Lecture # Lecture # 1919Interior Air Interior Air

QualityQuality

Florida CitiesFlorida CitiesUrban Density/60 CitiesUrban Density/60 Cities

DensityDensityCity people / sq. mile City people / sq. mile RankRank

Ft. Lauderdale 4,747 19Ft. Lauderdale 4,747 19

St. Petersburg 4,059 24St. Petersburg 4,059 24

Orlando 2,148 48Orlando 2,148 48

Jacksonville 837 59Jacksonville 837 59

Range 23,369 Range 23,369 714 714

Florida Cities and Rank:Florida Cities and Rank:75 Largest Metro Areas75 Largest Metro Areas

Metro Area Population Rank Metro Area Population Rank Miami-Ft. Laud.-Miami-Ft. Laud.-Hollywood 3,192,582 11Hollywood 3,192,582 11Tampa- St. Pet.- Tampa- St. Pet.- Clearwater 2,067,959 20Clearwater 2,067,959 20Orlando 1,072,748 35Orlando 1,072,748 35Jacksonville 906,727 46Jacksonville 906,727 46West Palm Beach-West Palm Beach-Boca Raton -Boca Raton -Delray Beach 863,518 49 Delray Beach 863,518 49 Range 17,953,372 Range 17,953,372 659,864 659,864

Florida Cities and Rank:Florida Cities and Rank:Moderate Air Pollution Moderate Air Pollution

Days/75Days/75 CitiesCities

CityCity Number of Days Number of Days Rank Rank Tampa 119 Tampa 119 46 46 Jacksonville 84 Jacksonville 84 6464Orlando 79 Orlando 79 6666Miami 51 Miami 51 72 72 West Palm Beach 29 West Palm Beach 29 7474

Range 304 Range 304 3 3

The presence of chemicals / The presence of chemicals / physical particles in the physical particles in the atmosphere that exceed atmosphere that exceed

harmless levels.harmless levels.

* Acid rain, smog, toxic air * Acid rain, smog, toxic air pollutants, suspended particles.pollutants, suspended particles.

What Is Air Pollution ?What Is Air Pollution ?

Examples of Air PollutantsExamples of Air Pollutants

1 . 1 . Ethylene (CEthylene (C22HH22))2. Sulfur dioxide (SO2. Sulfur dioxide (SO22))3. Ozone (O3. Ozone (O33))4. Carbon monoxide (CO)4. Carbon monoxide (CO)5. Carbon dioxide (CO5. Carbon dioxide (CO22))6. Nitrogen oxides (N6. Nitrogen oxides (Noxox))7. Ammonia (NH7. Ammonia (NH33))8. Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) 8. Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) 9. Volatile Organic Chemicals 9. Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)(VOCs)10. Particulates (Dust)10. Particulates (Dust)

The essential gases (OThe essential gases (O22, CO, CO22, NO, NO22) ) are are involved in plant metabolism.involved in plant metabolism.

Interiorscape plants may purify air Interiorscape plants may purify air andand remove harmful gases from theremove harmful gases from the environment.environment.

Gases and Gases and Interiorscape PlantsInteriorscape Plants

Some gaseous pollutants are highlySome gaseous pollutants are highly toxic to plants.toxic to plants.

Plants are potential air polluters andPlants are potential air polluters and emit gases into the atmosphere.emit gases into the atmosphere.

Gases and Gases and Interiorscape PlantsInteriorscape Plants

Injury can range from visible Injury can range from visible damagedamage on foliage to reduced growth, yield,on foliage to reduced growth, yield, quality, life, and usefulness of thequality, life, and usefulness of the plant, and to premature death.plant, and to premature death.

Air Pollutants Affecting Air Pollutants Affecting Interiorscape PlantsInteriorscape Plants

The severity of the injury depends on:The severity of the injury depends on: concentration of air pollutantconcentration of air pollutant duration of exposureduration of exposure plant’s genetic makeup plant’s genetic makeup plant species and ageplant species and age stage of plant developmentstage of plant development plant’s nutritional statusplant’s nutritional status abiotic factorsabiotic factors

humidityhumidity light levelslight levels temperaturetemperature season of yearseason of year

Air Pollutants Affecting Air Pollutants Affecting Interiorscape PlantsInteriorscape Plants

Air Pollutant: Sulfur dioxideAir Pollutant: Sulfur dioxide

Injury: Injury:

Chronic - does not usually kill the Chronic - does not usually kill the tissues; results from low levels of tissues; results from low levels of pollution.pollution.

