of time. Because of her injury, she had less time on the court than the other players farther: physical distance. Sue kicked the soccer ball farther than any of her teammates. further: extension of time or degree. The reporter will look further into the president's death. hanged: (verb; conjugated hang, hanged and hanged) refers to people. The State of Oregon hanged the murderer for his crimes. hung: (same verb; conjugated hang, hung and hung) refers to objects. The University of Oregon athletic department hung photos of women basketball players in the halls of Mac Court.

Week 5:

hangar: a building. The remnants of the plane are in the hangar. hanger: something you hung your shirt on. There are never enough hangers in my closet.

if: a conjunction meaning "in the event that" or "on the condition that." If the Ducks keep playing well, they may play in post season games. whether: a conjunction meaning "in case," "if it happens that" or "if it is so that." Bob Rodman asked whether the Ducks had won. illusion: an unreal or false impression. The commercial created the illusion that the politician had told the truth about his past. allusion: an indirect reference. Packwood made an allusion to his critics in Oregon. elusive: tending to elude capture, perception or understanding. An informative, intelligent political commercial has proved elusive. like: a preposition used to compare nouns or pronouns. Nicole runs like the wind. as if: a conjunction used to introduce clauses. Nicole runs as if her life depends on it.

Week 6:

imply: to suggest or hint. Perot implied that he would run for president. infer: to conclude from evidence. Reporters inferred that Perot would run as a third-party candidate. media: (plural) in the sense of mass communication. The media are pressing for access to more government documents. medium: (singular of media) AM radio may be the medium that has changed the most in the last five years. more than: generally refers to relationships between figures and amounts. Tuition has increased more than 18 percent in the last two years. over: generally refers to spatial relationships. The helicopter flew over the volcano. notorious: to be widely and unfavorably known. Ted Bundy was a notorious killer. famous: to be widely known. The Miami Dolphins signed the famous coach, Jimmy Johnson.

Week 7:

proven: use only as an adjective. This is a proven method to get good grades. proved: past participle for the verb prove, which means to establish the truth of something. The game against Washington proved the Ducks' defense had a lot to learn. regardless: without regard or unmindful. The couple hikes every weekend regardless of the weather. irregardless: a dreaded double negative that has been snubbed by dictionaries nationwide. reluctant: unwilling to act. Susan is reluctant to go to the dentist.

reticent: means unwilling to speak. Steven is reticent in public places. to: a preposition meaning (among other things) as compared with. President Clinton compared the nation's debt to a swelling balloon. with: a preposition meaning in the company of or alongside of. Susan went with her sister to the meeting.

Week 8:

towards: Don't even think about using this out-of-date word unless you're writing a poem in Olde English. toward: This is the 20th Century word. under way: two words in virtually all uses. Construction on Allen Hall is well under way. underway: Use only as an adjective before a noun in the nautical sense. In other words, forget about it. under: physically underneath. Several people sleep under the bridge at night. less than: a lesser quantity or amount. I can go to the concert if the tickets are less than $5.00.

Parts of Speech

The sentence can be divided into specific parts of speech. While not the most exciting part of learning grammar, these fundamental building blocks used properly are essential to a well-written sentence.

Each word in the English language functions as one of the eight parts of speech. What part it functions as depends on how it is used in the sentence. While the current system of American education does not devote much time to teaching the parts of speech, those interested in improving their speaking and writing skills will benefit from understanding how the language works.

1. Verb: A verb indicates the action that a subject is engaged in or serves to link the subject with a descriptor of the subject's state of being.

2. Noun: A noun is a person, a place, a thing or an idea that acts as a subject, an object or a predicate nominative in a sentence.

3. Pronoun: A pronoun stands in for a noun, saving writers from repeating the same noun time and again.

4. Adjective: An adjective modifies a noun.

5. Adverb: An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or other adverb.

6. Preposition: A preposition links the rest of the sentence to a noun (object of the preposition). The prepostion plus its object help modify words in the sentence.

7. Conjunction: A conjunction connects words, phrases or clauses.

8. Interjections: An interjection is a word that expresses strong emotion.

To begin studying verbs, please go to the next page.

Verbs

It is misleading to think of a verb simply as the action in the sentence. While there are any number of action verbs, such as run or jump, sometimes the action is merely emotional or intellectual, as in believe or think. Other times, verbs indicate no action at all, as in be or seem, but instead serve to link the subject with its state of being.

To delineate between action that is received by an object and action that is not received by an object, action verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive verbs. Those verbs that indicate a state of being rather than an action are defined as linking verbs. Determining whether the verb indicates an action or a state of being is easier with a clear understanding of verb tense and structure.

Verb Tense and Structure

The tense of a verb indicates the relative time of the action or state of being. Rarely are journalists required to know a verb's tense other than to understand its usage and agreement. In other words, it is less important for the average journalist to know that in the sentence "Bill is running," the verb "is running" is in the present progressive tense than it would be to know that "running" is the main verb and "is " acts as its helper. It is also important to know that the form of the helping verb must agree with the subject. (i.e. "Bill is running" not "Bill are running" or "Bill were running.")

Writers would be wise to recognize that the verb is the force behind the sentence and, therefore, will improve their writing by being able to recognize what the verb is and how it is being used.

The first step in that process is understanding the structure or parts of a verb.

Verbs in the simple past or simple present tense have only a lexical (main) verb:

The woman ran the marathon. He gives his money to charity. The kangaroo hopped quickly toward the fence.

Sentences in other tenses have more complicated verb structures:

Tim was organizing the award dinner last week. Every Friday this year, Gloria has taken her dog to obedience training. Taking any chance to avoid work, Carton will pretend to be asleep.

In these more complicated tenses, auxiliary (helping) verbs and lexical (main) verbs make up the complete verb.

• A LEXICAL VERB is the MAIN verb of the sentence.

Think of the lexical verb as the main action the subject is engaged in.

Consider the following sentence:

o Ellen Castro will be attending the movie premiere this evening.

ATTENDING is Ellen Castro's main action. The other parts of the verb (will be) simply help out.

Please note that a lexical verb does not require an auxilary verb, but an auxilary verb exists only to help a lexical verb. It cannot exist alone.

o Susan Raymond rested in the shadow of a canyon oak tree. Susan's action, which occured in the past, is RESTED. RESTED is the lexical verb and has no auxilary verb.

o Alfred should give his jacket to someone who will wear it. Alfred's action, which is conditional, is GIVE. GIVE is the lexical verb and SHOULD helps it and is auxilary.

o The barber has been giving that man a haircut every month for 30 years. The barber's action, which has continued to occur over time, is GIVING. GIVING is the lexical verb. HAS and BEEN help it and are auxilary.

Linking verbs (those indicating a state of being rather than an action) can include lexical and auxilary verbs.

o Danny Lee is not a member of the legal team. Danny is not engaged in an action. He is simply BEING. The lexical verb IS has no auxilary verb.

o If he pleads guilty, the prosecutors will be surprised. The prosecutors are not engaged in an action. The complete verb WILL BE links them to their state of being. BE is the lexical verb and WILL helps. It is the auxilary.

o The actress has felt nervous since she was chosen for the part. The actress is not engaged in an action. The complete verb HAS FELT links her to NERVOUS. FELT is the lexical verb and HAS helps it and is auxilary.

• An AUXILIARY VERB is a SUPPLEMENTAL verb that is "helping" the main verb.

o Susan Raymond was resting in the shadow of a canyon oak tree. While Susan's action is "resting," it is supported by the auxilary verb "was."

o With everything going on, the captain might decide to resign his commission. The captain's action is "decide" and "might" helps or is auxilary to that action.

o For the past 10 years, President Marcos has given several awards for bravery. The President's action is "given" and is helped by "has."

COMMON AUXILIARY VERBS: [In the following examples, the auxiliary verb is bold and the lexical verb is underlined.]

• TO BE: is, am, are, was, were, been

o The commission is using stocks to purchase development rights. o The agencies are restricting logging and road building in the

forests. o Brill was lagging in the polls behind Richards. o The agencies were completing the inventories. o Moskowitz has been offered a similar project.

• TO DO: do, did, does

o Volunteers do spend their weekends mapping the nation's forests. o Clinton did agree to ban logging on 40 million acres. o Time does run out for these wildlands.

• TO HAVE: has, had, have

o Brent has planned this party down to the last detail. o The governor had exhausted all of the options. o Someone should have predicted these complications.

• SHALL, WILL, MAY, CAN, SHOULD, COULD, WOULD,

o This portion will not be eligible for protection under the 1964 Wilderness Act.

o The Clinton Administration may try to make the most of public support for preserving open space.

o Only Congress can formally protect lands under the Wilderness Act.

o They should limit its real estate holdings.

o Preservation could become one of Clinton's most significant accomplishments.

o The legislation would provide guaranteed funding.

Identifying the various configurations that make up a complete verb helps in understanding the type of verb being used. Once again, this is not because journalists necessarily need to remember the specific type of verb they are using, but because using a verb properly with the correct modifiers strengthens anyone's writing.

Transitive verbs

First and foremost, a transitive verb is an action verb. Second, it requires a direct object to complete its meaning in the sentence. In other words, the action of the verb is transferred to the object directly.

To determine whether a verb is transitive, ask whether the action is done to someone or something. Does the subject act upon someone or something? Or put another way, does someone or something receive the action of the verb. If it does, then the verb is transitive and the person or thing that receives its action is the direct object.

In the following examples, the transitive verb is bold and the direct object is underlined.

• The judge sentences the man to five years in prison. o The subject (the judge) applies an action (sentences) to a direct object (the

man).

• The attorney has revealed the bad news. o The subject (the attorney) has transferred an action (revealed) to a direct

object (news).

• The defendant could not provide an alibi. o The subject (the defendant) will transmit an action (could provide) to a

direct object (an alibi).

The direct object can be found by asking a question about the action:

• The subject did something to WHOM?

o Prosecutors charge people. o The knife's sharp edge cut the chef.

o Law enforcement had previously convicted the man. o Prosecutors charged him under a habitual offender statute. o Authorities are incarcerating repeat offenders.

• The subject did something to WHAT?

o The jury deliberated the case for 48 minutes. o The technician made a joke. o A local woman is seeking a seat on the city council.

Passive voice can hide a transitive verb because the subject is not in the sentence.

Learning to identify the subject and object can help you avoid passive voice construction and help you identify a "hidden" transitive verb.

• A man was given a sentence of 25 years to life under California's "three strikes and you're out" law for stealing a cell phone.

o Presumably a judge sentenced the man; therefore, THE JUDGE is the subject, GAVE is the verb and the MAN is the object. It can be better written as:

A judge sentenced a man to 25 years to life under California's "three strikes and you're out" law for stealing a cell phone.

• A substantial amount of the nation's street crime is committed by a small number of bad actors.

o Here the subject is actually in the sentence and the power of the verb is weakened by passive voice construction.

It can be better written as:

A small number of actors commit a substantial amount of the nation's street crime.

Whether written in the passive voice or corrected for a stronger sentence, the verb is transitive

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb is an action verb, but it does not have a direct object. The action ends rather than being transferred to some person or object or is modified by an adverb or adverb phrase..

Typically, an adverb or prepositional phrase modifies an intransitive verb or the verb ends the sentence.

To determine whether a verb is intransitive ask whether the action is done in some way, in some direction or to some degree. Does a nothing receive the action of the verb? If it does, then the verb is transitive and the person or thing that receives its action is the direct object.

[In the following examples, the intransitive verb is bold and the modifier is underlined.]

• The man decided against a plea bargain. o The subject (the man) did something (decided) a particular way (against).

• He refused because of his immaturity, not his lack of contrition. o The subject (He) did something (refused) for a particular reason (because

of his immaturity).

• Alice complained bitterly. o The subject (Alice) did something (complained) to a particular degree

(bitterly).

• At the end of the Roaring '20s, the incarceration index rose slightly. o The subject (the index) did something (rose) in a particular direction

(slightly).

• When faced with the problem, the scholar paused. o The subject (scholar) did something (paused) at a particular time (when

faced with the problem).

• Earl fell. o The subject (Earl) did something (fell) and the action did not transfer to

someone or something.

The adverb or prepositional phrase answer a question about the verb:

• The subject did something WHERE?

o If Charlie had run into the street, he could have been injured. o The turtle may live in a small area of Arizona. o In 1973, the incarceration number inched upward. o Jordan drove into the lane.

• The subject did something WHEN?

o Thousands of cranes will return in the spring. o The number climbed in 1974 and in 1975. o Walter Payton died near the end of the century. o The company's leader collapsed during a meeting.

• The subject did something HOW or TO WHAT DEGREE?

o The statistics come in any form you like. o Politicians and the public are complaining loudly. o His blood pressure kept climbing steadily. o She worked with care and precision.

• The subject did something WHY?

o Our elected officials listen because we vote. o Shoshana's grades improved with the help of a tutor. o Germany's expedition leader collapsed from the effort. o Elise competed for her family.

Linking verbs

A linking verb implies state of being or condition for the subject, not action. It links the subject to an equivalent word in the sentence. [In the following examples, the linking verb is bold and the predicate nominative or predicate adjective is underlined.]

• The test indicates that Sarah is a genius. o The subject (SARAH) is linked to a noun that is, in a sense, standing in for

her (GENIUS).

• Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.

o The subject (TONI MORRISON) is linked to a noun that is of equal weight in terms of description. (WOMAN).

A linking verb may connect the subject with a noun:

• Roads were a slushy mess on Monday along parts of the East Coast. o ROADS is linked to MESS, which is equal in terms of description.

• Smoking appeared to be the cause of the blaze. o SMOKING is linked to CAUSE, which restates the subject.

• It was a sad day. o IT is linked to a noun DAY, which restates the subject.

A linking verb may connect the subject with a pronoun:

• The book could be his. o The subject (BOOK) is linked with the pronoun indicating its state of

being (HIS).

• The robbery victim pointed and yelled, "That is him." o THAT is linked with HIM, which is equal in terms of description.

A linking verb may connect the subject with an adjective:

• The writer was proud of her efforts. o The subject (WRITER) is linked with her state of being (PROUD).

• Before the show, Malik seemed nervous. o MALIK is linked with NERVOUS, which is equal in terms of description.

Although the modifiers following linking verbs may answer the question what as a direct object does for a transitive verb, they do not receive any action.

• In federal courts nowadays, every sentence is the same. o We can ask: Every sentence is what? and the answer is: THE SAME. But,

the same is not receiving the action of the verb as with a transitive verb. SAME is restating or indicating the state of being of SENTENCE.

• Female inmates are the fastest-growing subpopulation in prison. o INMATES are what? Answer: SUBPOPULATION. But, the

SUBPOPULATION is not being acted upon; it is restating or indicating the state of being of the WOMEN.

Typically, linking verbs are a form of the verb TO BE: IS, WAS, AM, ARE, WERE, BEEN

[In the following examples, the linking verb is bold and the modifier is underlined.]

• The crews mission is to create the best topographic map of Earth. o The subject is MISSION. The linking verb is IS, and the descriptor—in

this case a predicate nominative—is TO CREATE. • The solution was judges who would mete out longer prison sentences.

o The subject is SOLUTION. The linking verb is WAS, and the descriptor—in this case a predicate nominative—is JUDGES.

• Leonardo said, "I am the king of the world." o The subject is I. The linking verb is AM, and the descriptor—in this case a

predicate nominative—is KING. • The number of minor children with one or both parents behind bars is

1.5 million. o The subject is NUMBER. The linking verb is IS, and the descriptor—in

this case a predicate adjective—is 1.5 MILLION. • Law-abiding Americans were far less safe in 1980 than in 1960.

o The subject is AMERICANS. The linking verb is WERE, and the descriptor—in this case a predicate adjective—is SAFE.

• Some see this as a societal commitment to imprisonment on a scale that would have been unthinkable a quarter of a century ago in this, or any other, country.

o The subject is THAT. The linking verb is WOULD HAVE BEEN, and the descriptor—in this case a predicate adjective—is UNTHINKABLE.

But the verb "to be " does not always mean a linking verb.

• Forms of the verb TO BE can act as auxiliary verbs for transitive, intransitive and linking verb. The auxiliary verb is not linking but rather helping the main verb.

o Juvenile crime has been plummeting since 1995. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb plummeting (intransitive verb) Nyoko was crossing a bridge when the earthquake hit. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb crossing. (transitive verb) Margaret Ann was feeling tired. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb feeling. (linking verb)

• The verb TO BE can act as an intransitive verb when what follows it indicates location rather than state of being. This intransitive form of the verb TO BE is easily identified by the prepositional phrase that follows it.

o Changes in the criminal statutes are behind the staggering increase in the incarceration rate.

BEHIND signifies location, not state of being. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.

o Professor Freelove has been in a coma since the car accident. IN A COMA indicates a location, not state of being. Although

COMATOSE is a state of being, being IN A COMA is not. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.

o Lucia's books are on the refrigerator. ON THE REFRIGERATOR indicates a location, not state of

being. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.

• The verb TO BE is not a linking verb when is acts as part of a verb presented in passive voice. It is part of a transitive verb.

o When Clinton was elected president, some groups had high hopes he would champion their cause.

ELECTED is the main verb. It is weakened by the use of WAS and the failure to make a subject do the action, but WAS is not a linking verb. It is part of a transitive verb.

o Umberto is coached by a former Olympic champion. COACHED is the main verb. It is weakened by the use of IS and

by not making the champion coach Umberto. It is part of a transitive verb.

Other common linking verbs: APPEAR, BECOME, FEEL, GET, GROW, SIT, LOOK, PROVE, REMAIN, SEEM, SMELL, SOUND, TASTE, TURN.

• Even with the nomination out of reach, he appears unwilling to concede.

o Nothing is appearing as in: The ghost appeared from behind the piano. APPEARS simply links HE with his state of being, UNWILLING.

• Liberals became indistinguishable from conservatives on the issue. o There is no real action in BECAME. To test this, replace BECAME with

the correct form of the verb TO BE: WERE. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged.

• He feels certain that any mandatory minimum needs an escape clause.

o The subject is not engaged in the action of feeling as in: He felt the wall looking for a light switch. FEELS links HE and his state of being: CERTAIN.

• "We got tough on crime," he said. o Once again GOT is not an action as in: He got the kite out of the tree. To

test this, replace GOT with WERE. The sentence meaning is unchanged.

• He grew discouraged with the number of low-level drug offenders doing 15- and 20-year stretches.

o The subject is not engaged in the action of growing as in: She grew a garden. GREW links HE with his state of being DISCOURAGED.

• Proactive policing entails rousting people who look suspicious. o The subject is not engaged in the action of looking as in: The people

looked through the hole in the fence. LOOK links WHO (people) and their state of being: SUSPICIOUS.

• If an approach proves faulty, laws can be changed. o There is no real action in PROVES. To test this, replace PROVES with the

correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged.

• The chairman remains confused about how to vote on these policies. o Nothing is happening either physically or intellectually. REMAINS

simply links HE with his state of being: CONFUSED.

• In the current contentious climate, the political system seems locked in place.

o There is no real action in SEEMS. To test this, replace SEEMS with the correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged.

• If you leave that spoiled meat on the counter, the room will smell terrible.

o The subject is not engaged in the action of smelling as in: Allyson smelled the milk. SMELL links ROOM and a state of being: TERRIBLE.

• For decades Democrats have sounded more concerned about criminals than victims.

o The subject is not engaged in the action of sounding as in: The sentry sounded the alarm. To test this, replace SOUNDED with the correct form of the verb TO BE: BEEN. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged.

• Shari doesn't like anything that tastes spicy.

o The subject is not engaged in the action of tasting as in: The child tasted the ice cream. To test this, replace TASTES with the correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged.

Many verbs may be linking, transitive or intransitive depending on their function.

• LINKING: The nation's mood turned sour. o The subject is not engaged in an action. TURNED links MOOD and a

state of being: SOUR.

• TRANSITIVE: The judge turned the pages quickly. o The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action

transferred to an object (PAGES).

• INTRANSITIVE: The lawyer turned suddenly toward the back of the courtroom.

o The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action was done in a particular way (SUDDENLY) but not to someone or something.

Verb Practice Exercise

Print out this exercise. Circle an answer for each question. After completing the entire exercise, click on the "Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The burglar disappeared with the cash. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 2. The director told the actors, "Do your best, and we'll be a hit." a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 3. He would tell me if he thought we were in danger. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 4. His ability to concentrate is legendary. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 5. The campers hid inside the cabin when they saw the bear. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

6. Alexis is swimming in the state championship next week. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 7. Frustrated with the official’s call, Ethan kicked the bench. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

8. The student procrastinated too long and failed to finish the project. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 9. The vegetarian burger tasted like salted cardboard. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 10. Ellen nodded to the audience and sang her song. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 11. Her brother likes bananas, but she likes peaches. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 12. Adjunct faculty are teaching in several of the lower division courses. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 13. The director told the actors, "Do your best, and we'll be a hit." a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 14. Regis Philbin, the host of "Who Wants to be a Millionaire," smiled at her answer. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 15. When the contestant completed the first test, she received another clue. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 16. Dennis became impatient when Thomas took so long choosing a movie. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 17. President Clinton pushed into the crowd and shook her hand. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 18. The hiker turned quickly toward the noise behind him. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 19. Our teacher gave each of us another chance to take the exam. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

20. After the chef completed the demonstration, she left the students to clean the kitchen. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

Answers to the practice exercise for identifying verbs.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The burglar disappeared with the cash. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 2. The director told the actors, "Do your best, and we'll be a hit." a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 3. He would tell me if he thought we were in danger. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 4. His ability to concentrate is legendary. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 5. The campers hid inside the cabin when they saw the bear. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 6. Alexis is swimming in the state championship next week. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 7. Frustrated with the official’s call, Ethan kicked the bench. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

8. The student procrastinated too long and failed to finish the project. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 9. The vegetarian burger tasted like salted cardboard. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 10. Ellen nodded to the audience and sang her song. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 11. Her brother likes bananas, but she likes peaches. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 12. Adjunct faculty are teaching in several of the lower division courses. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

13. The director told the actors, "Do your best, and we'll be a hit." a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 14. Regis Philbin, the host of "Who Wants to be a Millionaire," smiled at her answer. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 15. When the contestant completed the first test, she received another clue. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 16. Dennis became impatient when Thomas took so long choosing a movie. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 17. President Clinton pushed into the crowd and shook her hand. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 18. The hiker turned quickly toward the noise behind him. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 19. Our teacher gave each of us another chance to take the exam. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb 20. After the chef completed the demonstration, she left the students to clean the kitchen. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

Interactive Verb Quiz 1

1. Roads were a slushy mess on Monday along parts of the East Coast. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

2. Thousands of families and businesses had no electricity following a deadly snow and ice storm. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

3. In Virginia, about 126,000 electricity customers are living without power. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

4. Even without the computer trouble, rain would have kept the space shuttle from launching. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

5. At his sentencing, West neither apologized nor attributed his behavior to his drinking problem. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

6. It seemed difficult for police to find the man suspected in a cafe robbery. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

7. Officials blamed the storm for at least 17 deaths along its path across the southern Plains. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

8. Dozens of lawsuits, billions of dollars and an incalculable public outcry can make a difference. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

9. Philip Morris continues its court fight to prevent the federal government from regulating tobacco. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

10. Elian Gonzalez's grandmothers arrived in Cuba without the child they had hoped to bring home. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

11. Before he could finish the project, Bill had to contact an expert in pesticide-use management. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

12. Holding his nose to block out the smell, Evan made his way through the butcher’s work area. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

13. The book that Tim sent to his brother has been under his desk for six months a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

14. After a slow start, the team finished with its best record ever. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

15. The class's ideas sounded much more sophisticated than the substitute teacher expected. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

16. The man grew tired of the constant questions from reporters. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

17. Do you know whom to contact in case of an emergency? a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

18. The golfer listed in the paper as the leader decided to drop out of the tournament. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

19. It was those two boys who pulled the fire alarm. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

20. She wanted to speak with whoever was responsible for her poodle’s awful haircut. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

Interactive Verb Quiz 2

1. The student became frustrated when she was not allowed to take chemistry. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

2. The school's football coach will give a speech at the banquet. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

3. The wizard tapped his wand and disappeared. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

4. The fishing has improved on this lake since they outlawed speedboats. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

5. The writer gestured to the crowd with his pen. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

6. Smoking is a ridiculous habit. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

7. The curry dish tasted spicier than he thought it would. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

8. The police yelled, "Drop your weapon to the ground!" a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

9. The burglar escaped the police with all of the money. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

10. The driver stopped quickly when she saw the accident ahead. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

11. The director thinks the studio could make millions on this film. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

12. The critics should consider how difficult it is to write a novel. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

13. The boxer appeared confused after the blow to his jaw. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

14. Some people work simply to buy more things. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

15. The man standing on the corner looks suspicious. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

16. The warning labels on the package make little difference in sales. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

17. Did Eric decide what schools to visit this spring? a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

18. Philip resented giving his room to his brother. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

19. Holly danced wildly across the lawn. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

20. His broken watch is always his excuse for being late. a. transitive verb b. intransitive verb c. linking verb d. auxiliary verb

Verbals A verbal is the form of a verb used as a noun, adjective or adverb. Gerunds are forms of the verb that function as nouns. They always end in "ing." Participles are forms of the verb that function as adjectives. They can end in "ed," "en," or "ing." Infinitives are forms of the verb that may acts as adjectives, adverbs or nouns. They include "to" plus the base form of the verb, as in "to run."

