lecture 20 socio-organizational issues and stakeholder requirements –part 3
TRANSCRIPT
Today’s Topics Today we will cover
Effective Technical and Human Implementation of Computer-based Systems ETHICS
Ethnographic methods and Contextual Inquiry
ETHICS
Effective Technical and Human Implementation of Computer-based Systems
Developed by Enid Mumford,
Manchester Business School, 1979, 1983, 1985
“ a structured design approach that covers organizational, administrative and quality-of-working-life factors
and
“a participative problem solving methodology”
Mumford (1985)
ETHICS Developed through action research The socio-technical design view:
- Technically efficient
- Social characteristics leading to high job satisfaction and improved quality of
working life
i.e.; Effective computer systems require the technology to fit closely with the social and organizational factors
ETHICS Means of achieving this is the participation
of users at all levels in the design of computer systems
ETHICS embodies an ethical position and it has an explicitly stated philosophy
ETHICS
Technology
People Tasks
Organisationjob satisfaction organisation of work
objectives and mission
opportunities and constraintsgood systems design:
- new technology provides the opportunity for change and improvement
- distinguish between easy and difficult to implement changes
- job redesign needs to be part of the design task
ETHICS: socio-technical design
the socio-technical design approach acknowledges that: different individuals and groups have specific needs,
interests and values these must be met for the successful implementation of
change
job satisfaction:
a good “fit” between the employee's job needs, expectations and aspirations and the job requirements as defined by the organization
ETHICS
Provides a framework of factors for the description and measurement of job satisfaction:
individual’s personality, background, education:
the knowledge fit
the psychological fit competence, control and efficiency:
the efficiency fit
the task structure fit employee values:
the ethical fit
Job satisfaction a “good” knowledge fit:
the employee believes their personal skills and knowledge are being well used and developed
a “good” psychological fit:
the employee believes their personal interests are being catered for(responsibility, recognition, sense of achievement, status, advancement)
Job satisfaction a “good” efficiency fit:
the employee believes their financial rewards are fair, supervisory systems are acceptable, adequate support services
Job satisfaction a “good” task structure fit:
the employee believes their set of tasks and duties meets their task differentiation needs
a “good” ethical fit:
the employee believes the philosophy and values of their employer do not disregard their personal values
Job satisfactionif there is a “bad” fit on any variable(s): psychological, efficiency, and ethical fit
can be improved through changed personnel policies and organizational design
knowledge and task/structure fit can be improved through work redesign
Participation: structure, content and process Structure of participation
The mechanisms enabling participation to take place
e.g. Representatives, voting, pressure groups, spontaneous, direct or indirect (through intermediaries)
Content of participation
The nature of the issues about which decisions are taken
e.g. Management’s jurisdiction, executive decisions
ETHICS and participation
ETHICS and participation Process of participation
The acquisition of knowledge for informed decision making
e.g. Learning/training, working relationships, goal setting, solutions etc.
structure of participation
three levels are identified by Mumford: consultative
all users are consulted about/contribute ideas to the design process but the design task is carried out by systems analysts
representative
design groups formed from elected or selected representatives take design decisions
ETHICS and participation
ETHICS and participation consensus
design group members constantly discuss ideas and solutions with all users
Recommended structure of participation for ETHICS:
a two tier structure of a Steering Committee and a Design Group for each department involved, and a facilitator
Steering Committee (sets design group guidelines):
senior managers from departments, management services and personnel, union
representatives
ETHICS and participation
ETHICS and participation Design Group:
8-10 members, all interests represented e.g. all functions, sections, ages, grades (constituents), and systems analysts (their role is teacher, adviser and learner)
ETHICS and participation Facilitator:
an external or internal consultant who is “neutral” and has training in ETHICS and human relations skills
set social objectives set technical objectives
specify social alternatives specify technical alternatives
match as socio-technical alternatives
rank according to ability to meet social and technical objectives
consider costs / resources / constraints
select best socio-technical solution
Socio-technical systems design
Step 1: Why change?
Step 2: System boundaries
Step 3: Description of existing system
Step 4: Definition of key objectives
Step 5: Definition of key tasks
Step 6: Definition of key information needs
Step 7: Diagnosis of efficiency needs
Step 8: Diagnosis of job satisfaction needs
ETHICS 15 Steps
ETHICS 15 Steps Step 9: Future analysis Step 10: Specifying and weighting efficiency and job
satisfaction needs and objectives Step 11: The organizational design of the new
system Step 12: Technical options Step 13: Preparation of a detailed work design Step 14: Implementation Step 15: Evaluation
Fifteen step version described in Mumford (1983) & the prescribed text
ETHICS - 15 step versionStep 1: why change? Discuss existing problems, future demands, opportunities
provided by improved organization and new technology
Step 2: system boundaries Business activities, existing technology,
departments/sections, organizational environment
Step 3: description of existing system A complete view of how the existing system works: Horizontal input/output analysis (inputs / activities / outputs) Vertical analysis of activities at five levels
vertical analysis of activities at five levels from lowest to highest:
i. operating activities: what are the most important day-to-day tasks?
ii. problem prevention/solution activities: what are the key problems that must be prevented or quickly
solved?
iii. co-ordination activities:
ETHICS - 15 step version
ETHICS - 15 step version what activities must be coordinated within
the system or with other systems?
iv. development activities: what activities, products, services need to
be developed and improved?
v.control activities: how is the system controlled now/ (targets,
progress monitored etc.)