Acute - kills all or a portion of the Acute - kills all or a portion of the leaf; results from a short - term, leaf; results from a short - term, high levels of pollution.high levels of pollution.

Air Pollutant: Sulfur dioxideAir Pollutant: Sulfur dioxide

Symptoms:Symptoms:

Bleached spots, bleached areas Bleached spots, bleached areas between veins, giving the “classic” between veins, giving the “classic” SOSO22 symptom of tan-to-ivory brown symptom of tan-to-ivory brown areas between green veins; needle-areas between green veins; needle-like leaves turn yellow to brown if like leaves turn yellow to brown if injury is acute.injury is acute.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1970 1980 1990

Million tons per year Million tons per year

Sulfur Dioxide Emissions (USA)Sulfur Dioxide Emissions (USA)

Air Pollutant: Nitrogen OxidesAir Pollutant: Nitrogen Oxides

Injury: Injury:

Irregular white or brown collapsed Irregular white or brown collapsed lesion on interveinal tissue and near lesion on interveinal tissue and near leaf margin.leaf margin.

Air Pollutant: Nitrogen OxidesAir Pollutant: Nitrogen Oxides

Sources: Sources:

High temperature combustion of coal, High temperature combustion of coal, oil, gas, and gasoline in power plants oil, gas, and gasoline in power plants and internal combustion engines.and internal combustion engines.

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.50 - Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.50 - 25.025.0

People - 5.0People - 5.0

0

5

10

15

20

25

1970 1980 1990

Million tons per year Million tons per year

Nitrogen Oxides Emissions Nitrogen Oxides Emissions

(USA)(USA)

Examples of Volatile Organic Examples of Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)Chemicals (VOCs)

1. 1. Methanol - used as solvent, cleaner Methanol - used as solvent, cleaner and as a fuel.and as a fuel.

2. Toluene - used in making perfumes,2. Toluene - used in making perfumes, dyes, medicine, explosives, dyes, medicine, explosives, detergents,detergents, and in airplane gasoline.and in airplane gasoline.

3. Ammonia - used in making 3. Ammonia - used in making fertilizers, fertilizers, plastics, dyes, and textiles.plastics, dyes, and textiles.

Examples of Volatile Organic Examples of Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)Chemicals (VOCs)

4. Acetone - used as a solvent. 4. Acetone - used as a solvent.

5. Methyl chloroform - used as a 5. Methyl chloroform - used as a cleaning solvent.cleaning solvent.

6. Xylenes - used in making dyes, 6. Xylenes - used in making dyes, drugs,drugs, insecticides, and gasoline.insecticides, and gasoline.

7. Methylene chloride - used in food,7. Methylene chloride - used in food, furniture and plastic processing.furniture and plastic processing.

0

10

20

30

1970 1980 1990

Million tons per year Million tons per year

Volatile Organic Compound Volatile Organic Compound Emissions (USA)Emissions (USA)

Air Pollutant: OzoneAir Pollutant: Ozone

Injury and Symptoms:Injury and Symptoms:

Chronic - needle-like lvs. Show Chronic - needle-like lvs. Show mottled green and yellow patches of mottled green and yellow patches of tissue on the needle surface. Acute - tissue on the needle surface. Acute - the entire needle may turn brown. the entire needle may turn brown.

Broadleaved plants show very small Broadleaved plants show very small ‘flecks’ or ‘stipples’ of dead (brown) ‘flecks’ or ‘stipples’ of dead (brown) or pigmentd (red or purple) tissue on or pigmentd (red or purple) tissue on the upper surface; there is seldom the upper surface; there is seldom any injury on the lower leaf surface.any injury on the lower leaf surface.