Identifying verbals can be somewhat tricky. While verbals are forms of verbs, they are NOT the action associated with the subject. In other words, they are not verbs.

Several steps can help assure that you identify not only the verbal but also what type of verbal it is. As noted, verbals do not act in conjunction with the subject

as a verb. They may modify the subject, and in fact, they may be the subject, but they don't act as the verb for the subject. So, when considering a word that may look like a verb but could be a verbal, much confusion can be eliminated by following three simple steps:

1. Find the subject of the sentence. (Every sentence has one)

The subject is the person, place thing or idea that is "doing" or "being" in the sentence.

[In the following sentences, the subject is underlined.]

o Susan soaked her tired feet in the cool creek. SUSAN is the subject. She is the one who SOAKED.

o Daniel gave his donation to someone dedicated to making a difference. DANIEL is the subject. He is the one who GAVE

o Does donating to charity give Conrad a sense of purpose? In this sentence, DONATING is the subject. It is the thing that DOES GIVE.

2. Find the verb of the sentence. (Every sentence has one)

The verb is the action associated with the subject.

[In the following sentences, the subject is bold and the verb is underlined.]

o Susan soaked her tired feet in cool creek. SUSAN, the subject, SOAKED. SOAKED is the verb.

o Daniel gave his donation to someone dedicated to making a difference. DANIEL the subject, GAVE so GAVE is the verb.

o Does donating to charity give Conrad a sense of purpose? DONATING, the subject, DOES GIVE.

3. Find the verbal of the sentence. (Not every sentence has one)

The verbal is a form of the verb acting as an adverb, adjective or noun.

[In the following sentences, the subject is bold, the verb is underlined and the verbal is bold and underlined.]

o Susan soaked her tired feet in cool creek. SUSAN is the subject. SOAKED is the verb. TIRED is a form of the verb TO TIRE acting as an adjective modifying FEET.

o Daniel gave his donation to someone dedicated to making a difference. DANIEL is the subject. GAVE is the verb. DEDICATED is a form of the verb TO DEDICATE acting as an adjective modifying SOMEONE.

o Does donating to charity give Conrad a sense of purpose? DONATING is the subject. DOES GIVE is the verb. DONATING is a form of the verb TO DONATE acting as a noun--in this case the subject.

So, as you can see, a word we might want to identify as a verb may be a verbal, depending on its function in the sentence. Look at the following sentences and how the forms of the verb "to work" change identity as they change function within the sentence.

• Charlie was working at a factory.

• Working at a factory changed Charlie's view of the production system.

• As a working man, Charlie had plenty of time to contemplate the production system.

In the first sentence, the subject is Charlie and he was working, which means that was working is a verb.

In the second sentence, working is the subject and changed is the verb. The form of the verb ending in "ing" and acting as a noun is a gerund.

In the third sentence, the subject is once again Charlie and he had, which makes had the verb. Working describes what kind of man Charlie is, so it is an adjective. The form of the verb ending in "ing," "ed" or "en" and acting as an adjective is a participle.

Gerunds First and foremost, a gerund is the form of a verb, but it is not a verb. Second, it is a noun. And finally, it ends in "ing."

[In the following examples, the gerund is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• Many local governments and school districts forbid releasing student information to any outside group, including the military, colleges or corporations.

o First find the subject and verb: GOVERNMENTS and DISTRICTS are the subjects and FORBID is the verb. Is it an action verb? Yes? Do they forbid something? Yes. What? RELEASING. So, RELEASING is a direct object, which is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.

• Burning oil and smashing atoms are good for the environment. o First find the subject and verb: BURNING and SMASHING are the

subjects and ARE is the verb. Therefore, BURNING and SMASHING are nouns. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.

• Coal mining yields 5,000 watts per square meter per day, and an oil field yields close to 10,000.

o First find the subject and verb of the clause: MINING is the subject and YIELDS is the verb. Therefore, MINING is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.

• The story is the same for high-tech farming. o STORY is the subject. IS is the verb. FARMING is the object of the

preposition FOR. An object is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.

• Kids enjoy surfing the 'Net, but it doesn't mean that their minds are engaged.

o KIDS is the subject. ENJOY is the verb. SURFING is the direct object of the verb. An object is a noun. A form of a verb that ends in ING and acts as a noun is a gerund.

• The study does not show a link between using computers and improving student performance

o The subject is STUDY. The verb is DOES SHOW. USING and IMPROVING are objects of the preposition BETWEEN.

Participles First and foremost, a participle is the form of a verb, but it is not a verb. Second, it is an adjective. And finally, it ends in "ing" or "ed" or "en." [In the following examples, the participle is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• As the colonies became a new nation dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal, public schools had another purpose.

o First find the subject and verb of each clause: COLONIES BECAME and SCHOOLS HAD. With that done, we can see that DEDICATED is not the subject. Instead, it describes the word NATION. Therefore, it is an adjective. A form of a verb that ends in ED, EN or ING and acts as an adjective is a participle.

• Transformed by the national economy, urban factories developed a need for disciplined, obedient workers.

o The subject (factories) DEVELOPED. So what does TRANSFORMED do? It describes FACTORIES.

• Learning to solve problems in groups, the students began to understand how to fit within the social structure.

o Identify the subject and verb. What is this sentence about? STUDENTS. What is the verb? BEGAN. What part of the sentence does LEARNING go with? The subject. It describes STUDENTS, so it is a form of the verb acting as an adjective—a participle.

The steps to finding a participle:

1. Find the subject and verb to eliminate any confusion.

o Al Gore, knocked around by Bill Bradley for being "pro-gun," is confidently pushing gun control to the forefront of his presidential campaign.

AL GORE is the subject. IS PUSHING is the verb. KNOCKED is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective, modifying Al GORE.

o The activist called for a waiting period for gun purchases to help reduce illegal gun trafficking.

The subject is ACTIVIST. The verb is CALLED. WAITING is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective, modifying PERIOD.

o Headed by conservative media watchdog leader Brent Bozell, the Parents Television Council announced the results of a study.

The subject is THE PARENTS TELEVISION COUNCIL. The verb is ANNOUNCED. HEADED is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective, modifying the subject.

o The network reported on the springtime ritual of young men and women flocking to warm beaches around the globe.

The subject is NETWORK. The verb is REPORTED. FLOCKING is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective, modifying men and women. It can't act as a verb without an auxiliary verb. For example: Young men and women WERE flocking to warm beaches.

2. Decide what part of the sentence the verbal belongs to.

o The statement issued by Columbia noted that a current weakness of the Internet is the inability to authenticate material.

The subject is STATEMENT. The verb is NOTED. ISSUED is part of the complete subject. It is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective.

o The armed services struggle to meet recruiting goals in a tight job market.

The subject is SERVICES. The verb is STRUGGLE. RECRUITING is part of the complete predicate. It is a form of the verb, acting as an adjective modifying goals.

Infinitives

First and foremost, an infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. Second, an infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an adverb. And finally, it is always "to" plus a verb. [In the following examples, the infinitive is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• Supporters of the Internet fail to mention that it contains a lot of trash packaged to look like reliable information.

o The subject is SUPPORTERS. The verb is FAIL. The infinitive TO MENTION is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.

• Students need to learn the parts of speech. o The subject is STUDENTS. The verb is NEED. The infinitive TO LEARN

is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.

• The ants have arrived to grab the leftovers from the picnic. o The subject is ANTS. The verb is HAVE ARRIVED. The infinitive TO

GRAB is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived.

• That attorney has the right to represent you. o The subject is ATTORNEY. The verb is HAS. RIGHT is the object of the

verb and the infinitive TO REPRESENT is an adjective telling us what kind of right.

• Lawsuits are useful to punish corporations or to represent consumers. o The subject is LAWYERS. The verb is ARE. USEFUL is type of adjective

known as a predicate adjective and the infinitive TO PUNISH and TO REPRESENT are adverbs modifying that adjective.

• Farmers are splicing genes and manipulating seeds to create more robust plants.

o The subject is FARMERS. The verbs are ARE SPLICING and MANIPULATING. TO CREATE tells us why they are doing this. Therefore, it is an adverb.

Verbal Practice Exercise


Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The thief arrested for the robbery shot at the security guard. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 2. The flag waving in the wind is inspirational. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 3. They are sure the extra planning will make a difference in the end. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 4. Jamal's confusing message did nothing to solve the mystery. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 5. Godzilla made a game of smashing all of the red cars parked near the lake. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 6. The politician's broken promises were all that the voters remembered. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 7. Delighted with the opportunity to learn, Christine took the internship in New

York. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 8. While playing the tuba, Orin felt as if his world was perfect. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 9. The shows offers everyone a chance to be a millionaire. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 10. Samuel decided that missing the lecture every day was hurting his grade. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 11. The kittens crouching under the bed have refused to come out. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 12. The swimmer, driven by the need to be the best in the world, made himself sick with anxiety. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 13. My friend was surprised by the lighting in the theater. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 14. Brenda seemed surprised with the team's decision to withdraw. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 15. Completing the obstacle course is harder than it looks. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 16. Billy refused to accept the idea that his birthday cake was gone. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 17. The marathon runner, pushed to the edge of endurance, collapsed at the finish line. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 18. Fred's arguing every call is getting frustrating. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 19. Al hopes that giving the players a break will improve their attitudes. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 20. The completed meal was so beautiful that we hesitated to eat it. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive

Answers for Verb Practice Exercise


Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The thief arrested for the robbery shot at the security guard. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 2. The flag waving in the wind is inspirational. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 3. They are sure the extra planning will make a difference in the end. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 4. Jamal's confusing message did nothing to solve the mystery. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 5. Godzilla made a game of smashing all of the red cars parked near the lake. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 6. The politician's broken promises were all that the voters remembered. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 7. Delighted with the opportunity to learn, Christine took the internship in New York. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 8. While playing the tuba, Orin felt as if his world was perfect. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 9. The shows offers everyone a chance to be a millionaire. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 10. Samuel decided that missing the lecture every day was hurting his grade. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 11. The kittens crouching under the bed have refused to come out. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive

12.The swimmer, driven by the need to be the best in the world, made himself sick with anxiety. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 13. My friend was surprised by the lighting in the theater. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 14. Brenda seemed surprised with the team's decision to withdraw. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 15. Completing the obstacle course is harder than it looks. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 16. Billy refused to accept the idea that his birthday cake was gone. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 17. The marathon runner, pushed to the edge of endurance, collapsed at the finish line. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 18. Fred's arguing every call is getting frustrating. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 19. Al hopes that giving the players a break will improve their attitudes. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive 20. The completed meal was so beautiful that the guests hesitated to eat it. a. gerund b. participle c. infinitive

Interactive Verbal Quiz 1

1. The road, obscured by the freshly fallen snow, was impossible to see. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

2. Their studying certainly made a difference in their grades. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

3. The young boy loved the stuffed animal given to him by his aunt. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

4. Deciding to skip the concert seems like a wise choice considering your workload. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

5. The staff's attention tends to focus on immediate tasks rather than long-term goals. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

6. Karla demanded that the clerk refund her money for the rotten fruit. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

7. Blaming the delays on everything from the weather to funding, the contractors failed to finish. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

8. Frustrated with their lack of attention, the teacher instructed her students to put their heads on their desks. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

9. Gus thinks that heating the dinner plates before serving food keeps the food warmer. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

10. The men's gymnastic team returned to the United States without the medal they had hoped to bring home. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

11. In a heated court fight, the two sides battled over custody. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

12. Covering her eyes to block out the glare, Sally hurried toward the shady spot in the park. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

13. The book donated to the library sale was worth a small fortune. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

14. After the rain started in earnest, the picnic organizers decided to call it quits. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

15. The dog's muffled bark could be heard from front gate. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

16. The student resented the regular questioning from her father. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

17. Does Bob enjoy laughing at everyone who makes a mistake? a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

18. The golfer listed in the paper as the leader decided to drop out of the tournament. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

19. Those two horses defeated the other contestants soundly. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

20. They wanted to meet the woman who wrote their favorite book. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. v erb

Interactive Verbal Quiz 2

1. David's new plants, battered by the wind and rain, are not likely to make it to spring. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

2. She credited her success to working hard for years to reach her goal. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

3. The workers rejected the contract offered to them by the company. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

4. Placing a penny on a railroad track is dangerous if a train is coming. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

5. Milo hopes to win the eight grade spelling bee this year. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

6. When asked, the captain insisted that he was not drunk when he grounded the tanker. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

7. Hoping to reach the summit by nightfall, the expedition pushed onward. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

8. Depressed by the lack of sales at his booth, Lowell reconsidered his career as a candle maker. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

9. The doctors insist that treating the tumor with chemotherapy is the only viable solution. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

10. The stray cat devoured any and all food that Susi left out for it. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

11. Following a set of complicated instructions, the participants finally reached the buried treasure. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

12. Hoping to catch a glimpse of the lead singer, Elise squeezed near the front of the stage. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

13. Hillary suggested that the question posed by the journalist was rude and unfair. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

14. Before the director was willing to end the rehearsal, she demanded that the actors get the scene right. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

15. The child's delighted face is a testament to how thrilled she is by your mask. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

16. The coaches did all of the driving. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

17. Has Will given up playing in every golf tournament that he hears about? a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

18. The team chosen by the judges turned out to be quite weak. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

19. Fiona preferred going to movies more than watching television. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

20. She wants to buy a new car that gets better gas mileage than her truck. a. gerund b. infinitive c. participle d. verb

NOUNS

To determine a noun, first remember the tried and true wisdom that a noun is a person, a place, a thing or an idea. Second, and perhaps a little trickier, a noun can be an action. Let's be clear here: A noun cannot be an action in the same way a verb can. A verb has a subject doing an action.

EXAMPLE:

• Bill ran. o BILL is the subject and RAN is the verb. An action acting as a noun is the

THING that is doing (the SUBJECT) or being done to (the OBJECT). • Running seems fun.

o RUNNING is the subject; SEEMS is the verb. • Bill enjoys running

o BILL is the subject. ENJOYS is a transitive verb and RUNNING is the direct object.

Fortunately for writers who chafe at rules and unfortunately for those attempting to unravel the structure of the sentence, nouns can show up almost anywhere in a sentence. There are six types of nouns to consider: (1) the subject, (2) the direct object, (3) the indirect object, (4) the predicate nominative, (5) the object of the preposition and (6) the object of the verbal.

THE SUBJECT

The subject is the person, place, thing or idea that the sentence is about. Or, in the case of a sentence with more than one clause, it is the person, place, thing or idea that the clause is about.

Typically, a subject is followed by a verb. [In the following examples, the subject is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• Pamela sang a song at her sister's wedding. o To determine the subject, ask who or what the sentence is about.

• Before visiting the library, Stephen did considerable research on-line. o To determine the subject, ask who or what is doing or being.

• California continues to lead the nation in population growth. o Ask yourself what the topic of the sentence is.

• Once a center of activity, the theater has fallen into disrepair.

o To determine the subject, ignore phrases that are not connected to the subject and verb. The subject exists because it has a verb.

• Griffin's soccer ball rolled into the street. o Don't get mislead by modifiers. The BALL is the thing doing something

here, not GRIFFIN or SOCCER.

• The flavor of parsnips is improved by roasting. o Be careful not to choose objects of prepositions as subjects. Objects

cannot be subjects. This sentence is about FLAVOR not about PARSNIPS.

• Freedom should not be taken for granted. o To determine the subject, ask what or who is engaged in the action of the

verb. What should not be taken for granted? FREEDOM.

• At its best, Democracy allows every citizen access to the political process.

o Ask yourself what the topic of the sentence is.

There can be more than one subject in a sentence.

• More than one subject in a single independent clause

o Frank and Elise decided to attend the lecture. To determine the subject, identify the verb and determine who or

what is "doing" that verb. o After a fierce competition, civility and sportsmanship remained

intact. Introductory phrases will not include a subject. Ignore them when

trying to identify the subject. o For many employees, vacation or sick leave are not available.

There is no action in this sentence, so ask what things ARE? NOT AVAILABLE

o Running and swimming remain the favorite activities of most participants.

Don't be fooled into thinking these are verbs. Here they are activities. To be verbs, they must have a subject and a helping verb. ex: The participants ARE RUNNING.

• More than one independent clause

o Frank decided to attend the lecture, but Elise chose to watch the game.

As with simple sentences, ask who is doing the action for each clause.

o Until sundown, the temperature will be comfortable, and the bugs will not bother us.

Unless WILL is used as a noun—EX: "He wrote his will"—it is most likely a helping verb. A helping verb assists a main verb, and they both exist to serve a subject. Use WILL to lead you back to the subject. Who or what will?

o Because of the hike in interest rates, spending has slowed, but savings will increase.

HAS, HAVE and HAD are either going to be helping verbs or main verbs, so ask yourself who or what HAS done something.

o Frightened by the explosion, the birds stopped singing, and the deer ran into the woods.

What is this sentence about? Who did something? In this case, two subjects did two different things.

• A subordinate clause with independent clauses

o Although speeding seems exciting, speeders run the risk of tickets as well as injury.

With subordinate clauses, it can be misleading to ask what the sentence is about. Instead, determine the verbs and connect them with their respective subjects.

o Scott tried to take away the basketball while Heather worked on her ball handling skills.

With sentences containing both independent and dependent clauses, look for the subject and verbs in each clause rather than the subject of the entire sentence.

o Because cheating on taxes is illegal, Ephram is always careful to be honest.

Remember that the subject does not have to be a physical object or a person, it can be an action.

o If the dog starts barking, please put him in the house. With any clause that uses the imperative tense (an order), the

subject (YOU) is usually implied. Therefore, in the second clause, the implied YOU is the subject.

• An independent clause with a restrictive or nonrestrictive dependent clause. [In the following examples, the subject and verb of the independent clause are bold and the subject and verb of the dependent clause are underlined.]

o The boy who crashed his bike into Mark's garage broke his nose. In this type of sentence, the main clause surrounds the dependent

clause. THE BOY BROKE HIS NOSE is the main clause. o Near the end of the picnic, the dog that took the steaks off of the

table returned for dessert. The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence is a

relative pronoun that relates to the noun preceding it. THAT TOOK THE STEAKS is the dependent clause. THAT is the subject of the clause.

o How did you meet the man who offered you the job?. In question form, the subject and verb do not follow the standard

subject, verb, complement order. YOU is the subject of the independent clause. WHO is the subject of the dependent clause.

o Have you considered hiring Josh, who received several awards for excellence in design last year?

The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence may or may not be separated from the main clause by a comma.

NOTE: The subject of this type of a dependent clause is a relative pronoun; it relates to the noun preceding it.

THE DIRECT OBJECT

The direct object is the noun that receives the action of the transitive verb.

Typically, a direct object follows the verb and can be found by asking who or what received the action of the verb. [In the following examples, the direct object is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• After dinner, Matthew always serves a cake. o To determine the direct object, ask whom or what was acted on by the

verb.

• To the average citizen, politics offers considerable frustration. o Although the direct object follows the verb, an adjective may be between

the verb and object.

• Christine discovered a pile of books hidden under the staircase. o Look for the object that receives the action of the verb, and don't be fooled

by the object of a preposition such as BOOKS in this sentence.

• After class, Randall will carry the students' papers to his office.

o Once you identify the verb, ask whether the verb was done to someone or something. For example: Will Randall carry someone or something? Yes, he will carry papers. Therefore, papers receives the action of the verb.

• The police have arrested the man who committed the robberies. o Identify the subject, find the verb the subject is engaged in, determine if it

is an action verb and then ask who or what is receiving the action.

In some cases the direct object may follow the indirect object. [In the following examples, the direct object is bold and the indirect object is underlined.]

• During the play's intermission, Alice gave Tracy her coat to hold. o The object receiving the action of the verb—in other words the object that

ALICE GAVE—is COAT, making it the direct object. TRACY received the direct object, making her the indirect object.

• Stephen offered his brother a chance to win a million dollars. o To determine the direct object find the verb and ask who or what the verb

acted upon.

• The director assigned the team a project that everyone else had refused. o To find the direct object ask what or whom about the subject and verb.

The director assigned WHAT? A project.

• After the marathon, race organizers furnished the participants a banana, a bottle of water and a t-shirt.

o More than one word can receive the action of the verb.

• The detective showed the witness a picture of a possible suspect in the assault.

o What did the detective show? Not the witness. The detective showed A PICTURE to the witness.

In some cases the direct object is an entire clause. Rather than a single word receiving the action of the verb, an entire clause receives the action. [In the following examples, the direct object is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• When questioned by police, Evan admitted he took the bicycle. o What Evan admitted is that he took the bicycle.

• On the way to the doctor's office, the child pretended she was not sick. o When you ask the question: The child pretended WHAT? the entire clause

is the answer. SHE WAS NOT SICK.

• A government official reported that agency funding would be cut by 25 percent.

o To find the direct object ask what or whom about the subject and verb. The official reported WHAT? That agency funding would be cut by 25 percent.

• Most Americans believe burning the flag should not be illegal. o What do Americans believe? Burning the flag should not be illegal.

• Although he is tired, Dexter said he will plant the garden for you. o What did Dexter say? He will plant the garden for you.

THE INDIRECT OBJECT

The indirect object is the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object.

Typically, an indirect object precedes the direct object and can be found by asking who or what received the direct object. [In the following examples, the indirect object is bold and the direct object is underlined.]

• If you would like, we can give Martha the tickets to tonight's game. o To determine the indirect object, ask whom or what received the direct

object.

• Emil sent his brother a postcard from the hotel. o Emil did not send his brother. He sent a postcard to his brother. The noun

receiving the direct object is the indirect object.

• Did the students give their teacher the assignment? o Look for the object that receives the action of the verb and then who or

what receives that object.

• After class, Randall will give the students their papers. o Once you identify the verb, ask whether the verb was done to someone or

something. For example: Will Randall give someone or something? Yes, he will give papers. To whom will he give them? Students. Students is the indirect object.

• Can you write the clerk a check for the groceries?

o Identify the subject, find the verb the subject is engaged in, determine if it is an action verb, ask who or what is receiving the action and then ask who or what is receiving that object.

THE OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION

Prepositions are small words that create a relationship between other words in a sentence by linking phrases to the rest of the sentence.

The nouns that follow them are objects of the preposition.

[In the following examples, the object of the preposition is bold and the preposition is underlined.]

• From the beginning of the storm, Dorothy was sure she would make it home.

o BEGINNING is the object of the preposition FROM and STORM is the object of the preposition OF.

• For many in the class, math proved to be the most challenging subject. o You can find the object of the preposition by asking the question what

about the preposition. e.g. For what? MANY. In what? CLASS.

• Until sunrise, the SWAT team will hide in the marsh. o The preposition UNTIL serves to connect its object (SUNRISE) with the

main clause. The preposition IN connects its object MARSH to the verb, making the whole phrase part of the complete predicate.

• The fuzzy, red cat on the fence wanders among the houses. o FENCE acts as the object of the preposition ON. The whole phrase acts as

part of the complete subject. HOUSES is the object of the preposition AMONG. The whole phrase acts as part of the complete predicate.

When a pronoun acts as an object of the preposition, it must take the objective case.


• Bill was more than a little irritated when the water balloon fell on him. o HIM acts as the object of the preposition ON. It is incorrect to write fell on

HE.

• Theo gave a dollar to Stephen and me to go to the store.

o Both STEPHEN and ME act as the object of the preposition TO. It would be incorrect to write TO STEPHEN AND I.

• It seems like a waste of time for you and me to drive to Portland for the game.

o Both YOU and ME act as the object of the preposition FOR.

THE OBJECT OF THE VERBAL

Verbals are forms of verbs used as other parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.

In some cases a noun will follow the verbal and "receive" it. That noun is called the object of the verbal.

As with other objects, it can be identified by asking what? or who? about the verbal.

[In the following examples, the object of the verbal is bold and the verbal is underlined.]

• Running the mile is a requirement for the course. o RUNNING is a verb used as a noun (a gerund) and MILE is the object of

that verbal.

• Most doctors warn their patients to quit smoking. o You can find the object of the verbal by asking the question what about

the verbal. e.g. TO QUIT what? SMOKING.

• Planning a surprise attack, the children hid behind their baby-sitter's chair.

o The participle PLANNING modifies the subject (CHILDREN), but the object of PLANNING, in other words, the thing "receiving" PLANNING, is the object of the verbal ATTACK.

• The contract offered the workers remains unsigned. o CONTRACT is the subject of the sentence and REMAINS is the verb.

OFFERED is a participle modifying the subject. WORKERS is the object of that verbal.

Sometimes the object of a verbal may be an entire clause rather than a single word.

[In the following examples, the object of the verbal is bold and the verbal is underlined.]

• Hoping the child was still alive, the rescue crews dug through the rubble.

o The participle HOPING modifies the subject (crews). The object of HOPING (i.e. the thing "receiving" HOPE) is the entire idea: THE CHILD WAS STILL ALIVE.

• Tamala never stopped to think she might be in danger. o TO THINK is an infinitive. Question: TO THINK WHAT? Answer: She

might be in danger.

• Patrick wondered whether signing the contract would make him rich. o SIGNING is a gerund. The contract is the object of the gerund. It

"receives" the gerund.

Not every verbal has an object. Sometimes, verbals are followed by prepositional phrases.

[In the following examples, the verbal is underlined and the prepositional phrase is bold.]

• Prepared for the worst, the neighbors waited outside of the burning house.

o The participle PREPARED modifies the subject (neighbors). Rather than answering the question what, the information following the verbal describes PREPARED. In other words, what kind of prepared was it.

• Alan, described by most as a "fanatic," had his entire body tattooed green and gold.

o DESCRIBED modifies ALAN. The prepositional phrase tells how or by whom he was described.

THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

The predicate nominative is the noun following a linking verb that restates or stands for the subject.

Typically, a predicate nominative has the same value or grammatical weight as the subject. [In the following examples, the predicate nominative is bold and the subject is underlined.]

• At the end of the tournament, Tiger Woods was the leader. o The subject and the predicate nominative are essentially the same thing.

• For many of us on the team, the fans were an embarrassment. o EMBARRASSMENT restates the subject FANS.

• When the plot is discovered, Andrea will be a suspect. o Look for the subject, decided whether the verb indicates a state of being

and find out what "state" the subject is in.

• Before the announcement, they were the favorites to win the contest. o Once you identify the verb, ask whether the verb was done to someone or

something. For example: Did THEY do something? No, they just were. What they were (FAVORITES) is the predicate nominative.

Predicate nominatives may follow linking verbs that are not the verb TO BE. [In the following examples, the predicate nominative is bold and the subject is underlined.]

• During the heat wave, dehydration became a threat for active citizens. o Nothing really happened here. The subject (dehydration) is something (a

threat).

• Serena's brother remains the leader in sales for this region. o To determine whether the subject is being linked to the predicate

nominative, replace the verb with the correct form of the verb TO BE. If it works, the verb is linking and if the word it links to the subject is a noun, it is the predicate nominative.

• The assistant's attitude seems a mystery to everyone involved. o Nothing happened. The subject (attitude) is something (a mystery).

Noun Practice Exercise

Choose an answer for each question. After completing the entire exercise, click on the "Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Would you donate a month's salary to our cause? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 2. Kathy buried her money in the yard. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the

preposition 3. The students watched a video about the Civil Rights Movement. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 4. Will Steve present the team leader a list of instructions? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 5. We heard that the new director is a scientist from Argentina. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 6. The clue did not help the contestants with the puzzle. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 7. Katie gave her daughter money for lunch. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 8. You will find the spices in the stove under the sink. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 9. The dog that Dennis gave his brother is a beagle. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 10. The announcement said that Ellen would be the new director of the department. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 11. Grace called to the girl who lives across the street. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 12. Bruce is often mistaken for the actor John Malkovich. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 13. Does Heather offer the customers ideas for how to solve the problems they

face? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 14. After waiting for Tom for an hour, Trishia decided to go to the movie alone. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 15. The deputy wrestled the criminal to the ground. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 16. Karen left the house without her watch or keys. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 17. The man who got arrested last week is the coach of the hockey team. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 18. Rich became the latest casualty of the slow economy. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 19. Altoids, a curiously strong peppermint, are made in England. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 20. Some of the contestants used tactics that seemed unethical. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition

Noun Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Would you donate a month's salary to our cause? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 2. Kathy buried her money in the yard. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the

preposition 3. The students watched a video about the Civil Rights Movement. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 4. Will Steve present the team leader a list of instructions? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 5. We heard that the new director is a scientist from Argentina. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 6. The clue did not help the contestants with the puzzle. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 7. Katie gave her daughter money for lunch. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 8. You will find the spices in the stove under the sink. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 9. The dog that Dennis gave his brother is a beagle. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 10. The announcement said that Ellen would be the new director of the department. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 11. Grace called to the girl who lives across the street. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 12. Bruce is often mistaken for the actor John Malkovich. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition

13. Does Heather offer the customers ideas for how to solve the problems they face? a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 14. After waiting for Tom for an hour, Trishia decided to go to the movie alone. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 15. The deputy wrestled the criminal to the ground. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 16. Karen left the house without her watch or keys. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 17. The man who got arrested last week is the coach of the hockey team. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 18. Rich became the latest casualty of the slow economy. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 19. Altoids, a curiously strong peppermint, are made in England. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition 20. Some of the contestants used tactics that seemed unethical. a. direct object b. predicate nominative c. indirect object d. object of the preposition

Interactive Noun Quiz 1

1. Please give me that book. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

2. He put the books on the desk. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

3. The conference participants studied the teachings of Ghandi. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

4. The last contestant was a visitor from Germany. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

5. The captain provided his officers a plan of attack. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

6. Did Joseph give the students the directions for their assignment? a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

7. Susan did not offer her candy to any of the other kids. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

8. They are hiding in the closet. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

9. The woman who won the award is Tom's neighbor. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

10. Wayne will send you a postcard from Italy. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

11. She waved to the child standing on the platform. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

12. She reminded the audience of Grace Kelly. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

13. Some would argue that the presidency has been made into a joke. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

14. Their understanding of the situation has helped the athlete's chances of winning the competition. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

15. Sharon thinks Tom is the best person for the job. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

16. She boarded the plane with a dog hidden in her purse. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

17. The car that has been on the corner all week is a Pinto. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

18. Robert saved a cookie for his daughter. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

19. The Hope Diamond, which is truly remarkable, is rarely worn in public. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

20. Many of the writers submitted work that was too terrible to publish. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

Interactive Noun Quiz 2

1. Will you deliver the flowers to the address on the card? a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

2. Susie will be going home after the test. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

3. In the past, children have enjoyed reading stories about magical creatures. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

4. The woman on the corner is a firefighter from Texas. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

5. Neil gave his sister a book about growing orchids. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

6. Will the mechanic be finished with the car before your vacation? a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

7. Peter did not share his homework answers with his classmates. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

8. The oranges are on the counter in the basket. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

9. The man featured on the show was a doctor before he quit to paint. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

10. Jay sent his colleagues a note about why he quit his job. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

11. He prepared the students for the possibility of a pop quiz. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

12. Phil planned a party for his grandmother. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

13. The reporter revealed that the firm's money had been sunk into junk bonds. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

14. Giving a bonus to employees may improve their performance on the job. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

15. The nine-year-old boy was an unlikely hero. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

16. James disappeared from the campground without a trace. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

17. The dogs hiding under her porch are shepards. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

18. Alexi poured the water on his sister's head. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

19. The shirt Lois gave Ted for his birthday is in the dresser. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

20. The sales agent presented the client's bid for the property. a. direct object b. indirect object c. object of the preposition d. predicate nominative

PRONOUNS

Most simply, pronouns stand in for nouns. They allow us to eliminate the repetition and awkwardness that would come with having to use nouns repeatedly.

For example, consider the following sentences written with pronouns and nouns and then with nouns alone.

Alan was excited when the editor for The Utne Reader called him to ask for permission to reprint an article he wrote for Atlantic Monthly about his experiences in the Philippines.

Alan was excited when the editor for The Utne Reader called Alan to ask for permission to reprint an article Alan wrote for Atlantic Monthly about Alan's experiences in the Philippines.

There are six types of pronouns to consider: (1) personal pronoun, (2) relative pronoun, (3) indefinite pronoun, (4) demonstrative pronoun, (5) interrogative pronoun, and (6) reflexive pronoun.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns stand in for people, places, things and ideas.

(1st person)-- I, Me, My, Mine

(2nd Person)-- You, Your, Yours

(3rd Person)-- He, Him, His, She, Her, Hers, They, Them, Theirs, We, Us, Ours, It, Its, Who, Whom

What pronoun is used depends on the case

(Subjective/Nominative)

I, You, She, He, They, We, It, Who

(Objective)

Me, You, Him, Her, Them, Us, It, Whom

(Possessive)

Mine, Yours, His, Hers, Theirs,

Ours, Its, Whose

[In the following examples, the personal pronoun is bold.]

• The boy hopes that someone will give him a cookie from the table. o The objective form of the pronoun is used because the pronoun HIM is an

indirect object.

• Does Jim think that he will be able to attend the lecture. o The subjective form of the pronoun is used because HE is the subject for

the verb WILL BE ABLE.

• Will Alexis donate her dresses to the celebrity auction. o The possesive form of the pronoun (HER) is used to denote owndership.

• Did Arnold offer them a ride to the game. o The objective form of the pronoun is used because THEM is an indirect

object.

• Who will be attending the reception? o The subjective form of the pronoun is used because WJO is the subject for

the verb WILL BE ATTENDING.

• Can Connor bring his puppy to school. o The possesive form of the pronoun (HIS) is used to denote owndership.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns relate to another noun preceding it in the sentence. In doing so, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent (i.e., a noun that precedes the pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns acts as the subject or object of the dependent clause.

Consider the following sentence where the relative pronoun is a subject:

• The chef who won the competition studied in Paris. o In this sentence, WHO relates back to (or is relative to) the noun CHEF.

WHO also acts as the subject of the dependent clause and the verb WON. The independent clause is: The chef studied in Paris.

In this sentence, the relative pronoun is an object in the dependent clause.

• The shirt that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket.

o In this sentence, THAT relates back to (or is relative to) the noun SHIRT. THAT is also the object of the verb BOUGHT. The dependent clause is: that Carl bought. The independent clause is: The shirt has a stain on the pocket.

Which relative pronoun to use is determined by what the antecedent is and whether the dependent clause is essential information in relation to the independent clause.

When referring to people use these relative pronouns:

(A person)--

Who, Whom, Whoever, Whomever

These pronouns take a different case depending on whether the relative pronoun is a subject or an object in the dependent clause. Therefore, it becomes critical to not only know the subject and object forms of these pronouns but to be able to identify how they are being used in the dependent clause.

Determining the case of relative pronouns:

When these relative pronouns are the subject (initiating the action) of the dependent clause, use the subjective case.

Subjective/Nominative case Who, Whoever

• Negotiations were not going smoothly between the two leaders, who made no bones about not liking each other.

o WHO relates back to the noun LEADERS and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb MADE.

• Hillary Clinton's staff said it was the first lady who wasn't feeling well. o WHO relates back to the noun FIRST LADY and is the subject of the

dependent clause and the verb WAS FEELING.

• Most workers, whoever was not employed by the auto manufacturer, toiled at one of the millions of little minnow companies.

o WHOEVER relates back to the noun WORKERS and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb WAS EMPLOYED.

When these relative pronouns are the object (receiving the action) of the dependent clause, use the objective case

Objective case Whom, Whomever

• Clinton knows that he is a polarizing figure whom people either love or hate.

o WHOM relates back to the noun FIGURE and is the object of the verbs LOVE and HATE. The subject of the dependent clause is PEOPLE.

• This is the approach taken by journalists, whom some consider to be objective.

o WHOM relates back to the noun JOURNALISTS and is the object of the verb CONSIDER. The subject of the dependent clause is SOME.

• The three representatives, whomever the committee chooses, should be at the meeting tomorrow.

o WHOMEVER relates back to the noun REPRESENTATIVES and is the object of the verb CHOOSES. The subject of the dependent clause is COMMITTEE.

Remember: Who and whom can be interrogative or personal pronouns rather than relative pronouns.

A relative pronoun must refer to a noun preceding it.

• The man whom he most admires will be here tonight. o In this example whom is a relative pronoun to MAN.

• Whom does he most admire? o In this example whom is an interrogative pronoun.

• The candidate will choose who will act as campaign direct. o In this example who is a personal pronoun.

When referring to a place, thing or idea use these relative pronouns:

(A place, thing or idea)-- Which, That

When using relative pronouns for places, things or ideas, rather than determining case, the writer must decide whether the information in the dependent clause is essential to the meaning of the dependent clause or simply additional information.

Determining the correct relative pronoun:

When information is critical to the understanding of the main clause, use THAT as the appropriate relative pronoun and do not set the information off by commas. The clause containing the pronoun and not set off by commas is referred to as a restrictive clause.

(Restrictive)-- That

• Russian generals have delivered a message that is difficult to ignore. o THAT relates back to the noun MESSAGE and is necessary for the reader

to know what MESSAGE the sentence is about.

• Clinton will continue to hammer out a historic Mideast pact that bears his stamp.

o THAT relates back to the noun PACT and is necessary for the reader to know what PACTthe sentence is about.

• There is another factor that obviously boosts the reputation of both of these men.

o THAT relates back to the noun FACTOR and is necessary for the reader to know what FACTOR the sentence is about.

When information is NOT critical to the understanding of the main clause, use WHICH as the appropriate relative pronoun and set the information off by commas. The clause set off by commas is referred to as a nonrestrictive dependent clause.

(Nonrestrictive)-- Which

Nonrestrictive relative pronouns describe, add incidental detail or begin new/separate ideas. There is usually a comma separating the non-restrictive clause from the main/independent clause

• The toughest intramural fight of all for Clinton was the North American Free Trade Agreement, which he undertook a full year before the 1994 election.

o WHICH relates back to the noun AGREEMENT and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what AGREEMENT the sentence is about.

• Clinton refused to head toward the center on affirmative action and abortion, which are the two most sacred issues to the traditional liberal wing of the party.

o WHICH relates back to the noun AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND ABORTION and the information following it is not necessary for the

reader to know what AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND ABORTION the sentence is about.

When referring to more than one place, thing or idea use these relative pronouns:

(Compound)-- Whatever, Whichever

• The three approaches, whichever works is fine, produce a more ambiguous picture of a man.

o WHICHEVER relates to the noun APPROACHES and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

• Any excessive profits, whatever exceeded accepted limits, would attract the notice of representatives.

o WHATEVER relates to the noun PROFITS and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to an unknown or undetermined person, place or thing.

Care must be taken to identify whether the pronoun is singular or plural to assure the proper conjugation of the verb.

Indefinite pronouns that are always singular:

Some indefinite pronouns always take a singular verb, which means that the verb is conjugated for a singular subject. For example:

• Neither of the doctors plans to solve Aaron's injury with surgery. o In this sentence, NEITHER is the subject. Because NEITHER is singular,

it takes a single verb. In other words, the verb is conjugated as if the subject is a single person: NEITHER PLANS. Just as we would write THE DOCTOR PLANS.

Always singular

Another, Anyone, Anything, Each, Either No One, Neither, Nobody, One, Someone, S

[In the following examples, the indefinite pronoun is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• Every season another of the players attempts to break McGuire's record. • Whatever anyone says about Clinton's veracity about his private life,

when it came to the economy he absolutely kept his word • Someone on Gore's staff mumbles that Tipper isn't feeling well and that

the Vice President has to take her home. • Another is that Bill Clinton seems particularly unsuited to passively

letting his last year slip by uneventfully.

Indefinite pronouns that are always plural:

Some indefinite pronouns always take a plural verb, which means that the verb is conjugated for a plural subject. For example:

• Both of the divers claim responsibility for finding the treasure first. o In this sentence, BOTH is the subject. Because BOTH is plural it takes a

plural verb. In other words, the verb is conjugated as if the subject is more than one person: BOTH CLAIM. Just as we would write THE DIVERS CLAIM.

Always plural Both, Few, Many, Several

[In the following examples, the indefinite pronoun is bold and the verb is underlined.]

• Both have paid tacit homage to this new reality. • Many concede that the party had to change. • A few make the same point but much more forcefully. • Several of the bills that he signed contain provisions he abhorred but

promised to fix.

Indefinite pronouns that may be singular or plural:

Some of them may take a plural or singular verb depending on the meaning. For example:

• Some of the money remains unclaimed. o In this sentence, SOME is the subject and the object of the preposition

MONEY indicates whether the verb should be singular or plural. Because MONEY in this sentence is a single unit, the verb is singular. SOME REMAINS.

• Some of the children hide from the teacher.

o In this sentence, SOME is the subject and the object of the preposition CHILDREN indicates whether the verb should be singular or plural. Because CHILDREN in this sentence is plural, the verb is plural. SOME HIDE.

Either plural or singular

All, Most, None, Some

• All of the traditional groups we count on to re-elect us are against NAFTA.

• Almost all of the money in the budget is being diverted from those programs.

• None of the ways of looking at a President's legacy is simple. • It would seem as if none of the relief supplies were actually delivered. • Some of the pundits say that Bush is in danger of being made into Dan

Quayle. • Experts believe some of the negative campaigning appears to have run

its course.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns stand in for a person, place or thing that must be pointed to. They may function as subjects, objects or objects of the preposition

When referring to a singular place, thing or idea use these demonstrative pronouns:

(Singular demonstrative pronoun)-- This, That

• As a subject: o This has been a difficult decade for the U.S. Presidency. o That is whom you should meet at the dinner at the Corcoran

Gallery. • As a direct object:

o Would you deliver this? o The demands on the President's time had knocked that off the

schedule. • As an object of the preposition:

o Does the shirt you bough go with this? o Steve will put the a new coat of paint on that if necessary.

When referring to a plural place, thing or idea use these demonstrative pronouns:

(Plural demonstrative pronoun)-- These, Those

• As a subject: o These are the preferred pens in this department. o Those attempting to purchase handguns must wait seven days.

• As a direct object: o Will Alan find these in time? o Beth donated those to the team.

• As an object of the preposition: o Please climb over these before you continue the course. o Chris can work with those.

BEWARE: Remember just like other pronouns, a demonstrative pronoun stands in for a noun. The same words that act as demonstrative pronouns may act as adjectives when they are used to modify a noun rather than stand in for it. For example:

THIS

• Demonstrative pronoun: o This will lead us to the car.

• Adjective o This path is taking us in the wrong direction.

THAT

• Demonstrative pronoun: o That is not the best approach.

• Adjective o That approach will not work.

THOSE

• Demonstrative pronoun: o Those will work just fine.

• Adjective o Those plants were damaged by the frost.

THESE

• Demonstrative pronoun: o These look edible.

• Adjective o These berries are delicious.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are aptly named. They basically stand in for the answer to the question being asked. When they are not acting as interrogative pronouns, some may act as relative pronouns. Once again, it depends on their function in the sentence.

Interrogative pronoun are always found in questions:

(Interrogative pronoun)--

Who, Whom, Which, What, Whose

Remember: Who = Subject Whom = Object

In these examples, the interrogative pronoun stands in for the answer to the question.

• Who saw the future clearly? Who embraced it? • Whom did she choose from the Carter White House? • Which would you prefer from your president? • What was his most impressive example of presidential leadership? • Whose are you going to choose for the exhibit?

In these examples, the same words are relative pronoun.

• The man whom she chose will do a wonderful job. • The Grand Canyon, which is remarkable, is Eldon's favorite place to

visit. • Our guy next door, who is on trial, never did fit inot the neighborhood.

In these examples, the same words are personal pronoun.

• You will need to decide which is the best product. • Frank will decide whom the animals will work with. • We all decided who will lead the parade.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns "reflect" the person to whom the pronoun refers.

They are the "self"ish pronouns. With that said, it is easiest to identify them by remembering that they are the pronouns that end with "self" or "selves."

Reflexive pronouns always act as OBJECTS not subjects, and they require an interaction between the subject or subject(s) and an object. They are typically indirect objects, diect objects and appositives.

• Because she was not hungry when the cake was served, Ellen saved herself a piece.

• In the independent clause, ELLEN is the subject and HERSELF is a reflexive pronoun acting as the indirect object. This sentence is grammatically correct.

• Wilson and myself are going to the movie.

• In this sentence, WILSON and MYSELF are the subjects. REFLEXIVE pronouns cannot be subjects. This sentence is grammatically incorrect.

Care must be taken to identify whether the noun is singular or plural and choose the pronoun accordingly.