Air Pollutant: OzoneAir Pollutant: Ozone

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Toxicity Levels (ppm):

Plants - 0.08 - 0.55Plants - 0.08 - 0.55

People - 0.10 - 0.90People - 0.10 - 0.90

Air Pollutant: OzoneAir Pollutant: Ozone

Sources:Sources:

Natural component of upper Natural component of upper atmosphere; filters out UV radiation; atmosphere; filters out UV radiation; lightning can create it at ground level. lightning can create it at ground level.

Major source is the urban environment Major source is the urban environment - hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen - hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen are emitted from automotive exhaust are emitted from automotive exhaust systems; these compounds undergo systems; these compounds undergo photochemical reaction yielding photochemical reaction yielding ozone. In interiors a common source ozone. In interiors a common source is sparking or arcing electric motors.is sparking or arcing electric motors.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1970 1980 1990

Million tons per year Million tons per year

Carbon Monoxide Emissions (USA)Carbon Monoxide Emissions (USA)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1970 1980 1990

Million tons per year Million tons per year

Total Particulates Emissions (USA)Total Particulates Emissions (USA)

Air Pollutant: Carbon dioxideAir Pollutant: Carbon dioxide

Symptoms:Symptoms:

Temporary elevation of plant growth Temporary elevation of plant growth rate.rate.

Sources:Sources:

Combustion of hydrocarbons (wood, Combustion of hydrocarbons (wood, gas, fuel oil).gas, fuel oil).

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 20,000Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 20,000

People - 5,000People - 5,000

Air Pollutant: Air Pollutant: Carbon dioxideCarbon dioxide

‘‘Greenhouse Effect’ Greenhouse Effect’ Global WarmingGlobal Warming

Air Pollutant: EthyleneAir Pollutant: Ethylene

Sources: Sources:

Man’s activities: incomplete Man’s activities: incomplete combustion of coal, gas, and oil for combustion of coal, gas, and oil for heating, and automobile and truck heating, and automobile and truck exhaust. Natural occurrence: injured exhaust. Natural occurrence: injured tissues, ripened fruits.tissues, ripened fruits.

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.01 - Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.01 - 0.100.10

Abscission of flowers.

Abscission of foliage.

Chlorosis of foliage.

Epinasty of foliage.

Observed Responses of Nursery Crops to Ethylene

Exposure

Ethylene has an autocatalytic Ethylene has an autocatalytic activity,activity, it induces the enzyme ACC it induces the enzyme ACC synthase.synthase.

Auxins also do this.Auxins also do this.

Wounding increases ethyleneWounding increases ethylene production by inducing formation ofproduction by inducing formation of ACC synthase.ACC synthase.

EthyleneEthylene

Synthesis of Synthesis of Endogenous Endogenous

EthyleneEthylene

METHIONINEMETHIONINE

SAM SAM (S-adenosyl (S-adenosyl methioninemethionine

))

ETHYLENEETHYLENE

ACC ACC SynthaseSynthase

ENERGY ENERGY (ATP)(ATP)

ENERGYENERGY

ACC ACC 1-1-Amino-Amino-

cyclopropanecyclopropane-1-carboxylic -1-carboxylic

acidacid

Leaf AbscissionLeaf Abscission

Air Pollutant: AmmoniaAir Pollutant: Ammonia

Sources: Biological processes; Sources: Biological processes; industry and urban activities, industry and urban activities, refrigerators. refrigerators.

Injury: Blackened and collapsed tissue. Injury: Blackened and collapsed tissue. Initially, leaves may develop water-Initially, leaves may develop water-soaked appearance. Lower soaked appearance. Lower concentrations of NHconcentrations of NH33 produce light tan produce light tan to dark brown bronzing on upper leaf to dark brown bronzing on upper leaf surface and dark brown irregular, surface and dark brown irregular, interveinal lesions extending through interveinal lesions extending through the leaf.the leaf.

Air Pollutant: AmmoniaAir Pollutant: Ammonia

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - > 1.25Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - > 1.25

Sources: Chlorinating equipment Sources: Chlorinating equipment for swimming pools; sewage and for swimming pools; sewage and industrial operations.industrial operations.