Always singular myself, himself, herself, yourself, itself

• Adding to the confusion were the politics and sheer tenacity of the man himself.

• Nor is she shy about giving herself credit for it. • "I like to describe myself as the first post-Cold War President," Clinton

said.

Always plural ourselves, themselves, yourselves

• We gave ourselves a second chance to complete the course.

• Did they lock themselves out of the house again? • Give yourselves a pat on the back for a job well done.

Pronoun Practice Exercise


Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Those are Tom's. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 2. They didn't give themselves a chance to think before beginning the competition. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 3. The dog that bit her brother belongs to the man down the road. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 4. Do you know when the movie starts? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 5. They think hers is the most interesting submission. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 6. The audience sat transfixed as the woman who had just won the award fell down the stairs. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 7. Someone will need to finish doing the lunch dishes before Don fixes dinner. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 8. Have you been there before? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

9. The studio plans to give them each a fruit basket. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 10. Ted will choose where they going because either of the options works for Alicia. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 11. As hard as Margaret tries, most of her meal still ends up on her bib. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 12. Who will be leading the graduation procession this year? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 13. Clayton yelled to his sister, "Give me that!" a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 14. Before leaving the theater, Benjamin asked himself, "Why did I waste money on this movie?" a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 15. The Sears Tower, which is no longer the tallest building in the world, is still quite impressive. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 16. Would you slow down on that gallon of ice cream and leave the rest of us some? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 17. The team is going the restaurant that is closest to the stadium. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 18. Sarah wears high heels to work every day, but she doesn't like them. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

19. The whole thing makes a person wonder who would be foolish enough to jump from a cliff. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 20. You may want to eat sea cucumber, but Robin does not like it. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

Pronoun Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Those are Tom's. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 2. They didn't give themselves a chance to think before beginning the competition. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 3. The dog that bit her brother belongs to the man down the road. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 4. Do you know when the movie starts? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 5. They think hers is the most interesting submission. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 6. The audience sat transfixed as the woman who had just won the award fell down the stairs. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 7. Someone will need to finish doing the lunch dishes before Don fixes dinner. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

8. Have you been there before? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 9. The studio plans to give them each a fruit basket. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 10. Ted will choose where they going because either of the options works for Alicia. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 11. As hard as Margaret tries, most of her meal still ends up on her bib. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 12. Who will be leading the graduation procession this year? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 13. Clayton yelled to his sister, "Give me that!" a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 14. Before leaving the theater, Benjamin asked himself, "Why did I waste money on this movie?" a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 15. The Sears Tower, which is no longer the tallest building in the world, is still quite impressive. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 16. Would you slow down on that gallon of ice cream and leave the rest of us some? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 17. The team is going the restaurant that is closest to the stadium. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative

pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 18. Sarah wears high heels to work every day, but she doesn't like them. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 19. The whole thing makes a person wonder who would be foolish enough to jump from a cliff. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun 20. You may want to eat sea cucumber, but Robin does not like it. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

Interactive Pronoun Quiz 1

1. Have you had any of those. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

2. Tim saved himself an extra serving of ice cream, and his brother was jealous. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

3. The soldier who spotted the sniper saved the platoon and won a medal. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

4. Kathy knows who will be taking her place. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

5. I know you like the flavor of ice cream you have, but please try his and tell me what you think. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

6. The snake that startled Melissa was more frightened than she was. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

7. Did you find anyone to take your shift next Friday so you can go the concert? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

8. Bob smiled and asked, "Would you please hand me that?" a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

9. When Enid catches the hikers, maybe she should offer them some of her water. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

10. Neither of the movies that Margaret wants to see are of interest to Shawna. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

11. Rest assured that some of the vegetables will be left and none of the dessert will. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

12. Which of these would you like to wear to the awards dinner? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

13. Did Gwen want these? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

14. The company provided itself every opportunity to succeed. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

15. "The West Wing," which is Karen's favorite show, won several Emmys this year. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

16. Did the letter carrier bring anything for Eli? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

17. The dirt that is piled behind Randy's house is for his new vegetable garden. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

18. Would Bob like Sally to come to the presentation or is he more comfortable going alone? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

19. Whom did you pick to win the league championship? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

20. When Dick finds the key, he will put it some place safe. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

Interactive Pronoun Quiz 2

1. Who gave you these? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

2. The goalie needs to protect herself when the ball is kicked right at her head. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

3. Alex longed for the car that he saw in the magazine. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

4. Several experts have opinions about who will be the next president. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

5. David doesn't want their help. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

6. Martina's friend Stacy, who always seems to get in trouble, is not someone her parents approve of. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

7. Mindy is sure that someone was in her house while she was away. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

8. It would be kind if you saved those to share with the guests when they arrive. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

9. Does your Subaru have heated seats like Ann's does? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

10. Juliet doesn't want either of the gifts Katherine brought her. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

11. Many consider booing during a free throw rude and unfair. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

12. Whom did Dorothy choose to receive the computer? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

13. Andrea will not like that. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

14. The king himself came to visit Henry in the hospital. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

15. If the team is cautious they will avoid the problems that plagued the other group. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

16. Pamela wanted to say something to the taxi driver about the red light, but she was too scared to speak. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

17. In October, the woman who would eventually go to Sydney and win a gold medal visited Harry's class. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

18. Will she get here before the bell rings? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

19. What are the chances that the Beavers will go to the Rose Bowl? a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

20. After the presentation ended, we went out for coffee. a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. demonstrative pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. interrogative pronoun

Adjectives

Very simply, adjectives modify nouns. This means that they may modify any verb including:

A subject:

• The volatile Bobby Knight has been accused of choking a player.

A direct object:

• Tom threw the slimy ball for his dog, Rover.

An indirect object:

• After the last out, David Justice tossed the excited child the game ball.

A gerund

• Cecilia enjoys distance running.

A predicate nominative:

• They didn't know that Caroline was a decorated fire fighter.

Adjectives are divided into categories as a way of understanding their purpose.

1. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE:

These types of adjectives add detail or description to the noun.

[In the following examples, the adjective is bold and the noun is underlined.]

• When Tennessee and Connecticut first met in women's basketball in 1995, it was a nice made-for-TV game between an established power and one on the rise.

o NICE describes the predicate nominative GAME and ESTABLISHED describes the object of the preposition POWER.

Note: In this sentence, ESTABLISHED is also a participle. • The tall man thought he could reach the top shelf of the bookcase.

o TALL describes the subject MAN and TOP describes the direct object SHELF.

• After the difficult surgery, the famous doctors to a nap. o DIFFICULT modifies the object of the preposition SURGERY and

FAMOUS describes the subject DOCTOR. • A worthwhile rivalry had been born.

o WORTHWHILE describes the subject RIVALRY. • Monica said, "Wow, this is a great game."

o GREAT describes the predicate nominative GAME.

2. LIMITING ADJECTIVE:

These types of adjectives specify or limit the noun.

[In the following examples, the adjective is bold and the noun is underlined.]

• The two teams have met every season since 1932.

o TWO tells us how many TEAMS and EVERY tells us how many SEASONS.

Note: It does not describe the teams; it tells us which ones to limit our attention to.

• Saturday, Oregon plays USC before what should be a sellout crowd. o SELLOUT tells us what size of crowd. A specific number would also be

limiting. • Did Garret see this article that appeared in the paper?

o THIS indicates which "limited" article. Note: In this sentence, THIS is NOT a demonstrative pronoun.

• Will you be sitting at the captain's table this evening? o CAPTAIN'S limits what table we are considering.

Note: This type of possessive is called a possessive noun. • This season, the two are meeting on a home-and-home basis, unusual

for non-conference rivals. o HOME-AND-HOME limits the basis for meeting.

Note: We use hyphens to connect words that work together to modify the noun.

3. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE:

This is a special type of adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies (directly refers to) the subject of the sentence.

[In the following examples, the predicate adjective is bold and the subject/noun is underlined.]

• People are interested in this game. o ARE is a linking verb connecting the subject PEOPLE with its descriptor

of equal weight INTERESTED. Note: The descriptor is an adjective; therefore, it is a predicate

adjective. A noun would be a predicate nominative. • Watching the championship was fun.

o WAS is a linking verb connecting the subject WATCHING with its descriptor of equal weight FUN.

Note: WATCHING is the form of a verb used as a noun—a gerund.

• Don argues that cheering for a team can be nerve-wracking, too. o CAN BE is a linking verb connecting the subject CHEERING with its

descriptor of equal weight NERVE-WRACKING. Note: CHEERING is the form of a verb used as a noun—a gerund.

• If you're not careful, the whole group is going to judge you on what you do on this day.

o ARE in the contraction YOU'RE is a linking verb connecting the subject YOU with its descriptor of equal weight CAREFUL.

• The two teams look very similar in the tempo that they play. o LOOK is a linking verb connecting the subject TEAMS with its descriptor

of equal weight SIMILAR. Note: TO BE is not the only linking verb.

• Stan does not seem scared of them.

DOES SEEM is a linking verb connecting the subject STAN with its descriptor of equal weight SCARED.s

4. VERBALS AS ADJECTIVES:

Two types of verbals can acts as adjectives. Participles are always adjectives and may end in EN, ED or ING. Infinitives (TO+VERB) may act as adjectives, adverbs or nouns.

[In the following examples, the verbal is bold and the noun it modifies is underlined.]

• Playing tough defense, both teams push the ball up the floor and score a lot of points.

o PLAYING modifies or describes the subject TEAMS. It is not the verb for the subject, but rather it describes the subject.

Note: PUSH and SCORE are the verbs for the subject TEAMS. • Connecticut, averaging 90.3 points, is winning by an average of 29.

o AVERAGING describes CONNECTICUT. It is not the verb for the subject, but rather it describes the subject.

Note: IS WINNING is the verb for the subject CONNECTICUT. • USC, shocked by a loss to OSU in its season opener, has little hope of

going to the Rose Bowl. o SHOCKED describes USC. It is not the verb for the subject, but rather it

describes the subject. Note: HAS is the verb for the subject USC.

• It will be an interesting game to watch. o TO WATCH modifies the predicate nominative GAME.

5. DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are used to indicate levels, degrees of intensity or comparison

high ____ base higher ____ comparative highest ____ superlative

• When comparing two things always use the comparative. For example in a comparison between two people the correct usage would be: Bill is taller. Bill is the tallest would require that there be more than two people.

6. ARTICLES [ Go to top]

Some sources identify the articles A, AN, THE as adjectives.

• The tempo of the game could reflect a track meet more than a basketball game.

• Tennessee no longer has Chamique Holdsclaw, twice the national player of the year.

• But the Lady Vols have an outstanding combination in Tamika Catchings, Semeka Randall and Kristen Clement.

Note: Use "A" before words that begin with a consonant or consonant sounds. Note: Us "An" before words that begin with a vowel or vowel sound.

Adjective Practice Exercise

Identify the adjectives in each sentence as well as the nouns they modify. Are they simple adjectives, predicate adjectives or participles? After indentifying the adjectives in the entire exercise, click on the "Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Stephen seemed angry after he finished the new book. 2. Martin's diligent studying has made the difference in his grade. 3. Before the next meeting, the president will meet with the marketing staff. 4. Alabama's governor replied quickly to the blunt question. 5. Their old dog has stopped retrieving the daily newspaper. 6. The painted dresser, which looked blue last evening, has green highlights. 7. The conductor was completely delighted with our strong performance. 8. Professor Dumbledore made a surprise announcement: Harry would compete in the upcoming tournament. 9. They answered the challenging questions but missed the easy ones. 10. Ted's father provided him a weekly allowance. 11. Running for the downtown bus, Erica felt ill.

12. Either book that you choose is fine; She likes most anything. 13. The weary traveler tipped his battered hat and lowered his head. 14. "Those shoes are mine," the cranky child told the babysitter. 15. Would you mind saving Lucy a small serving of that chocolate cake? 16. The man who returned the money refused a reward. 17. Hank waved enthusiastically at Steve. 18. William will mail you a long letter describing his many adventures this summer. 19. The civil engineer studied stream movements for supporting evidence that the salmon were thriving. 20. Giving money to charity is his greatest joy.

Adjective Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Stephen seemed angry after he finished the new book.

• ANGRY is a predicate adjective linked back to the subject STEPHEN by the linking verb SEEMED.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying BOOK. • NEW is an adjective modifying BOOK.

2. Martin's diligent studying has made the difference in his grade.

• MARTIN'S is a possessive noun acting as an adjective modifying STUDYING.

• DILIGENT is an adjective modifying STUDYING. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying DIFFERENCE. • HIS is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying

GRADE.

3. Before the next meeting, the president will meet with the marketing staff.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying MEETING. • NEXT is an adjective modifying MEETING. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying PRESIDENT. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying STAFF. • MARKETING is a participle acting as an adjective modifying

STAFF.

4. Alabama's governor replied quickly to the blunt question.

• ALABAMA'S is a possessive noun acting as an adjective modifying GOVERNOR.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying QUESTION. • BLUNT is an adjective modifying QUESTION.

5. Their old dog has stopped retrieving the daily newspaper.

• THEIR is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying DOG.

• OLD is an adjective modifying DOG. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying NEWSPAPER. • DAILY is an adjective modifying NEWSPAPER.

6. The painted dresser, which looked blue last evening, has green highlights.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying DRESSER. • PAINTED is a participle acting as an adjective modifying

DRESSER. • BLUE is a predicate adjective linked back to the subject WHICH by

the linking verb LOOKED. • LAST is an adjective modifying EVENING. • GREEN is an adjective modifying HIGHLIGHTS.

7. The conductor was completely delighted with our strong performance.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying CONDUCTOR. • DELIGHTED is a predicate adjective linked back to the subject

CONDUCTOR by the linking verb WAS. • OUR is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying

PERFORMANCE. • STRONG is an adjective modifying PERFORMANCE.

8. Professor Dumbledore made a surprise announcement: Harry would compete in the upcoming tournament.

• A is an article acting as an adjective modifying ANNOUNCEMENT. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying TOURNAMENT. • SURPRISE is an adjective modifying ANNOUNCEMENT. • UPCOMING is an adjective modifying TOURNAMENT.

9. They answered the challenging questions but missed the easy ones.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying QUESTIONS. • CHALLENGING is a participle acting as an adjective modifying

QUESTIONS. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying ONES. • EASY is an adjective modifying ONES.

10. Ted's father provided him a weekly allowance.

• TED'S is a possessive noun acting as an adjective modifying FATHER.

• A is an article acting as an adjective modifying ALLOWANCE. • WEEKLY is an adjective modifying ALLOWANCE.

11. Running for the downtown bus, Erica felt ill.

• RUNNING is a participle acting as an adjective modifying ERICA. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying BUS. • DOWNTOWN is an adjective modifying BUS. • ILL is a predicate adjective linked back to the subject ERICA by the

linking verb FELT.

12. Either book that you choose is fine; She likes most anything.

• EITHER is an adjective modifying BOOK. (Note EITHER is only an indefinite pronoun when it stands in for a noun; not when it modifies a noun.)

• FINE is a predicate adjective linked back to the subject BOOK by the linking verb IS.

• MOST is an adjective modifying ANYTHING.

13. The weary traveler tipped his battered hat and lowered his head.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying TRAVELER. • WEARY is an adjective modifying TRAVELER. • HIS is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying HAT. • BATTERED is a participle acting as an adjective modifying HAT. • HIS is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying HEAD.

14. "Those shoes are mine," the cranky child told the babysitter.

• THOSE is an adjective modifying SHOES. (Note THOSE is only a demonstrative pronoun when it stands in for a noun; not when it modifies a noun.)

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying CHILD. • CRANKY is a an adjective modifying CHILD. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying BABYSITTER.

15. Would you mind saving Lucy a small serving of that chocolate cake?

• A is an article acting as an adjective modifying SERVING. • SMALL is an adjective modifying SERVING. • THAT is an adjective modifying CAKE. (Note THAT is only a

demonstrative pronoun when it stands in for a noun; not when it modifies a noun.)

• CHOCOLATE is an adjective modifying CAKE.

16. The man who returned the money refused a reward.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying MAN. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying MONEY. • A is an article acting as an adjective modifying REWARD.

17. Hank waved enthusiastically at Steve.

• This sentence has no adjectives.

18. William will mail you a long letter describing his many adventures this summer.

• A is an article acting as an adjective modifying LETTER. • LONG is an adjective modifying LETTER. • DESCRIBING is a participle acting as an adjective modifying

LETTER.

• HIS is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying ADVENTURES.

• MANY is an adjective modifying ADVENTURES. • THIS is an adjective modifying SUMMER. (Note THIS is only a

demonstrative pronoun when it stands in for a noun, not when it modifies a noun.)

19. The civil engineer studied stream movements for supporting evidence that the salmon were thriving.

• THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying ENGINEER. • CIVIL is an adjective modifying ENGINEER. • STREAM is an adjective modifying MOVEMENTS. • SUPPORTING is a participle acting as an adjective modifying

EVIDENCE. • THE is an article acting as an adjective modifying SALMON.

20. Giving money to charity is his greatest joy.

• HIS is a possessive pronoun acting as an adjective modifying JOY. • GREATEST is an adjective modifying JOY.

Adverbs

An adverb modifies--changes, enhances, limits, describes, intensifies, muffles--a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

ANSWERS THE QUESTION HOW?

[In the following examples, the adverb is bold and the word it modifies is underlined.]

• It isn't just the practice, studying, running, bad days, great days and traveling that experienced players handle well.

o WELL tells us how the players HANDLE things.

• They have quickly figured out how to deal with their boss. o QUICKLY tells us how they HAVE FIGURED OUT.

• It's nice to have a group that handles the situations better than others have.

o BETTER describes how the group HANDLES the direct objects SITUATIONS.

• Either they sit quietly and watch, not taking a side, or find themselves actually rooting for one of these two.

o QUIETLY describes how they SIT.

INDICATES TO WHAT DEGREE?

• This has been a really nice group to work with," Penn State coach Rene Portland said of her team.

o To what degree is the group nice? REALLY. NOTE: NICE is an adjective. This is an example of an adverb

modifying an adjective.

• How do so-called neutral fans react to this game between two programs they certainly respect but probably can't stand?

o What kind of neutral are the fans? SO-CALLED. NOTE: NEUTRAL is an adjective.

• The coach did not sound overly concerned about it. o What is the degree of concern not expressed? OVERLY

NOTE: CONCERNED is a PREDICATE adjective.

• She is not sure our crowd will bother them that much. o To what degree will the crowd bother them? MUCH.

ANSWERS THE QUESTION WHEN?

• We are in a busy time now," the mayor said. o When is the busy time? NOW.

NOTE: ARE is not a linking verb here. It is intransitive.

• "Confident" would not have described the student yesterday. o When was the STUDENT not CONFIDENT? YESTERDAY

• Recently, we've allowed her to sneak outside and play the wing. o WHEN has she been allowed? RECENTLY.

ANSWERS THE QUESTION WHERE?

• The little girl plays inside quietly. o Where does she play well? INSIDE.

NOTE: QUIETLY is also an adverb telling us how she plays.

• Recently, we've allowed her to sneak outside and play. o OUTSIDE tells us where she has been allowed to sneak.

• The goat has climbed out. o OUT indicates where THE GOAT has climbed.

An adverb can also introduce sentences or modify entire phrases or sentences.

• Thursday, NBC will show the premieres of its best shows. o THURSDAY tells the reader when about the whole sentence.

Adverbs may refer to:

• TIME (He arrived promptly.) • MANNER (Cougars walk silently.) • DEGREE (She was quite miserable.) • PLACE (The book belongs there.)

Adverb Practice Exercise

Identify the adverbs in each sentence as well as the words they modify. After completing the entire exercise, click on the "Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Marcella, deposit the money safely in the most powerful vault. 2. The recently found journal said Wallace was so lost that he just wandered aimlessly in circles. 3. Running quickly for the endzone, the widely recruited fullback tripped. 4. Lynne pushed the most talented students so they would finish the assignment quickly. 5. The author was quite annoyed when she determined that the publisher was very dishonest. 6. Wendy threw the garbage out, but the flies would not leave. 7. After she looked carefully in both directions, Amitabha sprinted across.

8. Now that Royce has arrived safely, the group can settle down. 9. Their most talented competitor still will not defeat our top contender. 10. Always think positively when you are presented an opportunity to succeed. 11. The CEO feels unusually tense today. 12. Ginger spoke glowingly of Kyoko's extraordinary acting skills. 13. The children's teacher announced that their class was the most highly rated in the district. 14. Greg's mule accepted every task willingly. 15. You should put that hibiscus inside. 16. In the winter, New York is much colder than Florida. 17. Hank waved enthusiastically at Steve. 18. Speak softly into the microphone or we will suffer greatly. 19. When Thomas pounded firmly on the door, he woke the sleeping baby. 20. "Grammar is so difficult and quite boring," the overworked student complained bitterly.

Adverb Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. Marcella, deposit the money safely in the most powerful vault.

• SAFELY is an adverb modifying the verb DEPOSIT. • MOST is an adverb modifying the adverb POWERFUL

2. The recently found journal said Wallace was so lost that he just wandered aimlessly in circles.

• RECENTLY is an adverb modifying the adjective FOUND.

• SO is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective LOST. • AIMLESSLY is an adverb modifying the verb WANDERED.

3. Running quickly for the endzone, the widely recruited fullback tripped.

• QUICKLY an adverb modifying the participle RUNNING. • WIDELY is an adverb modifying the participle RECRUITED.

4. Lynne pushed the most talented students so they would finish the assignment quickly.

• MOST is an adverb modifying the participle TALENTED. • QUICKLY is an adverb modifying the verb WOULD FINISH.

5. The author was quite annoyed when she determined that the publisher was very dishonest.

• QUITE is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective ANNOYED. • VERY is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective DISHONEST.

6. Wendy threw the garbage out, but the flies would not leave.

• OUT is an adverb modifying the verb THREW. • NOT is an adverb modifying the verb WOULD LEAVE.

7. After she looked carefully in both directions, Amitabha sprinted across.

• CAREFULLY an adverb modifying the verb LOOKED. • ACROSS is an adverb modifying the verb SPRINTED.

8. Now that Royce has arrived safely, the group can settle down.

• NOW is an adverb modifying the entire clause. • DOWN is an adverb modifying the verb CAN SETTLE.

9. Their most talented competitor still will not defeat our top contender.

• MOST is an adverb modifying the adjective TALENTED. • STILL is an adverb modifying the verb WILL DEFEAT. • NOT is an adverb modifying the verb WILL DEFEAT.

10. Always think positively when you are presented an opportunity to succeed.

• ALWAYS is an adverb modifying the verb THINK. • POSITIVELY is an adverb modifying the verb THINK.

11. The CEO feels unusually tense today.

• UNUSUALLY an adverb modifying the predicate adjective TENSE. • TODAY is an adverb modifying the entire clause.

12. Ginger spoke glowingly of Kyoko's extraordinary acting skills.

• GLOWINGLY is an adverb modifying the verb SPOKE.

13. The children's teacher announced that their class was the most highly rated in the district.

• MOST is an adverb modifying the adverb HIGHLY. • HIGHLY is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective RATED.

14. Greg's mule accepted every task willingly.

• WILLINGLY is an adverb modifying the verb ACCEPTED.

15. You should put that hibiscus inside.

• INSIDE is an adverb modifying the verb SHOULD PUT.

16. In the winter, New York is much colder than Florida.

• MUCH is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective COLDER.

17. Hank waved enthusiastically at Steve.

• ENTHUSIASTICALLY is an adverb modifying the verb WAVED.

18. Speak softly into the microphone or we will suffer greatly.

• SOFTLY is an adverb modifying the verb SPEAK. • GREATLY is an adverb modifying the verb WE WILL SUFFER.

19. When Thomas pounded firmly on the door, he woke the sleeping baby.

• FIRMLY is an adverb modifying the verb POUNDED.

20. "Grammar is so difficult and quite boring," the overworked student complained bitterly.

• SO is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective DIFFICULT. • QUITE is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective BORING. • BITTERLY is an adverb modifying the verb COMPLAINED.

Prepositions

Prepositions are small words such as "with" and "into" that themselves are difficult to define in words. Suffice it to say that prepositions create a relationship between other words in a sentence by linking phrases to the rest of the sentence.

Prepositions can be found virtually anywhere in the sentence.

A list of common prepositions:

above across after* against among around at before* behind below beneath beside besides between beyond by

down during except for from in inside into like near of off on out outside over

since through throughoutto toward under until* up upon with without

according to because of by way of in addition to in front of in place of in regard toin spite of instead of on account of out of

* These prepositions can also acts as subordinating conjunctions

Prepositions are ALWAYS followed by a noun called objects of the prepostion.


• From the beginning of the storm, Dorothy was sure she would make it home.

o BEGINNING is the object of the preposition FROM and STORM is the object of the preposition OF.

• For many in the class, math proved to be the most challenging subject. o You can find the object of the preposition by asking the question what

about the preposition. e.g. For what? MANY. In what? CLASS.

• Until sunrise, the SWAT team will hide in the marsh. o The preposition UNTIL serves to connect its object (SUNRISE) with the

main clause. The preposition IN connects its object MARSH to the verb, making the whole phrase part of the complete predicate.

• The fuzzy, red cat on the fence wanders among the houses. o FENCE acts as the object of the preposition ON. The whole phrase acts as

part of the complete subject. HOUSES is the object of the preposition AMONG. The whole phrase acts as part of the complete predicate.

When a pronoun acts as an object of the preposition, it must take the objective case.


• Bill was more that a little irritated when the water balloon fell on him. o HIM acts as the object of the preposition ON. It is incorrect to write fell on

HE.

• Theo gave a dollar to Stephen and me to go to the store. o Both STEPHEN and ME act as the object of the preposition TO. It would

be incorrect to write TO STEPHEN AND I.

• It seems like a waste of time for you and me to drive to Portland for the game.

o Both YOU and ME act as the object of the preposition FOR.

Adverbs vs Prepositions

Words that are sometimes prepositions can act as adverbs. A preposition requires an object. An adverb does not.

A single word acting as an adverb answers where, when, how or to what degree about the verb.

• If you want to see the eclipse, you will need to go outside. o OUTSIDE tells you where YOU WILL NEED TO GO.

NOTE: Without an object OUTSIDE is an adverb.

When the same word is a preposition, the entire prepositional phrase acts as an adverb modifying the verb.

• Dorothy colors outside the lines. o OUTSIDE THE LINES is an adverbial phrase and OUTSIDE is a

preposition. NOTE: LINES is the object of the preposition.

To determine whether a word is an adverb or a preposition, look at what follows the word. Is there a noun acting as an object of the word? In other words, is there a word that answers the question WHAT? about the word.

• It will be some time before his schedule settles down. o DOWN tells the reader WHERE the schedule settles. There is no object

following it. • Please sit down and listen.

o DOWN tells the listener WHERE to SIT. There is no object telling him or her WHAT to SIT DOWN.

• One need only look down the roster to see the impact of so much travel. o ROSTER answers the question WHAT? about the word DOWN. One

need only look down what? THE ROSTER. ROSTER is the object of the preposition DOWN.

Consider how many of these prepositions could be used as adverbs:

above across after against among around at before behind below beneath beside besides between

down during except for from in inside into like near of off on out

since through throughoutto toward under until up upon with without

according to because of by way of in addition to in front of in place of in regard toin spite of instead of on account of out of

beyond by

outside over

Preposition Practice Exercise

Identify the prepsitions in each sentence as well as their objects. After completing the entire exercise, click on the "Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The puppies wandering around the fenced yard until their owner arrived. 2. Without a care in the world, Alex is relaxing, waiting for the game to begin. 3. Dean thinks that he is smarter than everyone in the class. 4. Will you put these cookies on the tray? 5. His doctor read through his chart and looked down his throat. 6. His idea will not work after sunrise. 7. She peered slowly around the doorway before crossing the threshold. 8. The champion will compete against other dogs from the club. 9. The increase in thefts this year should concern each of us. 10. At a minimum, you will spend three hours on each assignment. 11. During the debates, Alfred was feeding his turtle in the yard. 12. Many cannot decide whom to support for president. 13. Wesley hopes to be named one of the best skaters on the tour. 14. Because of the decision presented by the jury, we will all be going to jail. 15. Put the dog inside the house and let's leave.

16. Before the concert, Reggie will be drinking coffee at the cafe. 17. If we go below the house and hide behind the furnace, maybe we will be unharmed. 18. Last week, Leslie climbed into a volcano; this week she is sleeping inside a cave. 19. Since Tuesday, New Yorkers have been cheering for their teams to win. 20. Harold rested upon the mountain top and considered a life without hassles.

Preposition Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The puppies wandering around the fenced yard until their owner arrived.

• AROUND is a preposition whose object is YARD. • UNTIL is NOT a preposition; it is a SUBORDINATING

CONJUNCTION.

2. Without a care in the world, Alex is relaxing, waiting for the game to begin.

• WITHOUT is a preposition whose object is CARE. • IN is a preposition whose object is WORLD. • FOR is a preposition whose object is GAME.

3. Dean thinks that he is smarter than everyone in the class.

• IN a preposition whose object is CLASS.

4. Will you put these cookies on the tray?

• ON is a preposition whose object is TRAY.

5. His doctor read through his chart and looked down his throat.

• THROUGH is a preposition whose object is CHART. • DOWN is a preposition modifying THROAT.

6. His idea will not work after sunrise.

• AFTER is a preposition whose object is SUNRISE.

7. She peered slowly around the doorway before crossing the threshold.

• AROUND a preposition whose object is DOORWAY. • BEFORE is a preposition whose object is CROSSING.

8. The champion will compete against other dogs from the club.

• AGAINST is a preposition whose object DOGS. • FROM is a preposition whose object is CLUB.

9. The increase in thefts this year should concern each of us.

• IN is a preposition whose object is THEFT. • OF is a preposition whose object is US.

10. At a minimum, you will spend three hours on each assignment.

• AT is a preposition whose object is MINIMUM. • ON is a preposition whose object is ASSIGNMENT.

11. During the debates, Alfred was feeding his turtle in the yard.

• DURING is a preposition whose object is DEBATES. • IN is a preposition whose object is YARD.

12. Many cannot decide whom to support for president.

• FOR is a preposition whose object is PRESIDENT.

13. Wesley hopes to be named one of the best skaters on the tour.

• OF is a preposition whose object is SKATERS. • ON is a preposition whose object is TOUR.

14. Because of the decision presented by the jury, we will all be going to jail.

• BECAUSE OF is a preposition whose object is DECISION. • BY is a preposition whose object is JURY. • TO is a preposition whose object is JAIL.

15. Put the dog inside the house and let's leave.

• INSIDE is a preposition whose object is HOUSE.

16. Before the concert, Reggie will be drinking coffee at the cafe.

• BEFORE is a preposition whose object is CONCERT. • AT is a preposition whose object is CAFE.

17. If we go below the house and hide behind the furnace, maybe we will be unharmed.

• BELOW is a preposition whose object is HOUSE. • BEHIND is a preposition whose object is FURNACE.

18. Last week, Leslie climbed into a volcano; this week she is sleeping inside a cave.

• INTO is a preposition whose object is VOLCANO. • INSIDE is a preposition whose object is CAVE.

19. Since Tuesday, New Yorkers have been cheering for their teams to win.

• SINCE is a preposition whose object is TUESDAY. • FOR is a preposition whose object is TEAMS.

20. Harold rested upon the mountain top and considered a life without hassles.

• UPON is a preposition whose object is TOP. • WITHOUT is a preposition whose object is HASSLES.

CONJUNCTIONS

Most simply, conjunctions connect things. They allow us to make longer more complex sentences.

There are four types of conjunctions: 1. A coordinating conjunction, which connects a word, a phrase or a clause of equal weight. 2. A subordinating conjunction, which only connects clauses and in doing so creates a subordinate clause. 3. A correlative conjunction, which operates in pairs to connect sentence elements. 4. A conjunctive adverb, which creates a relationship between ideas in the sentence.

Coordinating conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction connect words, phrases or clauses that are of equal importance or have the same grammatical structure within a sentence

• A coordinating conjunction may connect compound subjects. o Economists and policy-makers argue about how to ensure fair

competition and continued innovation in the high-technology sector.

o Oil or railways can offer insight into the differences between traditional companies and technology companies.

• A coordinating conjunction may connect compound objects o The troubled company is not considering selling all nor part of its

business. ALL and PART are objects of the verbal SELLING.

o Some analysts say the odds are stacked against Netscape and any other rival that dares to challenge Microsoft.

NETSCAPE and RIVAL are objects of the preposition AGAINST.

• A coordinating conjunction may connect compound phrases o Manufacturers must be free to develop their ideas and to package

their products. AND connects two infinitive phrases.

o He reappeared a few minutes later looking embarrassed yet appearing otherwise unruffled.

YET connects two participial phrases.

o The activists lodged frequent complaints against the barge industry and for its customers, including farmers

AND connects two prepositional phrases.

• Independent Clauses o Members of Congress are eager to bring home projects, and

special interests are eager to reap the benefits.

o Congress has to decide whether it wants to continue to be part of the problem, or if it wants to be part of the solution.

o On balance, it has not been a liberal presidency, yet conservatives tend to underestimate the heat Clinton took within his own party on some of these issues.

o The prince has abandoned his kingdom for no army remains to do his fighting.

Six MOST COMMON coordinating conjunctions

For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet (FANBOY)

• Two LESS COMMON coordinating conjunctions

WHILE

o While is a coordinating conjunction when its meaning is during the time that or throughout the time that.

The owl paddled, while the monkey slept. (The owl paddled during the time the monkey slept.)

o While is a subordinating conjunction when its meaning is although or on the one hand.

While he was not poor, he had no ready cash. (Although he was not poor, he had no ready cash.)

o To avoid problems, use while for time and although or whereas to show subordination.

Will you buy a carton of milk while you are at the store? Although you may disagree with the conclusion, please

keep your opinions to yourself.

SO

o So is a coordinating conjunction when its meaning is during the time NOT as a result.

The owl paddled, so the monkey slept.

o So is a subordinating conjunction when its meaning is in order that, with the purpose that. (It is usually followed by that)

The owl paddled, so that the monkey might sleep.

o So is a conjunctive adverb when its meaning is therefore) The owl paddled; so, it made sense for the monkey to sleep.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent (subordinate) clauses and join the dependent clause to the independent or main clause in a sentence. (A dependent clause has a subject and verb, but it depends on the independent clause for context and meaning.)

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

After* Rather than

Although Since

As So

As if Than

As long as That

As though Though

Because Unless

Before* Until*

Even if When

Even though Whenever

If Whereas

If only Wherever

In order that While

*These subordinating conjunctions can also act as prepositions, but as subordinating

conjunctions they introduce a clause not a prepositional phrase.

Subordinate clauses modify the independent clause in some way or act as parts of speech in relation to the independent clause.

[In the following examples, the subordinating conjunction is bold and the subordinate clause is underlined.]

• Subordinate clause as an adverb clause. o He was the first president to serve when the popular culture had

merged with politics in a celebrity-obsessed culture. The subordinate clause answers the question when about the

independent clause.

o The recession was over for a year and a half before Clinton took office.

The subordinate clause answers the question when about the independent clause.

o Clinton was criticized for failing to push negotiating authority for trade agreements, because he didn't want to alienate organized labor.

The subordinate clause tells why or the condition under which the independent occurred.

• Subordinate clause as a noun clause. o Many prominent Democrats conceded that the catalog contained

enough truth to mean the party had to change. The subordinate clause tells us what the Democrats concede. It is a

direct object.

o James Carville said he considers it the low point of the Clinton presidency.

The subordinate clause tells us what the James Carville said. The subordinating conjunction THAT between SAID and HE is implied.

• Subordinate clause as an adjective clause. o The announcers claimed this was the product that we could all

count on. The subordinate clause tells us what kind of product it is.

o This is the plan until the captain arrives with a better one. The subordinate clause describes the plan.

* NOTE: Usually no comma is needed before a subordinating conjunction if the dependent clause follows the independent clause.

Prepositions vs Subordinating Conjunctions

Words that are sometimes conjunctions can act as prepositions.

The subordinating conjunctions BEFORE, AFTER and UNTIL can act as prepositions when then are followed by objects rather than dependent clauses.

• Remember that a clause has a subject and a verb. A prepositional phrase does not.

PREPOSITION

• Charlie will wait here until sunset. o UNTIL connects the object of the preposition SUNSET with the clause.

NOTE: The entire prepositional phrase is an adverb, not one word.

• It will be some time before summer. o BEFORE connects the object of the preposition SUMMER with the

clause.

• After that effort, everyone doubts whether she can win. o AFTER THAT EFFORT list is an adverbial phrase and AFTER is a

preposition.

CONJUNCTION

• Charlie will wait here until we finish the test. o UNTIL connects the independent clause to the dependent clause.

NOTE: CHARLIE WILL WAIT is connected to WE FINISH.

• It will be some time before the seasons change. o BEFORE connects the IT WILL BE to SEASONS CHANGE.

• After she did so badly, everyone doubted whether she could win. o AFTER connects SHE DID with EVERYONE DOUBTED.

NOTE: Subordinating conjunctions can begin sentences, but coordinating conjunctions cannot.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work only in pairs:

• either/or o Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining about

being tired in class.

• Both words make up the correlative conjunction. Alone EITHER is an indefinite pronoun and OR is a coordinating conjunction.

• neither/nor

• Neither contestant nor his sponsor was willing to attend the lecture.

• Both words make up the correlative conjunction. Alone NEITHER is an adjective and NOR is a coordinating conjunction.

• not only/but also

• The newspaper reported that not only the hurricane but also the ensuing floods caused millions of dollars worth of damage.

• whether/or

• Does anyone know whether the president or the vice president was responsible for providing the announcement to the press?

Remember that when either and neither are used without or and/or nor they act as adjectives or pronouns.

o Either movie seems to be a good choice. (adjective) o Either seems like a good choice to me. (pronoun) o Neither book was good. (adjective) o Neither was good. (pronoun)

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are not true conjunctions, but these adverbs often function as conjunctions in joining two independent clauses.

They serve as transitional devices between one main thought and another.

Common Conjunctive Adverbs:

Accordingly Afterwards

Also Consequently

However Indeed

Likewise Moreover

Nevertheless Nonetheless

Otherwise Similarly

So* Still

Therefore

(*may also be subordinating)

NOTE: Because conjunctive adverbs are not true conjunctions, a semicolon is required when connecting two independent clauses.

Conjunctive adverbs other than SO or OTHERWISE require a semicolon preceding them and a comma following them.

• The president will be attending the lecture; accordingly, the vice president will be available for the luncheon.

o The two clauses are independent. The semicolon replaces a coordinating conjunction and indicates that the two clauses are independent.

• Jaime wanted to see "Mission Impossible"; however, Nick wanted to see "28 Days."

o The two clauses are independent. The semicolon replaces a coordinating conjunction and indicates that the two clauses are independent.

SO and OTHERWISE do not require a comma following them when they are Conjunctive adverbs.

• The best candidate for the job missed her flight; so we will postpone the interviews until tomorrow.

o Remember, for SO to be a subordinating conjunction the meaning must be IN ORDER THAT or WITH THE PURPOSE THAT. TO be a coordinating conjunction SO must mean DURING THE TIME THAT. When the meaning of SO is THEREFORE, it is a conjunctive adverb.

• You will need to focus on the goal; otherwise it is easy to get distracted.

o The two clauses are independent. The semicolon replaces a coordinating conjunction and indicates that the two clauses are independent, but no comma is required after OTHERWISE.

A conjunctive adverb connects two ideas (complete clauses). If the above words interrupt a thought, they are not conjunctive adverbs and are not punctuated as such.

• Either subject, however, is fine with me.

Conjunction Practice Exercise


Identify the underlined part of speech 1. The drivers left the deserted station and headed for the next stop. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 2. Without a map to guide her, Susan pushed through the jungle after her plane crashed. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 3. The governor workers harder than anyone on his staff does. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 4. Ted thinks that idea is good; nonetheless, you will still need to persuade the boss. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 5. Because most of the contributions were made this month, the organization is able to pay the rent. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 6. The changes made to the budget will not take effect until next year. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative

conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 7. Chris excited, but Anthony is absolutely hysterical. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 8. The depletion of the forests for grazing land is affecting the climate worldwide. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 9. Either you need to leave or they will be forced to call security. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 10. The mouse is sad for she has lost her log. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 11. As fair as the system is, it is not perfect. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 12. Theo said that he wanted to go with us to the movies. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 13. Not only the Mets but also the Yankees are in the World Series. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 14. Before answering this question, consider the consequences. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 15. Maybe Alicia will stop here before she leaves for Paris. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 16. The test is offered tomorrow; otherwise, you will need to wait until next term. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition

17. Does the coordinator know when the plane leaves? a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 18. The pitcher will be ready to go after resting a few days. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 19. They planned several years for this child's arrival. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 20. Tess can take the money or risk everything on the next question. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition

Conjunction Practice Exercise Answers

1. The drivers left the deserted station and headed for the next stop. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 2. Without a map to guide her, Susan pushed through the jungle after her plane crashed. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 3. The governor workers harder than anyone on his staff does. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 4. Ted thinks that idea is good; nonetheless, you will still need to persuade the boss. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 5. Because most of the contributions were made this month, the organization is able to pay the rent. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 6. The changes made to the budget will not take effect until next year. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative

conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 7. Chris excited, but Anthony is absolutely hysterical. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 8. The depletion of the forests for grazing land is affecting the climate worldwide. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 9. Either you need to leave or they will be forced to call security. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 10. The mouse is sad for she has lost her log. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 11. As fair as the system is, it is not perfect. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 12. Theo said that he wanted to go with us to the movies. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 13. Not only the Mets but also the Yankees are in the World Series. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 14. Before answering this question, consider the consequences. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 15. Maybe Alicia will stop here before she leaves for Paris. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 16. The test is offered tomorrow; otherwise, you will need to wait until next term. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition

17. Does the coordinator know when the plane leaves? a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 18. The pitcher will be ready to go after resting a few days. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 19. They planned several years for this child's arrival. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition 20. Tess can take the money or risk everything on the next question. a. coordinating conjunction b. subordinating conjunction c. correlative conjunction d. conjunctive adverb e. preposition

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a predicate. Because it lacks a subject and a predicate it cannot act as a sentence. A phrase typically functions as a single part of speech in a sentence (e.g., noun, adjective, adverb).

There are four types of phrases: 1. Prepositional phrases, which begin with a preposition and include the object of the preposition. 2. Participial phrases, which begin with the participle and include the object of the participle or other words that are connected to the noun by the participle. 3. Gerund phrases, which begin with the gerund and include the object of the gerund or other words that are acting as the complete subject or complete object. 4. Infinitive phrases, which begin with an infinitive and include the object of the infinitive or other words that are acting as part of the phrase.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

The prepositional phrase includes the preposition and the object of the preposition as well as any modifiers related to either.

[In the following examples, the preposition is bold and the prepositional phrase is underlined.]

• The flying saucer appeared above the lake before it disappeared into space.

o ABOVE is not an adverb because it has an object to complete its meaning; therefore, ABOVE is a preposition and the entire phrase is an adverb phrase.

• Crystal could hear her sister snoring across the room. o Objects usually answer the question what. Therefore, we can ask across

what? to determine the object of the preposition.

• Christine discovered a pile of books hidden under the staircase. o UNDER is not an adverb because it alone does not answer where about

the verb.

• You should consider reading the notes before class. o BEFORE is not an adverb because it alone does not answer where about

the verb.

• You should consider reading the notes before you come to class. o BEFORE is not a preposition because is not followed by an object that it

links to the clause. It is followed by another clause that is subordinate in meaning to the independent clause; therefore, it is a subordinate conjunction.

• Alix walk down the ramp to the beach. o DOWN is not an adverb because it alone does not answer where about the

verb.

• Alix fell down. o DOWN is an adverb answering where about the verb. There is no object,

so it cannot be a preposition.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASE

The participial phrase includes the participle and the object of the participle or any words modified by or related to the participle.

[In the following examples, the participle is bold and the participial phrase is underlined.]

• The car sliding out of control toward building is going to hit the window.

o SLIDING modifies the CAR. The verb is IS GOING.

• Cameron spotted his brother throwing rocks at the passing cars.

o THROWING is not a verb in this sentence. It describes the brother. Without an auxiliary verb, it cannot function as a verb.

• The astronaut chosen to ride the space shuttle to Mars is afraid of heights.

o CHOSEN describes the ASTRONAUT.

• Running down the street, Alicia tripped and fell. o RUNNING certainly indicates something the subject is doing, but the

verbs for the subject are TRIPPED and FELL.

• Penned in by other runners, Steve was unable to make a break for the finish line.

o STEVE is the subject. WAS is the verb. PENNED describes STEVE.

• Mark returned the damaged package to the manufacturer. o DAMAGED describes PACKAGE.

• Alex fell down the broken staircase. o BROKEN describes STAIRCASE.

GERUND PHRASE

The gerund phrase includes the gerund and the object of the gerund or any modifiers related to the gerund.

[In the following examples, the gerund is bold and the gerund phrase is underlined.]

• Flying above the lake at this time of night seems a little dangerous. o FLYING is the subject of the sentence. A subject is a noun. A form of the

verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. FLYING is a gerund.

• Bill decided that scrambling over the pile of debris was not safe. o SCRAMBLING is the subject of the dependent clause. A subject is a

noun. A form of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. SCRAMBLING is a gerund.

• Ethan avoided doing his homework because the Ducks were playing the Cougars.

o DOING is the direct object of the verb AVOIDED. An object is a noun. A form of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. DOING is a gerund. HOMEWORK is the object of the gerund.

• The student gathered signatures for increasing the hours of the library.

o INCREASING is the object of the preposition FOR. An object is a noun. A form of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. INCREASING is a gerund. HOURS is the object of the gerund.

• Philip Morris continues its fight to prevent government from regulating tobacco; nevertheless, the government is placing restrictions on marketing cigarettes to youth.

o Both REGULATING and MARKETING are objects of prepositions (FROM and ON).

• The young man opposes marketing smoking cigarettes as if it were glamorous.

o MARKETING is the direct object of the verb OPPOSES. SMOKING is a gerund and the object of the gerund MARKETING. CIGARETTES is the object of the gerund SMOKING.

• Andrew continues his crusade to prevent the university from limiting free speech.

o LIMITING is the object of the preposition FROM. SPEECH is the object of the GERUND.