Symptoms: General leaf yellowing, Symptoms: General leaf yellowing, stippling, scorching of leaf tips and stippling, scorching of leaf tips and margins, necrosis and leaf drop. Injury margins, necrosis and leaf drop. Injury is first observed on the mature leaves.is first observed on the mature leaves.

Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.05 - Toxicity Levels (ppm): Plants - 0.05 - 0.100.10

Air Pollutant: Chlorine (Cl) Air Pollutant: Chlorine (Cl) and Hydrogen Chlorideand Hydrogen Chloride

Sources: Growing media, superphosphate (fertilizer), perlite. Industry, coal combustion, volcanic eruptions, refineries, plastic manufacturing.

Injury:Dependent on the accumulation of fluoride to toxic levels. Gray or light green water-soaked lesions which turn tan to reddish brown.

Toxicity Levels for HF: Plants - 1 ppb

Air Pollutant: Fluorine (F), Air Pollutant: Fluorine (F), Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), Silicon Tetrafluoride (SiFSilicon Tetrafluoride (SiF44))

Sources: The action of sunlight on Sources: The action of sunlight on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides released from automobile exhaust. released from automobile exhaust.

Air Pollutant: Air Pollutant: Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)

Injury: Plant tissue surrounding the Injury: Plant tissue surrounding the stomates plasmolyzes and dies. stomates plasmolyzes and dies.

Enlarged, air-filled spaces develop Enlarged, air-filled spaces develop beneath the lower epidermis beneath the lower epidermis resulting in a silvery appearance resulting in a silvery appearance known as “silver leaf” or “leaf known as “silver leaf” or “leaf banding”. banding”.

Air Pollutant: Air Pollutant: Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)

Early maturity, growth Early maturity, growth suppresion, heavy leaf suppresion, heavy leaf abscission, bleaching, streaking, abscission, bleaching, streaking, speckling, or anthocyanin speckling, or anthocyanin formation may also occur.formation may also occur.

Air Pollutant: Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)Air Pollutant: Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)

Continued:

Sources: Greenhouse paint Sources: Greenhouse paint containing di-(phenylmercuric) containing di-(phenylmercuric) dodecenylsuccinate; fungicides - dodecenylsuccinate; fungicides - mercury bichloride, organic and mercury bichloride, organic and inorganic mercury compounds. inorganic mercury compounds.

Symptoms: Yellow, brown, purplish Symptoms: Yellow, brown, purplish and black leaves; curving downward and black leaves; curving downward and severe abscission of older and severe abscission of older leaves.leaves.

Air Pollutant: Air Pollutant: Mercury (Hg) VaporsMercury (Hg) Vapors

Pollutant : BenzenePollutant : BenzeneSymptoms: Symptoms: Skin and eye irritant, may be a Skin and eye irritant, may be a contributing factor to chromosomal contributing factor to chromosomal

aberrations and leukemia in aberrations and leukemia in humans; humans; chronic exposure to even relatively chronic exposure to even relatively low levels causes headaches, low levels causes headaches, appetite loss, drowsiness, appetite loss, drowsiness, nervousness, psychological nervousness, psychological disturbances, anemia, bone disturbances, anemia, bone marrow disease; it is considered a marrow disease; it is considered a carcinogenic. carcinogenic.

Pollutant : BenzenePollutant : Benzene

Sources: Sources: Inks, oils, paints, plastics, rubber, Inks, oils, paints, plastics, rubber, dyes, detergents, gasoline, dyes, detergents, gasoline, pharmaceuticals, tobacco smoke, pharmaceuticals, tobacco smoke, synthetic fibers.synthetic fibers.

Pollutant : Formaldehyde

Symptoms:Symptoms:Irritates mucous membranes of the Irritates mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, can cause eyes, nose, throat, can cause contact dermatitis; irritation of contact dermatitis; irritation of upper respiratory tract and eyes upper respiratory tract and eyes and headaches; can cause asthma and headaches; can cause asthma and is suspected of causing a rare and is suspected of causing a rare type of throat cancer.type of throat cancer.