INFINITIVE PHRASE

The infinitive phrase includes the infinitive and the object of the infinitive or any modifiers related to the infinitive.

[In the following examples, the infinitive is bold and the infinitive phrase is underlined.]

• Even in New York, fans did not manage to buy the hype. o TO BUY is the direct object of the verb DID MANAGE. THE HYPE is

the object of the infinitive.

• The seemingly simple decision to appoint a Democrat caused controversy.

o TO APPOINT is an adjective modifying DECISION. A DEMOCRAT is the object of the infinitive.

• The gap provides a way to give Democratic candidates an edge in close elections

o TO GIVE is an adjective modifying WAY. The object of the infinitive is CANDIDATES.

• The respondents believe their neighbors are willing to vote for a woman.

o TO VOTE is an adverb modifying the predicate adjective WILLING. In other words, it tells us the degree to which they are willing.

• Two nonprofit organizations from opposite sides of the political spectrum plan to release a report blasting 25 Army Corps of Engineers water projects

o TO RELEASE is the direct object of the verb PLAN. REPORT is the object of the infinitive. FYI: BLASTING is a participle modifying REPORT.

• The corps has been trying to recast itself in a more ecosensitive light. o TO RECAST is the direct object of the verb HAS BEEN TRYING.

ITSELF ( a reflexive pronoun) is the object of the infinitive.

• Now Congress has to decide whether it wants to continue to be part of the problem, or if it wants to be part of the solution.

o TO CONTINUE is the direct object of the verb WANTS. TO BE the object of the infinitive TO CONTINUE. PART is the object of the infinitive TO BE.

APPOSITIVES

A word, phrase or clause that means the same thing as (i.e., synonym) or further explains another noun (pronoun).

Non-restrictive appositives are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Restrictive appositives are essential to the meaning of the sentence.

1. NON-RESTRICTIVE:

• Her husband, Fritz, is a nice guy. o We assume she has only one husband. Thus, commas are used.

• The firm chose Mary, vice president of public affairs, as its chief executive officer.

o Because we have identified the person by name, her title is additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change.

• The Grand Canyon, one of our nation's most popular tourist attractions, is breathtaking to behold.

o Because we have identified the place by name, the rest is additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change.

• Neil Armstrong, the first man who walked on the moon, is a native of Ohio.

o Because we have identified the person by name, the additional information is not restricted to the sentence. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change.

2. RESTRICTIVE:

• Evan's friend John cheated on the test. o EVAN has more than one friend; therefore, no commas are used to set off

JOHN. We need the name to know which friend we're talking about.

• We students are happy with good grades. o STUDENTS identify who WE [subj.] are. If we remove it, WE does not

have the same meaning.

• She waited patiently for the famous author Stephen King. o STEPHEN KING identifies which famous author. There is no comma

after AUTHOR because there are many famous authors.

Phrase Practice Exercise


Instructions: Identify the underlined phrase or clause.

1. Steven's book, which made Oprah's Book Club this month, is not in any stores. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 2. While preparing for the speech, Joe couldn't help but worry about his entrance. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 3. Ahmad wants to visit Quebec, but he will need to wait for his next vacation. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

4. Hoping for a miracle, the doctors continued the surgery. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 5. Our boss supports donating time to charity. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 6. Melanie hoped to find a cure for the disease, but she tried to be realistic. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 7. After the banquet, the cooks will take a well-deserved break. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 8. Joey is hoping for a change to play pool with his uncle. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 9. The dog that Sam chose from the litter seems to be healthy. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 10. Sam Smith, who recently spoke to the youth group, excels at motivating young people. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 11. Pushed beyond endurance, the runner dropped the baton. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 12. The shoes he saw in the catalogue are available down the street. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 13. The reporter crouched behind that tree got the best picture of the arrest. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

14. Keith tried supporting both teams, but his heart was with Oregon. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 15. Katrina, who resented being left at home, drew on the walls with her crayons. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 16. Arnold hoped to find an answer to the funding shortfall. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 17. Pressed for time, the agent ran the red light. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 18. His uncle thinks that working for the government is the key to stability. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 19. Richard's chance to make his point slipped away. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 20. Is it possible that Joshua will compete against that man? a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

Phrase Practice Exercise Answers

1. Steven's book, which made Oprah's Book Club this month, is not in any stores. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 2. While preparing for the speech, Joe couldn't help but worry about his entrance. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

3. Ahmad wants to visit Quebec, but he will need to wait for his next vacation. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 4. Hoping for a miracle, the doctors continued the surgery. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 5. Our boss supports donating time to charity. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 6. Melanie hoped to find a cure for the disease, but she tried to be realistic. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 7. After the banquet, the cooks will take a well-deserved break. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 8. Joey is hoping for a change to play pool with his uncle. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 9. The dog that Sam chose from the litter seems to be healthy. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 10. Sam Smith, who recently spoke to the youth group, excels at motivating young people. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 11. Pushed beyond endurance, the runner dropped the baton. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 12. The shoes he saw in the catalogue are available down the street. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

13. The reporter crouched behind that tree got the best picture of the arrest. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 14. Keith tried supporting both teams, but his heart was with Oregon. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 15. Katrina, who resented being left at home, drew on the walls with her crayons. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 16. Arnold hoped to find an answer to the funding shortfall. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 17. Pressed for time, the agent ran the red light. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 18. His uncle thinks that working for the government is the key to stability. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 19. Richard's chance to make his point slipped away. a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase 20. Is it possible that Joshua will compete against that man? a. prepositional phrase b. participial phrase c. gerund phrase d. infinitive phrase

Interactive Phrase Quiz #1

1. Marta fell over the cat. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

2. Pretending to be asleep, the hiker escaped the bear. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

3. Susan Sarandon, a famous actress, has been very supportive of the striking workers. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

4. To finish the marathon in less than five hours is Tom's goal. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

5. She preferred eating at the local deli for lunch. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

6. He should discover a gift certificate for dinner at Cafe Sofia under his seat at the table. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

7. After learning the parts of speech, the class began studying punctuation. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

8. The candidate elected by the voters promised to put "a chicken in every pot." a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

9. Will someone be here soon to open the door? a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

10. Delivering the pizza on time became his single mission. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

11. The woman who led the workshop used to be a math teacher. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

12. Frustrated with the delays, Erin tried to break her dog out of quarantine. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

13. Tom visited India while studying the history of Indian art. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

14. While she looked behind the house, the rest of us searched the local parks for the puppy. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

15. Tom Hanks, star of "Philadelphia, will be appearing in a new film this holiday season. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

16. Before putting too much effort into the project, maybe you should get some guidance from your boss. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

17. The car that Devon sold to the dealership has been wrecked twice. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

18. Does the captain want us to lower the sails before we enter the harbor? a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

19. She liked the shirt given to her by her grandmother. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

20. Did you really think that robbing a bank would solve your problems? a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

Interactive Phrase Quiz #2

1. Samuel hid hr present behind the dresser. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

2. The sun rising gloriously in the sky inspired the visitors to the ancient temple. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

3. The Rock, Nick's favorite wrestler, will certainly win tonight's match. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

4. Clyde plans to meet his family on the other side of the mall. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

5. Does Rick plan on attending every game that the Ducks play next year? a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

6. Did Bill go to the meeting without his briefcase. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

7. Before reaching the summit, the climbers quit. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

8. Driven by her need to be perfect, Gertrude always did well in her classes. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

9. David decided to close the back door before a raccoon sneaked in. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

10. The team hopes that practicing a new offense this week will improve its chances of winning. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

11. The bull that charged the car has hurt people before. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

12. The student, bored by the lecture, drew pictures in her notebook. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

13. Before the race, the sprinter put a lucky penny in his sock. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

14. After we do these chores, maybe we should go to a movie. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

15. His dog a miniature schnauzer, chases away any birds or squirrels that come into the yard. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

16. After making a hole in one, Ed decided he should quit golfing. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

17. Marvin's friend who drove him to the party left without him. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

18. Will has not wanted to play his saxophone since the last recital. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

19. The coffee tasted like mud mixed with motor oil. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

20. They want to try jumping from an airplane without a parachute. a. infinitive phrase b. appositive c. gerund phrase d. prepositional phrase e. clause f. participial phrase

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of related words that has both a subject and a verb.

There are two types of clauses: 1. An independent clause, which functions alone and is not dependent on another clause for context or function. 2. A dependent clause, which cannot function independently . It is dependent on another clause for context or function. A dependent clause typically functions as a single part of speech in a sentence (e.g., noun, adjective, adverb)

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

The independent clause includes a subject and a verb.

The independent clause is the main idea of the sentence. It is not dependent on another clause for meaning and context.

Avoid using the description that the independent clause can "stand by itself" or "makes sense by itself." Many dependent clauses, when removed from the context of the sentence, make sense on their own. Nonetheless, they are dependent on the rest of the sentence for meaning and should not be evaluated outside of the sentence.

[In the following examples, the subject(s) and verb(s) are bold and the entire independent clause is underlined.]

When a sentence has only a single clause, that clause is always an independent clause.

• Carl Derek Cooper has reached an agreement to plead guilty to charges stemming from a triple killing at a Starbucks coffee shop.

o There is only one clause, and it is independent.

• Strong earnings reports lured investors back to the technology sector after a wave of selling on Monday.

o In this sentence, AFTER is a preposition rather than a subordinating conjunction.

• After punishing selloffs earlier this month, the Nasdaq is now 28 percent below its all-time high of 5,048.62, reached March 10.

o REACHED is a participle. There is only one clause.

• Mike Forbes' ideological mix has already caused him problems this year

More than one subject or verb does not necessarily indicate more than one clause.

• Paper, printing and binding may become things of the past. o PAPER, PRINTING and BINDING are all the subjects of the clause, but

there is still only one clause.

• Users check their e-mail, adjust their stock portfolios, retrieve directions to a sales meeting, and keep track of family birthdays.

o There is one subject connected to four verbs—CHECK, ADJUST, RETRIEVE and KEEP—but still

More than one subject with its own verb and separated by a coordinating conjunction indicates more than one independent clause.

• Words on a screen have visual qualities, to be sure, but they have no materiality.

o Here there are two clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. A coordinating conjunction between two clauses indicates that both clauses are independent.

• Smith moved to Seattle in the mid-'80s, and he started another company.

o There must be both a subject and a verb on either side of the conjunction for there to be two independent clauses.

• He moved to Seattle in the mid-'80s and started another company. o In this sentence, there is no subject to go with the verb on the other side of

the conjunction; therefore, it is only one independent clause. • He and others are working to develop reading devices, yet publishers

will sell to whoever wins the race.

Do not be fooled into thinking that a coordinating conjunction automatically indicates the existence of another independent clause.

• We have had forecasts this bad in the past and launched successfully. o There must be both a subject and a verb on either side of the conjunction

for there to be two independent clauses. In this sentence, WE is the subject and HAVE HAD and LAUNCHED go with that single subject. There is only one clause and it is independent.

• The station will be a 21st century marvel but is losing its orbit, short on power and months away from being habitable.

o In this sentence, STATION is the subject and WILL BE and IS LOSING are attached to that single subject. There is only one clause and it is independent.

An independent clause can also be connected to a dependent clause. In that case, a subordinating conjunction provides the link between them.

• When Atlantis does lift off, it will eventually dock with the $60-billion International Space Station on a repair and supply mission.

o The independent clause or main point of this sentence is that the shuttle will dock. The dependent clause, which begins with the subordinate conjunction WHEN, indicates when the docking will take place.

• Attorney General Janet Reno decided not to prevent photographers from taking pictures of Elian Gonzalez as agents seized him at gunpoint.

o The independent clause or main point of this sentence Janet Reno's decision. The dependent clause, which begins with the subordinate conjunction AS, indicates when.

• The coach was so taken aback by the pitcher's lack of command that he watched an inning on television to get a better idea of where her pitches were going.

o The independent clause or main point of this sentence that the coach was taken aback. The dependent clause, which begins with the subordinate conjunction THAT, tells what he did as a result.

An independent clause may work with a restrictive or nonrestrictive dependent clause. [In the following examples, the subject and verb of the independent clause are bold and the independent clause is underlined.]

• The boy who crashed his bike into Mark's garage broke his nose. o In this type of sentence, the main clause surrounds the dependent clause.

THE BOY BROKE HIS NOSE is the main clause. • Near the end of the picnic, the dog that took the steaks off of the table

returned for dessert. o The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence is a relative

pronoun that relates to the noun preceding it. THAT TOOK THE STEAKS is the dependent clause. THAT is the subject of the clause.

• How did you meet the man who offered you the job?. o In question form, the subject and verb do not follow the standard subject,

verb, complement order. YOU is the subject of the independent clause. WHO is the subject of the dependent clause.

• Have you considered hiring Josh, who received several awards for excellence in design last year?

o The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence may or may not be separated from the main clause by a comma.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE

The dependent clause includes a subject and a verb.

The dependent clause is the subordinate idea of the sentence. It is dependent on another clause for meaning and context.

Many dependent clauses, when removed from the context of the sentence, make sense on their own. Nonetheless, they are dependent on the rest of the sentence for meaning and should not be evaluated outside of the sentence.

Dependent clauses function as a part of speech in relation to the independent clause.

[In the following examples, the subjects and verbs are bold and the entire dependent clause is underlined.]

Subordinate clause as an adverb clause.

• He is the first president to serve when the popular culture had merged with politics in a celebrity-obsessed culture.

o The subordinate clause, introduced by the subordinate conjunction WHEN, answers the question when about the independent clause.

• The recession was over for a year and a half before Clinton took office. o The subordinate clause answers the question when about the independent

clause.

• Clinton was criticized for failing to push negotiating authority for trade agreements, because he didn't want to alienate organized labor.

o The subordinate clause tells why or the condition under which the independent occurred.

Subordinate clause as a noun clause.

• Many prominent Democrats concede that catalog contained enough truth to mean the party had to change.

o The subordinate clause tells us what the Democrats concede. It is a direct object.

• James Carville said he considers it the low point of the Clinton presidency.

o The subordinate clause tells us what the James Carville said. The subordinating conjunction THAT is implied.

Subordinate clause as an adjective clause.

• The announcers claimed this was the product we could all count on. o The subordinate clause tells us what kind of product it is.

• This is the plan until the captain arrives with a better one. o The subordinate clause describes the plan.

* NOTE: Usually no comma is needed before a subordinating conjunction if the dependent clause follows the independent clause.

A relative pronoun may act as a connector between the independent and dependent clause. [In the following examples, the subject and verb of the dependent clause are bold and the dependent clause is underlined.]

• He wasn't helped tonight by game-time temperatures of 51 degrees and a chilling wind that had Mussina blowing into his hand for warmth between pitches.

o THAT is a relative pronoun and acts as the subject of the dependent clause modifying the WIND.

• The next five years are the critical period, which includes many of the states with the hardest exams putting their requirements into effect.

o The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence is a relative pronoun that relates to the noun preceding it.

• Where will you find the person who will take the director's place? o In question form, the subject and verb do not follow the standard subject,

verb, complement order. YOU is the subject of the independent clause. WHO is the subject of the dependent clause.

• Have you considered hiring Josh, who received several awards for excellence in design last year?

o The subject of the dependent clause in this type of sentence may or may not be separated from the main clause by a comma.

* NOTE: Dependent clauses that begin with relative pronouns are adjective clauses. If they are surrounded by commas, they are non-restrictive clauses. If they are not surrounded by commas, they are restrictive clauses.

Clause Practice Exercise



1. Steven's book, which made Oprah's Book Club this month, is not in any stores. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 2. While preparing for the speech, Joe worried about his entrance. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 3. Allen wants to visit his friends before he returns to work. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 4. The girl who found the fossil raced home to tell her parents. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 5. When we finished painting the house, the owner offered us milk and cookies. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 6. After they completed the questionnaire, the participants were asked to cover their eyes. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 7. Albert's brother, the director of the company, is only 23 years old. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 8. The cat will be happier after the dog is sent to the kennel. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive

clause 9. Francis visits his sister, but she doesn't come to see him. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 10. Until someone does something about that dog, there is no way Carlton is delivering the mail. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. restrictive clause 11. Winded by the effort, the man struggled up the stairs. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 12. The computer she found in the dumpster works well. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. restrictive clause 13. The kangaroo that ran in front of the truck startled us all. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 14. Karen thinks that supporting both teams is ridiculous. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 15. Her sister, who resented being left at home, drew on the walls with her crayons. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 16. Wes looked for the door that was marked with a star. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 17. Praying for salvation, she took her first step toward recovery. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 18. Walter hopes winning the lottery will solve his problems. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause

19. Pablo visited the NFL Hall of Fame, which was his dream. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 20. The group could find the way home by using the stars to navigate. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause

Clause Practice Exercise Answers



1. Steven's book, which made Oprah's Book Club this month, is not in any stores. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 2. While preparing for the speech, Joe worried about his entrance. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 3. Allen wants to visit his friends before he returns to work. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 4. The girl who found the fossil raced home to tell her parents. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 5. When we finished painting the house, the owner offered us milk and cookies. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 6. After they completed the questionnaire, the participants were asked to cover their eyes.

a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 7. Albert's brother, the director of the company, is only 23 years old. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 8. The cat will be happier after the dog is sent to the kennel. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 9. Francis visits his sister, but she doesn't come to see him. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 10. Until someone does something about that dog, there is no way Carlton is delivering the mail. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. restrictive clause 11. Winded by the effort, the man struggled up the stairs. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 12. The computer she found in the dumpster works well. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. restrictive clause 13. The kangaroo that ran in front of the truck startled us all. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 14. Karen thinks that supporting both teams is ridiculous. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 15. Her sister, who resented being left at home, drew on the walls with her crayons. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 16. Wes looked for the door that was marked with a star. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive

clause 17. Praying for salvation, she took her first step toward recovery. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 18. Walter hopes winning the lottery will solve his problems. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 19. Pablo visited the NFL Hall of Fame, which was his dream. a. independent clause b. restrictive clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause 20. The group could find the way home by using the stars to navigate. a. independent clause b. dependent clause c. phrase d. non-restrictive clause

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

Subject verb agreement can be one of the more challenging aspects of writing. While short clauses provide for an easily identifiable subject, longer clauses with extensive phrases can make proper subject verb agreement more of a challenge.

The first and most important rule in subject verb agreement is that the verb must agree with the intended number of the subject.

To accomplish that task, follow two occasionally not so simple tasks.

1. Identify the real subject 2. Determine whether subject is singular or plural

The first step is often made difficult by phrases and/or sentence structure that work to obscure the true subject.

• Prepositional phrases are one of the main culprits in the misidentification of the true subject of the clause. Remember, objects cannot be subjects, so the object of a preposition cannot be a subject of a clause.

o Among the constitutional rights we cherish is freedom. AMONG is a preposition; therefore, RIGHTS is the object of the

preposition. FREEDOM is the subject of the sentence.

o The group of protesters is blocking the entrance to the building. OF is a preposition; therefore, PROTESTERS is the object of the

preposition. GROUP is the subject of the sentence and it is singular.

o The annual rituals of the group confuse the neighbors. OF is a preposition; therefore, GROUP is the object of the

preposition. RITUALS is the subject of the sentence and it is plural.

• Parenthetical phrases can also work to obscure the true subject. Phrases such as "as well as," "such as," "along with," "rather than," "accompanied by" and "including" introduce items that are NOT considered when determining whether a verb is singular or plural.

o The quiz, as well as all workbook exercises, was collected. QUIZ is the subject. The parenthetical expression does not affect

the verb.

o His jacket, not his shirt or his socks, always seems to match his slacks.

JACKET is the subject. It is singular. The parenthetical expression does not affect the verb.

o Her birthday celebration, together with the upcoming holiday, makes for a very full calendar.

CELEBRATION is the subject. The parenthetical expression does not affect the verb.

o The president and vice president, accompanied by the board of directors, plan to vote against changing the company bylaws.

PRESIDENT and VICE PRESIDENT are the subject. The verb is plural.

• Expletives (There, Here) are false subjects. Disregard them completely when determining the subject that the verb must agree with.

o There are fewer students in this class. The true subject in this sentence is STUDENTS.

o Officer, here is the person I was telling you about. The true subject in this clause is PERSON.

• Predicate nominatives can lead to some confusion when determining the true subject. Remember to find the subject and verb combination first and then begin to determine whether that subject is singular or plural.

o The war-torn country's only relief was the food and medical supplies dropped from the sky.

The true subject in this sentence is RELIEF.

o The explanation provided by the agency was farming practices, population growth and international aid.

The true subject in this sentence is EXPLANATION.

WORDS THAT ARE ALWAYS A SINGULAR SUBJECT:

First it might be helpful to remember that the singular form of all verbs except to be and to have is formed by adding "s" or "es." For example: dives, runs, answers and crashes, presses and tosses.

• When used as a subject or adjective these indefinite pronouns are always singular and, therefore, they take singular verbs.

another anybody anyone anything each each one either every everybody everything much neither nobody no one nothing one other somebody something someone

• These pronouns may be used as subjects, and they take a singular verb.

Everyone has been invited. She said that something was all she wanted for her

birthday. The Democratic leadership suggested two solutions but

neither was acceptable to the committee chair.

When they are used as adjectives, the noun they modify always takes a singular verb

Neither solution works for the committee chair.

Each tragedy gives the population given less time to recover from the previous shock.

• The number--when used as subject of a sentence (an organized unit)—takes a singular verb.

o The number of tenants without heat is increasing.

• Subjects that stand for definable units of money, measurement, time, organization, food and medical problems always take singular verbs.

o Six months is not enough time. o Five thousand dollars is the minimum bid. o Ham and eggs is my favorite meal.

• Singular subject followed by phrases such as together with and as well as take singular verb.

o The tax measure, together with its amendments, has passed.

• When all parts of a compound subject are singular and refer to same person or thing.

o The head of the expedition and mayor of the village was the same person.

• When the subject is followed by the phrase "the only one of."

o Jake is the only one of the runners who has finished.

o BUT: Jake is one of those runners who have finished. (In this case, Jake is one of many [those] runners. The verb "have" agrees with "those runners" not with Jake.)

WORDS THAT ARE ALWAYS PLURAL SUBJECT:

• When a compound subject is joined by a coordinating conjunction (and), it always takes a plural verb if the subjects refer to different persons or things and if the subject cannot be considered a unit.

o Your investments and property are sure to increase in value.

• Indefinite pronouns (both, few, many, several) always take plural verbs.

o Both are acceptable choices.

• "A number" as the subject of a sentence always takes plural verbs.

o A number of tenants are in the building.

• Certain plural subjects always take plural verbs.

o The news media are under attack. (singular of media: medium)

WORDS THAT ARE EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL SUBJECT:

• When the parts of a compound subject are joined by or, but, either ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but also the verb must agree with the subject nearest to the verb.

o Neither the Oregon players nor the coach was overconfident. o Neither the Oregon coach nor the players were intimidated by

Arizona.

• Collective nouns and certain plural words may take singular or plural verbs-depending on the meaning in the sentence. TEST: If the word indicates persons or things working together as an identifiable unit, a singular verb is used.

o The jury was seated at 9 a.m. ("It" was seated.)

o BUT: The jury were being interviewed by the media. (refers to individual members of the jury; could be rewritten as: "The jurors were ... ")

o Politics is a hot topic. (politics as a single topic)

o BUT: The mayor's politics are offensive. (politics as several actions over time)

• The pronouns any, none or some and the nouns all and most:

1. take singular verbs when they refer to a unit or quantity 1. Some of the money was missing. (a bag of money)

2. take plural verbs when they refer to number, amount or individuals

1. Some of the gold coins were missing. (a series of coins) 3. "NONE":

a. "No Single One"; "Not One"--Singular

None of the gold coins was missing. (not one of the coins)

b. "No Two" or "No Amount"--Plural

None of the goods were missing. (no amount of the goods) None of the forests were destroyed. (no amount of the forests)

• When subject is a fraction or a word such as half, part, plenty, rest, its intended number is suggested by the object of the preposition that follows it.

o Three-fourths of the enemy's army is wounded.

o Three-fourths of the enemy's soldiers are wounded.

MAKING THE PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT AGREE:

ANTECEDENT = a noun to which a pronoun refers

o The car that I want is on sale. (car = antecedent that = relative pronoun)

o The man on the boat thinks he is safe without a life jacket. (man = antecedent he= personal pronoun)

o Does anyone have his or her book. (anyone = antecedent his/her= possessive pronoun)

WHO and WHOM: Refer to persons and members of a group who take on "human qualities"

o Please give the book to the student who has her hand raised. o The police officers who stopped my car were polite.

WHOSE: Refers to persons, animals and sometimes to things.

o The student whose books were lost is mad.

WHICH: refers to things, animals and persons considered as a group.

o The UO basketball team, which played tonight, is undefeated.

THAT: May refer to inanimate objects, places, things, ideas and animals.

o The theory that the earth is round is accepted as fact.

TWO or more antecedent are joined by a conjunction take a plural pronoun.

o Jody and Jerry coached their (her and his) basketball players.

Singular antecedents joined by OR / NOR take a singular pronoun.

o Neither Tom nor Jerry will present his case to Judge Ito.

With one singular and one plural antecedent joined by OR / NOR the pronoun agrees with the nearest antecedent.

o Either you or your pals must leave their car keys. o Either your pals or you must leave your car keys.

Singular indefinite pronouns take a singular pronoun.

o Could someone please give me her book? (to a group of all women))

o Could someone please give me his book? (to a group of all men)) o Could someone please give me his or her book? (to a group of

men and women)) o Anyone with a family history of heart disease should have his or

her cholesterol checked.

Agreement Practice Exercise


1. Scientists are concerned that a number of species of frogs a) seems b) seem to be mutating.

2. Neither the offensive linemen nor the quarterback a) want b) wants to run the drill again.

3. Will they announce whether that group of students a) boards b) board the plane ahead of everyone.

4. Kimberly is the only one of those executives a) who b) that believes her product will sell this year.

5. None of the animals in the shelter a) belong b) belongs to someone.

6. The number of mutated frogs a) is b) are increasing every year.

7. Curtis is sure that the news media a) is b) are not helping the situation.

8. Jennifer is one of those actresses who a) audition b) auditions for every role she can.

9. The school’s alumni a) hope b) hopes to raise enough money to complete the new wing.

10. Finding other contestants a) has b) have been the responsibility of the show's producers.

11. Neither of the executives a) want b) wants to tell the boss that profits are down.

12. None of them a) knows b) know who has the map.

13. There a) has b) have been so many doctors in to see him, that we don’t know who's in charge.

14. The governor is proud to announce that more than 2,000 pounds of cheese a) has b) have been collected.

15. Everyone at the park a) is b) are going to the concert, including you and me.

16. Does anyone have a) his b) her c) his or her d) their map of the city?

17. He is the only one of the senators who a) has b) have agreed to testify.

18. One-third of the village a) receives b) receive water from the river just north of here.

19. A group of the city's voters a) choose b) chooses to send in mail-in ballots rather than go to the polls.

20. Neither his sister nor her friend Sarah a) think b) thinks Benjamin should go to Milan this summer.

Agreement Practice Exercise Answers

1. Scientists are concerned that a number of species of frogs a) seems b) seem to be mutating.

2. Neither the offensive linemen nor the quarterback a) want b) wants to run the drill again.

3. Will they announce whether that group of students a) boards b) board the plane ahead of everyone.

4. Kimberly is the only one of those executives a) who b) that believes her product will sell this year.

5. None of the animals in the shelter a) belong b) belongs to someone.

6. The number of mutated frogs a) is b) are increasing every year.

7. Curtis is sure that the news media a) is b) are not helping the situation.

8. Jennifer is one of those actresses who a) audition b) auditions for every role she can.

9. The school’s alumni a) hope b) hopes to raise enough money to complete the new wing.

10. Finding other contestants a) has b) have been the responsibility of the show's producers.

11. Neither of the executives a) want b) wants to tell the boss that profits are down.

12. None of them a) knows b) know who has the map.

13. There a) has b) have been so many doctors in to see him, that we don’t know who's in charge.

14. The governor is proud to announce that more than 2,000 pounds of cheese a) has b) have been collected.

15. Everyone at the park a) is b) are going to the concert, including you and me.

16. Does anyone have a) his b) her c) his or her d) their map of the city?

17. He is the only one of the senators who a) has b) have agreed to testify.

18. One-third of the village a) receives b) receive water from the river just north of here.

19. A group of the city's voters a) choose b) chooses to send in mail-in ballots rather than go to the polls.

20. Neither his sister nor her friend Sarah a) think b) thinks Benjamin should go to Milan this summer.

CASE

The case of a pronoun indicates whether the pronoun initiates the action (e.g., subjective case), receives the action (e.g., objective case) or conveys ownership (e.g., possessive case).

Subjective Objective Possessive

Singular I she, he, it

me her, him, it

my, mine her, hers, his, its

Plural we they

us them

our, ours their, theirs

Singular and Plural you who

you whom

your, yours whose

• We use the subjective case when a pronoun is:

o a subject of a verb o a predicate nominative that follows a form of the linking verb to

be.

• We use the objective case when a pronoun is: o a direct object of a verb o an indirect object o an object of a preposition o an object of any verbal

• We use the possessive case when a pronoun: o denotes ownership o attributes a characteristic to someone or something

• In sentences with a compound joined by AND, we use the same case—subjective or objective—as you would with no compound:

o Bill and I cracked the window. (Subjective) Bill cracked the window. I cracked the window.

You would not write: Me cracked the window. o They threw snowballs at Delores and me. (Objective)

They threw snowballs at Delores. They threw snowballs at me.

You would not write: They threw snowballs at I. • A pronoun with an appositive following it uses the same case as it

would without the appositive: o We students need more time. (Subjective)

STUDENTS is an appositive to WE. Remove the appositive to determine the proper case: We

need more time. o Will they give us reporters access to the president? (Objective)

REPORTERS is an appositive to US. Remove the appositive to determine the proper case: Will

they give us access to the president. • The case of a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that) is

determined by how the relative pronoun is used in the dependent clause.

o If the relative pronoun is the subject of a dependent clause, it must be in the nominative case

The witness WHO was to appear today is ill. WHO is the subject of the verb WAS in the dependent

clause.

o If the relative pronoun is the object of a dependent clause, it must be in the objective case

The witness WHOM they have indicted is ill. WHOM is the object of the verb HAVE INDICTED in the

dependent clause.

TO DETERMINE CASE:

1) Identify subject, verb and object in the sentence

2) Identify independent and dependent clauses

3) Identify prepositions

TYPES OF CASE:

There are three types of case: 1. Subjective case which indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of a given clause or as a predicate nominative following a linking verb. The subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, they, we, who and it. 2. Objective Case, which indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object. The object pronouns are: me, you, him, her, them, us, whom and it. 3. Possessive case, which indicates that the pronoun is showing ownership. The possessive pronouns are: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours, whose and its.

SUBJECTIVE or NOMINATIVE CASE:

Using the nominative case indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of a given clause or as a predicate nominative following a linking verb. The subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, they, we, who and it.

• Pronouns as the subject of a clause:

o He will never leave basketball completely. HE is the subject of the sentence.

o While I was playing," he said, "I had another dream that had nothing to do with winning championships."

I is the subject of the first clause. HE is the subject of the second clause, and I is the subject of the third clause.

o She can recognize somebody who needs a boost—teammate or community.

SHE is the subject of the independent clause. WHO is the subject of the dependent clause. Remember: Relative pronouns are part of the dependent clause.

o Who is going to be available in two years or three years? WHO is the subject of the sentence.

• Pronouns as the Predicate Nominative

o We both recalled that it was she who offered the proposal. WE is the subject of the independent clause. IT is the subject of the

dependent clause. SHE is the predicate nominative to IT. WHO is the subject of the final dependent clause.

o It is I who have allergies. IT is the subject of the independent clause. I is the predicate

nominative to IT. WHO is the subject of the final dependent clause.

o If I were she, I would take the job. I is the subject of the dependent clause. SHE is the predicate

nominative to I. I is the subject of the independent clause. o Remember the paintings that I told you about? These are they.

I is the subject of the dependent clause. THEY is the predicate nominative to THESE.

• Pronouns in a comparison o Use the subjective case after "than" when the pronoun would use

the same verb in an "implied clause of comparison" as the subject of the sentence,

My friend likes studying more than I. This means that my friends like studying more than I do.

My friend likes studying more than me. This means that my friends like studying more than they

like me.

We drive faster than they. (drive)

o Use the subjective case after "than" when the pronoun is being compared or contrasted to a quality only (e.g., adjective or adverb) of the subject.

She is taller than he. (is tall)

If the sentence included a noun with taller, the pronoun would be objective (There is no taller player than her).

He is happier than she. (is happy)

OBJECTIVE CASE:

Using the objective case indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object. The object pronouns are: me, you, him, her, them, us, whom and it.

• A pronoun as a direct object o My dog likes me.

DOG is the subject of the sentence. ME is the direct object of the verb LIKES.

o If you don't mind, Would you please take him to class. YOU is the subject of the independent clause. HIM is the direct

object of the verb WOULD TAKE.

o The teachers sent her to the infirmary. TEACHERS is the subject of the sentence. HER is the direct object

of the verb SENT.

o Whom does Alejandro wish to see? ALEJANDRO is the subject of the sentence. WHOM is the object

of the infinitive TO SEE.

o Alex is the person whom she met at the opening. SHE is the subject of the dependent clause. WHOM is the direct

object of the verb MET.

• A pronoun as an indirect object o Danny handed her the ball.

DANNY is the subject of the sentence. BALL is the direct object of the verb HANDED. HER is the indirect object.

o When Eric returned from camp, his father gave him a hug. FATHER is the subject of the independent clause. HUG is the

direct object of the verb GAVE. HIM is the indirect object.

o Tom offered Mark and me a ride home. Tom is the subject of the sentence. RIDE is the direct object of the

verb OFFERED. MARK and ME are the indirect objects.

o Marvin wondered whom he should give the message.

HE is the subject of the dependent clause. MESSAGE is the direct object of the verb SHOULD GIVE. WHOM is the indirect object.

o Did the group announce whom they had presented the bonus? THEY is the subject of the dependent clause. BONUS is the direct

object of the verb HAD PRESENTED. WHO is the indirect object.

• A pronoun as an object of a preposition o For him, no other choice seems reasonable.

FOR is a preposition. HIM is the object of the preposition.

o Between you and me, this is a tough test. BETWEEN is a preposition. YOU and ME are an objects of the

preposition.

o Experts agree that there is a time bomb inside her just waiting to go off.

INSIDE is a preposition. HER is the object of the preposition.

o To whom do you wish to speak? TO is a preposition. WHOM is the object of the preposition.

o Did Cody's father tell him whom he wanted to save this letter for? FOR is a preposition. WHOM is the object of the preposition.

• A pronoun as an object of a verbal (Gerund, Participle, Infinitive) o Reprimanding Jerry and her does little good.

REPRIMANDING is a gerund. HER is an object of the gerund.

o He wants to call her. TO CALL is an infinitive. HER is the object of the infinitive.

o Calling him from the shore, Tina tried to get Allan's attention. CALLING is a participle. HIM is the object of the participle.

• Objective pronouns in a comparison

o Use the objective case after "than" if the pronoun doesn't compare or contrast with the subject, but is being compared or contrasted to an object or complement.

He likes us better than them. (objective case) This means that he likes us better than he likes them.

He likes us better than they. (subjective case) This means that he likes us better than they likes us.

o Use the objective case after "than" if the comparison features a noun or pronoun with the adjective.

There is no faster runner than her. If the sentence included only the adjective FASTER, the

pronoun would be subjective (There is no faster than she).

You are a much better artist than him.

POSSESSIVE CASE:

Using the possessive case indicates that the pronoun is showing ownership. The possessive pronouns are: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours, whose and its.

• With Indefinite Pronouns (Add Apostrophe and "S") o Someone's misfortune can be another's gain. o At this point, it is anyone's guess who will win the series.

• With Personal Pronouns (No Apostrophe) o The gift is hers. o Theirs is the best example he as ever seen of interactive web

design. o The team gave its all in the game against the Bears.

• With Relative or Interrogative Pronouns (No Apostrophe) o Whose books are on my desk?

versus: Who's making dinner tonight? (contraction of: Who is...)

• With Gerunds o We admired her going out for track.

We admire what? the action of going out for track. Whose action? Hers.

o Your skipping class is beginning to affect your grade. Remember: Pronouns stand in for nouns. This is standing in for a

person's name. It is that person's action that is causing the problem. Not the person.

POSSESSIVE NOUNS:

When creating possessive form nouns there are 8 simple rules:

1. If a singular noun does not end in s, add 's

• The delivery boy's truck was blocking the driveway. • Bob Dole's concession speech was stoic and dignified. • The student's attempts to solve the problem were rewarded

2. If a singular common noun ends in s, add 's—unless the next word begins with s. If the next word begins with s, add an apostrophe only. (This includes words with s and sh sounds.)

• The boss's temper was legendary among his employees. • The boss' sister was even meaner. • The witness's version of the story has several inconsistencies. • The witness' story did not match the events recorded on tape.

3. If a singular proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe.

• Chris' exam scores were higher than any other students.

4. If a noun is plural in form and ends in an s, add an apostrophe only, even if the intended meaning of the word is singular (such as mathematics and measles.)

• The instructor asked us to analyze ten poems' meanings. • The dog catcher had to check all of the dogs' tags. • It is hard to endure the Marine Corps' style of discipline.

5. If a plural noun does not end in s, add 's

• Many activists in Oregon are concerned with children's rights. • Everyone was disappointed with the American media's coverage of the

Olympics in Atlanta.

6. If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the possessive closest to the noun.

• Clinton and Gore's campaign was successful. • She was worried about her mother and father's marriage. • Beavis and Butthead's appeal is absolutely lost on me.

7. If there is a separate possession of the same noun, use the correct possessive form for each word.

• The owner's and the boss's excuses were equally false. • The dog's and the cats' owners were in school when the fire broke out.

8. In a compound construction, use the correct possessive form for the word closest to the noun. Avoid possessives with compound plurals.

• My father-in-law's BMW is really fun to drive. • The forest ranger's truck is painted an ugly shade of green. • Your neighborhood letter carrier's job is more difficult than you

imagine.

Case Practice Exercise


1. Martin and Thomas realized that Alabama's hurdlers were faster than a) they b) them.

2. The teacher will reward a) whomever b) whoever he thinks will do the best job.

3. Candace announced, "Things would go better if you would provide a) we b) us detectives with an alibi."

4. The choice to attend the wedding was a) theirs b) their's to make.

5. Scott decided that Michelle was more a responsible person than a) him b) he.

6. David announced that it was a) him b) he whom the committee had nominated.

7. a) Who b) Whom does the staff think will be made manager?

8. Duane is appreciative of a) whomever b) whoever takes the time to work with him on the project.

9. Many citizens believe that a) its b) it's their responsibility to vote.

10. How will the law affect a) we b) us citizens who are from another country?

11. Oscar thinks you are less qualified to write the story than a) he b) him.

12. Finding a solution to the problem is the goal of this a) group's b) groups meeting.

13. Between you and a) I b) me, both of the candidates are boring.

14. Several choices are available for a) whoever b) whomever they elect.

15. The journalist will interview her and a) whoever b) whomever else seems interesting.

16. If it were up to a) I b) me, we would be watching the new Stalone movie.

17. They can't decide a) whose b) who's instructions to follow.

18. Caroline believes a) hers b) her's is a winning recipe.

19. Aldus announced, "If I were a) he b) him, I'd pick Madonna as my vice president.

20. Will you ask Amy to give this letter to a) whoever b) whomever will be seeing Rhonda next?

Case Practice Exercise

1. Martin and Thomas realized that Alabama's hurdlers were faster than a) they b) them.

2. The teacher will reward a) whomever b) whoever he thinks will do the best job.

3. Candace announced, "Things would go better if you would provide a) we b) us detectives with an alibi."

4. The choice to attend the wedding was a) theirs b) their's to make.

5. Scott decided that Michelle was more a responsible person than a) him b) he.

6. David announced that it was a) him b) he whom the committee had nominated.

7. a) Who b) Whom does the staff think will be made manager?

8. Duane is appreciative of a) whomever b) whoever takes the time to work with him on the project.

9. Many citizens believe that a) its b) it's their responsibility to vote.

10. How will the law affect a) we b) us citizens who are from another country?

11. Oscar thinks you are less qualified to write the story than a) he b) him.

12. Finding a solution to the problem is the goal of this a) group's b) groups meeting.

13. Between you and a) I b) me, both of the candidates are boring.

14. Several choices are available for a) whoever b) whomever they elect.

15. The journalist will interview her and a) whoever b) whomever else seems interesting.

16. If it were up to a) I b) me, we would be watching the new Stalone movie.

17. They can't decide a) whose b) who's instructions to follow.

18. Caroline believes a) hers b) her's is a winning recipe.

19. Aldus announced, "If I were a) he b) him, I'd pick Madonna as my vice president.

20. Will you ask Amy to give this letter to a) whoever b) whomever will be seeing Rhonda next?

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is more than simply a series of rules to be memorized. It is the tool that can most effectively fine tune your writing. The choice to use a semicolon rather than begin a new sentence. The decision to string series of phrases one after another with commas. The attempt to interrupt the flow of a sentence a sentence with a dash. All of these involve crafting beyond simply applying rules. But to apply the proper touch, a writer must understand the rules that govern punctuation. He or she must know slows a sentence as well as what stops it.

There are six types of punctuation we will consider: 1) commas, which are used to connect a series of words, phrases and clauses and have specific rules of use in Associated Press Style. 2) semicolons, which are used to connect independent clauses and provide clarity in a "comma heavy" sentence. 3) colons, which are used to let the reader know that a list or restatement is to follow. 4) dashes, which are used to indicate a dramatic break in the sentence's direction. 5) hyphens, which are used to connect compound modifiers. 6) quotation marks, which have specific rules of use in Associated Press Style.

THE COMMA:

There are 11 simple rules that govern the comma in AP style. Be aware that this is a particular style. Other styles have different rules for comma use.

1) When the last item in a series is connected by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, or, but, nor, for, yet, so), do not use a comma before the conjunction.

o I enjoy golf, football and boxing.

2) Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction.

o The UO football team won the game, and the Ducks are going to the Rose Bowl.

3) Remember: A compound predicate (two or more verbs serving the same subject) does not need a comma.

o The man voted today and hoped his candidate would win.

4) Use commas following introductory clauses and phrases and other clauses and phrases that would be confusing without commas.

o In the hassles and headaches of daily life at the University, it is easy to forget how privileged we are to attend college.

o Although she had always been afraid to fly, she loved her flight in a small plane.

o Every day, journalists report the news.

5) Use commas to set off non-restrictive (non essential) clauses, phrases and modifiers from the rest of the sentence.

o The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage. (Restrictive: Indicates more than one lawn mower)

o The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the garage. (Nonrestrictive: Adds non-essential information about the only lawn mower)

6) Use commas to separate descriptive modifiers of equal rank if the coordinating conjunction is missing. Tip: If you can use the adjectives interchangeably and can successfully insert a conjunction and between them, they require a comma.

o In an angry, blunt statement, President Clinton chided his opponents.

7) Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions and nominatives of direct address.

o The test, you may recall, was easy.

o She said, "You know, Jan, that the test is today."

o "Jan, where's the car?" "Where's the car, Jan?"

8) Use commas to set off participial phrases that modify some part of the independent clause.

o The runner quit, having cut his toe on a broken bottle.

o The judge, tired of the commotion in the courtroom, made everyone leave.

o Driven by an unquenchable desire to win, Sally often cheated.

9) Do not use a comma to separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction. Do not use a comma to introduce a subordinate clause.

o The test was today, we all passed. (WRONG)

o We all passed the test because it was easy. (RIGHT)

10) Do not use a comma to separate a reflexive pronoun.

o The mayor himself will be here today.

11) Do not use a comma to precede a partial quotation.

o The mayor said that his opponent was "one of the worst candidates ever to run for office." BUT: If the quotation is a full sentence, it should be preceded by a comma.

o The mayor said, "John Smith is one of the worst candidates ever to run for office. "

THE SEMICOLON:

1) When each item in a series includes commas, a semicolon is used to separate the items.

o The pilots were delighted that the owners approved the new contract, the one with the pay increase; accepted changes to the benefits package, changes that included vision care; and allowed pilots to fly small commuter jets.

2) The semicolon may be used to separate closely related independent clauses that are not connected by conjunctions.

o The sun shone all day; it was a welcome sight.

3) Hence, however, indeed, moreover, still, therefore, thus are conjunctive adverbs. They belong to the second sentence and are not coordinating conjunctions. When used after a semicolon they are followed by commas.

o Steve found it difficult to take advice; however, Bill found it easy to give.

THE COLON:

1) When the colon is used to introduce a complete sentence, the first word of that sentence should be capitalized.

o The announcement caught John by surprise: Fans who are standing on the field will be arrested.

2) But when the colon is used to introduce a word, phrase or clause that is not a complete sentence, the first word following the colon should not be capitalized.

o John knew what he had to do when he saw the police: remain calm.

3) Use a colon to introduce a two-sentence (or longer) quotation. Using a comma instead of a colon is incorrect.

o JFK said: "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country. "

4) Use a colon to introduce a list of items.

o When choosing a computer, consider these three factors: speed, memory and cost.

5) A colon is unnecessary if you are introducing a short list without the words "the following."

o The voters elected Jones, Smith and Marzone.

THE DASH:

• Use a dash to notify the reader of a surprising element at the end of a sentence.

o The trapper gave his grandson a coat made of fur—skunk fur.

• Use a dash to announce a list, restatement or an amplification. o The waiter's first recommendation—a sea bass baked in a

hazelnut crust—was sold out.

o Her first car—a pink and white pinto with leopard-skin seat covers—should be in a museum.

o He had worked hard—did his coach realize how hard?—to improve his free throw shooting.

• Don't use a dash for a simple appositive that doesn't require a dramatic shift.

o Her first car, a Dodge Dart, is still running.

THE HYPHEN:

Smaller than a dash, the hyphen brings words together rather than setting them apart.

• Use a hyphen to form compound modifiers. COMPOUND MODIFIER: The Definition: Two or more words are acting as a single modifier for a noun. The Clue: They belong together. They are not part of a series that can separately describe the noun.

o I think Steve is a well-intentioned volunteer. o Steve is a helpful, supportive volunteer. o The 20-year-old man was too young to buy alcohol.