Pollutant : Formaldehyde

Sources:Sources:Foam insulation, plywood, particle Foam insulation, plywood, particle board, pressed-wood products, board, pressed-wood products, grocery bags, waxed papers, facial grocery bags, waxed papers, facial tissue; water repellants, fire tissue; water repellants, fire retardants, carpet backing, retardants, carpet backing, permanent press clothing; permanent press clothing; cigarette smoke, natural gas, cigarette smoke, natural gas, kerosene.kerosene.

Pollutant : TrichloroethylenePollutant : TrichloroethyleneSymptoms:Symptoms:Considered a potent liver Considered a potent liver carcinogen by the National Cancer carcinogen by the National Cancer Institute.Institute.

Sources:Sources:Primarily used in the metal Primarily used in the metal degreasing and dry-cleaning degreasing and dry-cleaning industries; also in printing inks, industries; also in printing inks, paints, lacquers, varnishes, paints, lacquers, varnishes, adhesives.adhesives.

Synergistic Effect of Air Synergistic Effect of Air Pollutants Can Cause Pollutants Can Cause More Severe Injury More Severe Injury Than Any Pollutant Than Any Pollutant

AloneAlone

Vegetation Injury Vegetation Injury From Other Agents From Other Agents Can Be Confused Can Be Confused with Air Pollutant with Air Pollutant

InjuryInjury

Now You Are Convinced That Air Now You Are Convinced That Air Pollutants Is Having An Adverse Effect Pollutants Is Having An Adverse Effect On Plants. How Can You Be Certain?On Plants. How Can You Be Certain?

Answer One: Answer One:

Look for some of the same sort of Look for some of the same sort of symptoms associated with diseases and symptoms associated with diseases and physiological problems you are familiar.physiological problems you are familiar.

Answer Two: Answer Two:

Let some of your more sensitive plants Let some of your more sensitive plants act as ‘biological indicators’. act as ‘biological indicators’.

SICK BUILDING SYNDROMESICK BUILDING SYNDROME

Occurrence: Occurrence: Tightly sealed, energy - Tightly sealed, energy - efficient buildings; recently constructedefficient buildings; recently constructed

buildings.buildings.

Symptoms: Symptoms: Headaches, watery eyes,Headaches, watery eyes, nausea, skin disorders and fatigue.nausea, skin disorders and fatigue.

Signs of sick building: Signs of sick building: Musty, stuffyMusty, stuffysmell and other lingering odors.smell and other lingering odors.

Causes: Causes: Excessive moisture or Excessive moisture or humidity, humidity, improper location of vapor retarders,improper location of vapor retarders,poor HVAC design and maintenance, poor HVAC design and maintenance, poorpoorduct design, improper carpets, and duct design, improper carpets, and poorpoorair circulation.air circulation.

Persistence: Persistence: Symptoms usually Symptoms usually disappeardisappeara few hours after the person leaves thea few hours after the person leaves thebuilding.building.

SICK BUILDING SYNDROMESICK BUILDING SYNDROME

Building Related IllnessesBuilding Related Illnesses

Result in serious indoor air Result in serious indoor air qualityquality ( IAQ ) problems.( IAQ ) problems.

Persist even after the person isPersist even after the person is removed from the causal factors.removed from the causal factors.

Building Related Illnesses Causal factors may be in the form Causal factors may be in the form ofof pathogens such as mold, mildew,pathogens such as mold, mildew, bacteria, mites, or other agents bacteria, mites, or other agents suchsuch as radon, volatile organic as radon, volatile organic compoundscompounds (VOCs), secondary smoke, dust, (VOCs), secondary smoke, dust, chemicals such as formaldehyde chemicals such as formaldehyde andand carbon dioxide.carbon dioxide. Example : Legionnaires' Example : Legionnaires' DiseaseDisease

Sources of Indoor PollutantsSources of Indoor Pollutants

1. Humans - 'Bioeffluents'1. Humans - 'Bioeffluents'2. Furniture ( Resins )2. Furniture ( Resins )3. Carpeting3. Carpeting4. Copy machines4. Copy machines5. Fax machines5. Fax machines6. Computers6. Computers7. Paneling ( Resins )7. Paneling ( Resins )8. Aerosols8. Aerosols

Acetone 50,700Acetone 50,700Methyl Alcohol 74,400Methyl Alcohol 74,400Ethyl Acetate 25,400Ethyl Acetate 25,400

BIOEFFLUENTSBIOEFFLUENTS

Emission RateEmission RateChemicals ug/Day/PersonChemicals ug/Day/Person

How Plants Do It?How Plants Do It?

Interior plants remove various Interior plants remove various chemical compounds by:chemical compounds by:

1. Absorption.1. Absorption.

2. Translocation. 2. Translocation.

3. Biodegradation. 3. Biodegradation.

LIVING AIR PURIFICATION LIVING AIR PURIFICATION SYSTEM SYSTEM

AbsorptionAbsorption

HCHOHCHO

TranslocationTranslocation

BiodegradationBiodegradation

RHIZOSPHERE :RHIZOSPHERE :

A zone or volume of soil / potting mediaA zone or volume of soil / potting mediainfluenced by the plant root system.influenced by the plant root system.

Pothos ssp.Pothos ssp. Aloe ssp.Aloe ssp. Opuntia ssp.Opuntia ssp.* Each plant has its own distinctive * Each plant has its own distinctive rhizospheric inhabitants due to rhizospheric inhabitants due to differences in root exudates.differences in root exudates.

* Dominant bacteria is * Dominant bacteria is Pseudomonas.Pseudomonas.

Weights of Various Weights of Various Microorganisms per 8" PotMicroorganisms per 8" Pot

Bacteria - 0.08 ozBacteria - 0.08 oz

Fungi - 0.176 ozFungi - 0.176 oz

Actinomycetes - 0.128 ozActinomycetes - 0.128 oz

Protozoa - 0.032 ozProtozoa - 0.032 oz

Algae - 0.032 ozAlgae - 0.032 oz

* 18 plant families including* 18 plant families including

Crassulas, Cacti, Orchids and Crassulas, Cacti, Orchids and Bromeliads.Bromeliads.

CAM Plants - Crassulacean CAM Plants - Crassulacean Acid MetabolismAcid Metabolism

Plants Used:Plants Used:

Chemicals Used:Chemicals Used:

Orchids BromeliadsOrchids Bromeliads

Dendrobium Aechmea fasciataDendrobium Aechmea fasciataPhalaenopsis CryptanthusPhalaenopsis Cryptanthus Guzmania Guzmania Neoregelia Neoregelia

Bioeffluents and Bioeffluents and Outgassing compoundsOutgassing compounds

Liquid Liquid pollutantspollutants

Air Air samplessamples

Gaseous Gaseous pollutantspollutants

Air Sealed Chamber 2x2x3 ftAir Sealed Chamber 2x2x3 ft

Carbon Dioxide Removal Carbon Dioxide Removal Rates of Different PlantsRates of Different Plants

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

025Time in hours

Aechmea fasciataDendrobium orchid

Dracaena marginata

Carb

on D

ioxid

e p

pm

Carb

on D

ioxid

e p

pm

Removal of Chemicals by Removal of Chemicals by the Dendrobium Orchidthe Dendrobium Orchid

ug Removed Emission Rateug Removed Emission Rate Chemicals Per Hour ug/Day/Person Chemicals Per Hour ug/Day/Person

Acetone 90,000 50,700Acetone 90,000 50,700Methyl Alcohol 11,889 74,400Methyl Alcohol 11,889 74,400Ethyl Acetate 9,180 25,400Ethyl Acetate 9,180 25,400Ammonia 3,057 Ammonia 3,057 Formaldehyde 756 Formaldehyde 756 Xylene 333 Xylene 333 Chloroform 269Chloroform 269

HOW TO ACHIEVE A HOW TO ACHIEVE A

POLLUTANT - FREE HEALTHY POLLUTANT - FREE HEALTHY

INDOOR ENVIRONMENT WHILE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT WHILE

MAINTAINING ENERGY MAINTAINING ENERGY

EFFICIENCY IN MODERN EFFICIENCY IN MODERN

BUILDINGS ?BUILDINGS ?