The Rule: If you can put "and" between the modifiers and it makes sense, it is not a compound modifier. The Exception: If the modifier includes "very" or an "-ly" adverb, these

words alone indicate that they are part of a compound modifier, so a hyphen is redundant.

o Most people think they have a well-developed sense of style. o Steve has a highly developed sense of style. o Susan has an open-minded view of the world. o Doug thinks he has very liberal views.

The Kicker: Most compound modifiers are hyphenated when they follow the linking verb "to be."

o I think his proposal is short-sighted.

The Caveat: But be careful to distinguish between a compound modifier and the same words not used as a modifier.

o His too-small effort couldn't save the game. o The coat he gave his mother was too small.

QUOTATION MARKS:

1) Set off explanatory expressions with commas. In this example, attribution ("the mayor said") is inserted between the dependent clause ("If we ...") and the independent clause, ("we will")

o "If we can win this election," the mayor said, "we will change the future of our great city."

2) Place periods and commas within quotation marks.

o "I don't like cabbage," said Peter Rabbit. o Peter Rabbit said, "I don't like cabbage."

3) Place a question mark inside quotation marks if the quotation is a question. But if the quoted material is not a question, put the question mark outside the quotation marks.

o He asked, "Do you like me?" o How can you support somebody who is said to be "on the

wrong side of every issue"?

4) Semicolons are placed outside quotation marks.

o The football coach introduced his starting lineup as follows: "Daffy Duck, a great quarterback"; "Pluto, a heckuva fullback"; and "Goofy, a ferocious tackler. "

5) A colon goes outside the quotation marks unless it is part of the quotation itself.

o The man said, "I have but one hobby: eating." o The man called his friend "every bad name in the book":

Slimeball, twit, tiny-brained and nose-wiper were some the most common.

6) Use quotation marks for titles of books, lectures, movies, operas, plays, poems, songs, speeches, television shows and works of art. Do not use these marks for names of magazines, newspapers, references books or the bible.

Punctuation Practice Exercise


Instructions: Select the incorrectly punctuated sentence from each group of choices. If all are correct, select d) all are correct. 1) a) Her quickly amassed fortune includes a dramatic collection of paintings that are stored in the basement. b) Herb’s sister yelled, "Does anyone have a telephone"? c) Christina missed her graduation from high school, yet her parents didn’t seem to care. d) all are correct 2) a) The three-week-old injury does not appear to be healing. b) Most of the Duck fans were optimistic about the teams chances of winning the championship. c) Hoping to reach the summit by midnight, the expedition team pushed forward at a grueling pace. d) all are correct 3) a) The manager told his sales team, "If you want to win the award, you will

need to double your sales." b) Jack Kennedy, who was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, was a popular president. c) The local newscaster enjoyed being famous, she was often asked for her autograph. d) all are correct 4) a) Pudding and custard are Ted's two favorite desserts which Kate cannot understand at all. b) Her inexperienced assistant told the visitor, "My boss didn’t feel like working and went golfing instead." c) To reach the peak of success in business, most people devote very concentrated time to their professions. d) all are correct 5) a) "These dogs are from championship bloodlines," the breeder explained confidently. "You should buy one." b) Matt told the princess that he had "always longed to be a servant." c) Surrounded by old friends and family; the couple said their vows. d) all are correct 6) a) Martina asked Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan to act as the head of the company. b) After the game ended, the coach complained: "We didn’t block. We didn’t tackle. We didn’t win." c) As Carter worked to secure the sail, Seamus went below to get their raincoats. d) all are correct 7) a) Did you read Susan Orlean’s article in The New York Times Magazine? b) Their sister said, "I want to go to the game. I’m sure it will be good. We need to be on time." c) The attorney filed the brief because her client opposed the developer’s plan. d) all are correct 8) a) After such a long-winded introduction, the speech itself will certainly be terrible. b) The balloon’s pilot climbed a 60 foot cable to repair the leak. c) She has a deep-seated fear of speaking in front of a judge. d) all are correct

9) a) The announcer repeated the same thing: "The white zone is for loading and unloading only." b) The manicurist thanked the salesman for showing her "the light." c) Last year Greg read "Gone with the Wind;" his sister recommended it. d) all are correct 10) a) The carpenter liked using medieval technology (e.g. a hand-turned lathe). b) The gangsters told the shopkeeper, "If you are not careful you’ll be ‘fish food.’" c) Britt Hume himself will lead the news team to Somalia. d) all are correct 11) a) Every day, Stephen reads The New York Times to his reporting class. b) Shirley did not expect her trip to Greece to be such an exhilarating, whirlwind adventure. c) Sarah is intrigued that her Uncle Cliff was a pilot in the war; nonetheless, he rarely discusses it. d) all are correct 12) a) After she poured the brass, Alice took off her gloves; filled the tub with water; and submerged the sculpture. b) When Daniel got too close to the edge of the cliff his father yelled, "Get back here, Daniel!" c) Driven by the need to prove his tormentors wrong, Karl worked hard every day to improve his backhand. d) all are correct 13) a) The doctor is popular among his patients although he does not spend much time with them. b) Have you seen the new show "The West Wing"? c) Grant asked the teacher, "When will the test results be posted?" d) all are correct 14) a) His mother and father chose to stay home and work in the yard. b) Nerdly is one of the most aptly-named children Monique has ever met. c) Are you going to see "What Lies Beneath"? d) all are correct 15) a) Meryl Streep, who has won several acting awards, seems to be just a regular person. b) Trying desperately not to cry the young child explained that the "booger

monster" had taken his spinach. c) Before we start this exercise, let’s do a few stretches. d) all are correct 16) a) The class visited the museum, they went to a baseball game, too. b) Maria Shriver is a talented journalist and a completely devoted mother. c) When they leave for the concert—she thinks it will be near noon—they’ll call you. d) all are correct 17) a) Nancy prefers gold to silver; she thinks its more elegant. b) For such a quick-witted employee, she has been rather confused by this easily operated machine. c) Has Michael enjoyed his internship at The Register Guard? d) all are correct 18) a) Kimberly is flying to Mexico to meet her husband Jack for a vacation. b) The race between the two sprinters was widely hyped and completely disappointing. c) The speaker asked every audience the same thing: "Do you want to be right, or do you want it to work?" d) all are correct 19) a) Before you decide that you hate this strawberry pie, take a bite. b) The moose made its way across the meadow, and into the forest. c) The picnic basket contains the following: potato salad, Grandma’s recipe; Jello, Aunt Judy’s recipe; and fried chicken, the Colonel’s recipe. d) all are correct 20) a) Grace is going to the movies without him, Bryce has already seen it. b) Cole’s scooter, which he got for his eighth birthday, is totally cool. c) Have you ever tried to pronounce "ameliorate"? d) all are correct

Punctuation Practice Exercise Answers

Instructions: Select the incorrectly punctuated sentence from each group of choices. If all are correct, select d) all are correct. 1) a) Her quickly amassed fortune includes a dramatic collection of paintings that are stored in the basement.

b) Herb’s sister yelled, "Does anyone have a telephone"? c) Christina missed her graduation from high school, yet her parents didn’t seem to care. d) all are correct 2) a) The three-week-old injury does not appear to be healing. b) Most of the Duck fans were optimistic about the teams chances of winning the championship. c) Hoping to reach the summit by midnight, the expedition team pushed forward at a grueling pace. d) all are correct 3) a) The manager told his sales team, "If you want to win the award, you will need to double your sales." b) Jack Kennedy, who was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, was a popular president. c) The local newscaster enjoyed being famous, she was often asked for her autograph. d) all are correct 4) a) Pudding and custard are Ted's two favorite desserts which Kate cannot understand at all. b) Her inexperienced assistant told the visitor, "My boss didn’t feel like working and went golfing instead." c) To reach the peak of success in business, most people devote very concentrated time to their professions. d) all are correct 5) a) "These dogs are from championship bloodlines," the breeder explained confidently. "You should buy one." b) Matt told the princess that he had "always longed to be a servant." c) Surrounded by old friends and family; the couple said their vows. d) all are correct 6) a) Martina asked Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan to act as the head of the company. b) After the game ended, the coach complained: "We didn’t block. We didn’t tackle. We didn’t win." c) As Carter worked to secure the sail, Seamus went below to get their raincoats. d) all are correct

7) a) Did you read Susan Orlean’s article in The New York Times Magazine? b) Their sister said, "I want to go to the game. I’m sure it will be good. We need to be on time." c) The attorney filed the brief because her client opposed the developer’s plan. d) all are correct 8) a) After such a long-winded introduction, the speech itself will certainly be terrible. b) The balloon’s pilot climbed a 60 foot cable to repair the leak. c) She has a deep-seated fear of speaking in front of a judge. d) all are correct 9) a) The announcer repeated the same thing: "The white zone is for loading and unloading only." b) The manicurist thanked the salesman for showing her "the light." c) Last year Greg read "Gone with the Wind;" his sister recommended it. d) all are correct 10) a) The carpenter liked using medieval technology (e.g. a hand-turned lathe). b) The gangsters told the shopkeeper, "If you are not careful you’ll be ‘fish food.’" c) Britt Hume himself will lead the news team to Somalia. d) all are correct 11) a) Every day, Stephen reads The New York Times to his reporting class. b) Shirley did not expect her trip to Greece to be such an exhilarating, whirlwind adventure. c) Sarah is intrigued that her Uncle Cliff was a pilot in the war; nonetheless, he rarely discusses it. d) all are correct 12) a) After she poured the brass, Alice took off her gloves; filled the tub with water; and submerged the sculpture. b) When Daniel got too close to the edge of the cliff his father yelled, "Get back here, Daniel!" c) Driven by the need to prove his tormentors wrong, Karl worked hard every day to improve his backhand. d) all are correct 13) a) The doctor is popular among his patients although he does not spend

much time with them. b) Have you seen the new show "The West Wing"? c) Grant asked the teacher, "When will the test results be posted?" d) all are correct 14) a) His mother and father chose to stay home and work in the yard. b) Nerdly is one of the most aptly-named children Monique has ever met. c) Are you going to see "What Lies Beneath"? d) all are correct 15) a) Meryl Streep, who has won several acting awards, seems to be just a regular person. b) Trying desperately not to cry the young child explained that the "booger monster" had taken his spinach. c) Before we start this exercise, let’s do a few stretches. d) all are correct 16) a) The class visited the museum, they went to a baseball game, too. b) Maria Shriver is a talented journalist and a completely devoted mother. c) When they leave for the concert—she thinks it will be near noon—they’ll call you. d) all are correct 17) a) Nancy prefers gold to silver; she thinks its more elegant. b) For such a quick-witted employee, she has been rather confused by this easily operated machine. c) Has Michael enjoyed his internship at The Register Guard? d) all are correct 18) a) Kimberly is flying to Mexico to meet her husband Jack for a vacation. b) The race between the two sprinters was widely hyped and completely disappointing. c) The speaker asked every audience the same thing: "Do you want to be right, or do you want it to work?" d) all are correct 19) a) Before you decide that you hate this strawberry pie, take a bite. b) The moose made its way across the meadow, and into the forest. c) The picnic basket contains the following: potato salad, Grandma’s recipe; Jello, Aunt Judy’s recipe; and fried chicken, the Colonel’s recipe.

d) all are correct 20) a) Grace is going to the movies without him, Bryce has already seen it. b) Cole’s scooter, which he got for his eighth birthday, is totally cool. c) Have you ever tried to pronounce "ameliorate"? d) all are correct

CLARITY

As writers, our words are our tools. Therefore, with every word, phrase, clause and sentence we write, we should be asking, "Is this the right tool for the job?" Is the way we have written a sentence the clearest, most concise way to express what we are trying to say? There are several danger zones to be mindful of as we are writing for clarity, conciseness and coherence. WORD CHOICE:

The words we choose should communicate just what we mean to communicate--nothing more; nothing less. As noted in "When Words Collide," choosing the correct verb is a matter of grammar; but choosing the right verb is a matter of conciseness and clarity.

• Avoid UP

o Bob appointed his uncle to head up the committee. o Bob appointed his uncle to head the committee.

o The negligent father finally faced up to his responsibilities. o The negligent father finally faced his responsibilities.

o His incessant questions only served to slow up the meeting. o His incessant questions only served to slow the meeting.

• Avoid those verbs requiring "up" to complete their meaning. These verbs are not wrong; but they are weak.

o She suspected the student was making up the excuse. o She suspected the student was fabricating the excuse.

o Business has been picking up since the street opened.

o Business has improved since the street opened.

"VERBIZING NOUNS"

• Adding the suffix "-ize" to any noun is usually unnecessary, and it often serves to confuse the reader. Nonetheless, some "-ize" words are useful and provide a particular meaning.

• Before tacking "-ize" onto a noun, subject it to these three tests.

1. Is it listed in the dictionary as an acceptable word? 2. Does it have a unique meaning? (e.g. pasteurize) 3. Does it have a sound that it not displeasing?

THAT

• That serves a range of grammatical functions.

o Adjective: That man is going to fall off of his bike.

o Demonstrative pronoun: That is the last thing he will do.

o Relative pronoun: Harvard is the university that he wants to attend.

o Conjunction: My brother admitted that he is always wrong.

• As a pronoun & conjunction, that can often be eliminated.

o My brother admitted he is always wrong.

o Harvard is the university he wants to attend.

• Other times removing that requires a sentence be re-written. o She treasured the boat that was built by her father. o She treasured the boat her father built.

• To determine if that is necessary, ask these two questions:

1. Can that be eliminated with no change in the meaning of the sentence?

2. Can the clause introduced by that be expressed more concisely?

MISPLACED WORDS

A modifier must point directly and clearly to what it modifies. Place the modifier next to or as close as possible to what it is modifying. Problem modifiers: only, nearly, almost, just, scarcely, even, hardly and merely.

• ONLY o Only the coach lead the team to victory.

(No one else can lead them)

o The coach can only lead the team to victory. (The coach can't do anything more than lead them.)

o The coach can lead only the team to victory. (The coach can't lead anyone else.)

o Just the swimmer missed her chance to compete in the race. (No one else missed a chance.)

• JUST o The swimmer just missed her chance to compete in the race.

(The swimmer barely or recently missed her chance)

o The swimmer missed her chance just to compete in the race. (The swimmer missed her chance simply to compete)

o The swimmer missed her chance to compete in just the race. (The swimmer missed only once chance to compete: the race. Or she missed the chance to limit her competing to one event: the race.)

MISPLACED MODIFIERS

• Phrases and clauses should also be placed next to or near what they modify.

o Several of the children were confused by math in the class.

o Rising to their feet, the fight song roared from the fans.

o Joe found a twenty-dollar bill walking home.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

• A modifier "dangles" when what it is supposed to modify is not part of the sentence.

o Before going on vacation, the bills need to be paid.

o After cutting the grass, the garden was weeded.

SPLITTING AUXILIARY AND MAIN VERBS AND SPLITTING INFINITIVES

• Split verbs lead to incoherence. In most cases, it is best to keep auxiliary verbs next to the main verb and to avoid splitting infinitives.

o The students who have been, for more than a week, waiting for tickets were disappointed with the news.

o The burglar was, as far as the detectives could determine, hiding somewhere in the building.

• Splitting infinitives, though common practice is grammatically incorrect and makes for sloppy writing.

o For the information to truly be valuable, he will need to verify the source.

o Sally intended to fully explain the proposal, but she missed the meeting.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

• A mood of the verb (to be) that expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact or highly improbable (a wish).

• It is also used to express: DOUBTS, UNCERTAINTIES, REGRETS, DESIRES.

• With subjunctive mood, use WERE instead of WAS.

o If I were rich, I would still teach grammar. o The students looked at me as if I were insane. o She wishes she were home in bed instead of in class.

o BUT: --If the ex-convict was involved in the robbery, he probably has left town.

CONCISENESS

Make your words count. Don't muddy your writing with jargon, unclear construction and repetition.

REDUNDANCIES AND WORDINESS

Mutual cooperation cooperation

Completely destroyed destroyed

Could care less couldn't care less

consensus of opinion consensus

refer back refer

thinking to myself thinking

needless to say then why say it?

at the present time now

despite the fact that although

INTENSIFIERS

Avoid overused intensifiers such as: Very, Really, Truly, So, Completely, Totally, Positively, Perfectly

• Re-write for conciseness and description. For example:

very hungry famished

really tired exhausted

perfectly happy content

so silly ridiculous

truly angry irate

SENTENCE FRAGMENT:

• A group of words lacking one or more of the following: a subject, a predicate, a complete thought (e.g, a dependent clause).

o Although he passed the test.

o "Now his concern is to be a normally functioning human being again. Without the headaches, dizziness, memory loss and lethargy that have been part of his life for too long."

RUN-ON SENTENCE:

• Lacks proper punctuation e.g, Comma Splice:

o The professor dismissed the class, the students cheered.

• Options to fix run-ons: 1) Create two sentences 2) Use a semi-colon 3) Use a coordinating conjunction

OVERSUBORDINATED SENTENCE:

• Caused by several dependent clauses or one long dependent clause at the start of a sentence. Problem: delays main idea.

o Even though I felt sick and discouraged at the thought of taking the exam, I passed the LSDT.

PASSIVE & ACTIVE VOICE

• The "VOICE" of a sentence indicates the form of the verb.

• PASSIVE VOICE: The subject is acted upon by the verb.

o The test was passed by the student. o The meeting was led by the president. o The play was canceled.

• ACTIVE VOICE: The subject is performing an action. Think: Subject-Verb-Object

o The student passed the test. o The president led the meeting. o The director canceled the play.

• NOTE: Use of the verb to be (e.g., is, was) does not necessarily mean the passive voice.

o She was managing the store. (active) o The store was managed by her. (passive) o She was tired. (indicative)

• TIP: Avoid unnecessary introductory phrases and clauses

o It has been shown by numerous studies that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.

o Numerous studies have shown that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.

CORRECTING PASSIVE VOICE:

• Find the verb in the sentence • Ask who or what is performing the action. • Construct the sentence to that the "actor" (subject) performs the action.

o Our conclusion was ignored by the committee.

Verb: ignored Actor: committee Re-write: The committee ignored out conclusions.

o The infant was rescued from the blaze by his mother. Verb: rescued Actor: mother Re-write: The infant's mother rescued him from the blaze. If we write it: His mother rescued the infant from the blaze. "His" is unclear as a pronoun reference.

WHEN PASSIVE VOICE IS JUSTIFIED:

• The recipient of the action is more important (prominent) than the performer of the action.

o President Clinton was heckled by an unidentified comedian posing as a journalist.

• The actor or performer of the action is unknown, difficult to identify or irrelevant.

o The gift was damaged during shipping.

NOTE: In this case, the indicative mood (was) is used to state merely a condition or realistic explanation, not an implausible situation.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE (PARALLELISM):

• Don't mix elements in a phrase or series.

o He enjoys books, movies and driving his car. (NO)

o He enjoys reading books, watching movies and driving his car. (YES)

• Don't mix verbals (e.g., gerunds and infinitives).

o He believes in using force and then to resort to diplomacy only if all else fails. (NO)

o He believes in using force and then resorting to diplomacy only if all else fails. (YES)

• Don't mix tenses or voice.

o Workers who were consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and had lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)

o Workers who are consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and have lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)

• Don't mix singular and plural subjects.

o One should study; students should know that. (NO)

o Students should know that they should study. (YES)

• Don't use a dependent clause inappropriately.

o The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian Physics and that critical thinking is at the heart of scientific study. (NO)

o The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian physics and the importance of critical thinking in scientific study. (YES)

• Be consistent with grammatical patterns in a sentence (e.g., verb-adjective-noun pattern of three phrases)

o He vowed to decrease federal taxes, increase social services and strengthen foreign relations.

ACCURACY

As journalists and writers, it is our responsibility to use language with sense and sensitivity. SEXISM:

• Sexist language excludes or demeans one gender or another on the basis of sex. Because of the number of words that we use that are implicitly

meant to include everyone, but explicitly exclude women, sexist language has come to be understood as language that excludes women.

o "Peace on earth good will to men." o "All men are created equal."

INSTEAD OF USE Man, men person, people mankind people founding fathers founders, forebears manpower work force

to man (verb)

to staff, operate

• The generic "He" o Just as "man" cannot refer to men-only and women-and-men-

both, "he" cannot refer to a male person at certain times and both genders other times.

o He = maleness whether you intend it or not. o A doctor should be kind to his patients. o A child will be brave if he is encouraged to explore his world.

Re-write: "his or her" or change it to a plural and use "their."

RACISM:

• Racist language excludes or demeans a person or group of people on the basis of race. Because of the pervasiveness of racism in the United States (and worldwide) it is likely that a writer's judgment will be affected by the long-standing and insidious stereotypes that exist in our society. Our job as writers is to identify those stereotypes and remove them from our language. PROBLEMS TO IDENTIFY AND ELIMINATE: 1. Identifying people unnecessarily by race.

• A person's race is usually not a vital part of a story. If race is not the point of the story such as...

o "Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win a Pulitzer Prize."

...then leave it out. Do not identify a person by his or her race if you would not do the same for a person of any race in the same situation.

o "Bryant Gumble, the popular black anchor for the Today Show, announced his retirement today."

Is as equally ridiculous as:

o "Jane Pauley, the popular white anchor for the Today Show, announced her retirement today."

2. Reinforcing Stereotypes.

• This problem is subtle and requires that a writer closely consider why he or she is including particular descriptions. Treating someone of a particular race as an exception is just as demeaning as an overt stereotype.

o "hard working, even-tempered Mexican-American" o "assertive and outspoken Asian-American" o "articulate and well-spoken African-American"

3. Euro-centrism

• Contrary to popular myth, white, European culture is not superior to all other cultures, nor is it the standard by which all other cultures should be judged. So be watchful for phrases like "culturally deprived" and "non-white," which imply just that. 4. Group names

• Language and group names change all of the time. In the past, names for members of various racial and ethnic groups were given to them by people outside the group. These terms, though widely used, were often seen as demeaning by the group itself.

• For example: In the early 20th century, "colored" was an "accepted" group name for black Americans. In an effort to eliminate the demeaning word from "popular" usage, black Americans pressed hard to be called, "Negro." In the sixties "black" and "afro-American" were the terms of choice. Today many people prefer "African-American."

• The point is that as journalist, we must be aware of what various racial groups call themselves and want to be called publicly and use those terms accordingly.

AGEISM:

• Ageist language demeans a person based on a his or her age. Stereotypes casting old people as feeble and cranky and teen-agers as irresponsible and inarticulate are not only insulting, they are often inaccurate.

• Reinforcing stereotypes: Just as writers can reinforce racial stereotypes by pointing out the "exceptions" so can they reinforce age stereotypes.

o Still quick-witted, Sally celebrated her 80th birthday. o A well-mannered and articulate sophomore, Steve Smith was a

favorite among his teachers.

• The solution: Write about people as individuals, not as representatives of, or exceptions to, their age group.

ABLE-BODIEDISM

• This non-word describes language that demeans a person based on a disability.

• When writing about people with physical or mental limitations, ask them how they want to be referred to. And once again, if it doesn't have anything to do with the story, leave it out.

o Susan Jones, who has epilepsy, opened a clothing store. o Bill Smith, who has no identifiable physical impairments, opened

a gourmet restaurant • People are not their handicaps. People have handicaps.

Never write: Bill Smith, an asthmatic, climbed Mount Everest. Instead write: Bill Smith, who has asthma, climbed Mount Everest.

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