Step 4: Definition of key objectives ignore existing system and focus on the design areas:
- what is their primary role and purpose?
- what should then be their responsibilities and functions? produce a list of key objectives
- how far do their present activities match what they should be doing?
Step 5: Definition of key tasks what are the key tasks that must be carried out to achieve the
key objectives?
ETHICS - 15 step version
Step 6: Definition of key information needs what are the key information requirements associated
with the key tasks?
Step 7: Diagnosis of efficiency needs efficiency needs can be identified by looking for
variances:
“a tendency for a system or part of a system to deviate from some expected or desired standard or norm”
ETHICS - 15 step version
Key variances (systemic): Deep seated problems that cannot be eliminated as they arise
from the nature of the key objectives and key tasks, They often occur at system boundaries, e.g. Sales and
production departments have conflicting objectives in terms of quantity stock on hand
Operating variances: Not as deeply embedded, designed into the system through the
way procedures, machines and activities have been organized, can be eliminated
All staff identify and document variances they encounter (informal discussions and opportunity for all constituents to participate)
Efficiency needs and variances
ETHICS gives efficiency and job satisfaction equal weight Job satisfaction needs to be defined and measuredETHICS standard questionnaire is the basis for job satisfaction diagnosisThe facilitator administers and analyses the questionnaireAll potential users complete the questionnaire and are given a copy of the results for discussion with their Design Group
Step 8: Diagnosis of job satisfaction needs
Step 8: Diagnosis of job satisfaction needsSmall group discussions to explore reasons for results (each member of the Design Group meets with their constituents)The Design Group completes an Analysis of Social Needs form to document satisfactory and unsatisfactory aspects of jobs and identify preliminary suggestions for improvementDesign Group must not “rush” into design though
Step 9: Future analysis a new system must have enough built-in flexibility to
cope with future change identify and analyze future changes likely to affect the
system within the next five years
kinds of changes: technological, legal, economic (e.g. product and labor
markets), employee or customer attitudes, company organization (e.g. merging of departments)
potential impacts on the system of these changes e.g. Design Groups may need to consult both external
and internal experts
Step 10: Specifying and weighting efficiency and job satisfaction needs and objectives
The key step in ETHICS: Objectives are derived from careful diagnosis by the
design group of efficiency, job satisfaction and future needs identified by the group
These objectives are the basis of the new system design Interests of design group members, their constituents, the
design group as a whole and other groups within the organization need to be reconciled
Step 10: Specifying and weighting efficiency and job satisfaction needs and objectives
External groups (e.g. Customers, suppliers) need to be considered
Each design group member ranks the objectives
Meet with steering committee, constituents etc.: Discussion and evaluation - facilitator has a key role
Step 11: Organizational Design of the New system
(This step should occur with step 12: technical options) Identify organizational options:
ways of organizing departments to achieve job satisfaction and efficiency objectives
3 to 6 options should be identified The key objectives and key tasks of steps 4 and 5 guide this
process:
- Use vertical analysis to identify activities for the key tasks as well as key skills and roles and relationships necessary
- Organizational options are different ways of arranging the five types of activities, the skills and roles taking into account technologies as part of step 12
Each organizational option specifies:
Organization of design area as work groups, sections, and responsibilities
Detailed description of sub-groups and responsibilities and tasks
Description of how these are distributed amongst individuals and teams
Each option is evaluated against the objectives identified in step 10
Step 11: organizational design of the new system
Job designdifferent ways in which work can be organizedjob enlargement:
one person does a number of tasks
job enrichment:one person does a number of tasks and uses different
skills
task variety, job rotation, developmental aspects of tasks
Job DesignMumford suggests multi-skilled, self-managing work groups as the ideal:
all members carry out multiple tasks, diverse skills, groups organize and control themselves, including setting performance and quality objectives,
Scope for multi-skilled work must exist,
responsible, well-trained employees are necessary,
there are implications for salary levels and grading schemes
Step 12: Technical optionshardware, software and the human/computer
interface technical options are evaluated against the
efficiency, job satisfaction and future change objectives of Step 10
can create experimental examples (e.g. prototypes) of different options
a shortlist of technical options and organizational options
Step 12: Technical options Check compatibility of each with the others The combined option that best meets the
objectives is selected after discussions between the steering committee, the design group(s) and their constituents
The final choice reflects the careful diagnosis, objective setting, and evaluation of options by the design group, the broad company view via the steering committee, and the views of the users
Step 13: Preparation of a detailed work design
Detailed design of information flows, tasks, work groups, and procedures: check for good job design principles:
i. Clear work group/unit boundaries (identity)
ii. Each group’s set of tasks is a good mix of simple, intermediate and complex activities
iii.The work group can solve the majority of its problems itself
iv. The group is responsible for its work organization and co-ordination
Step 13: Preparation of a detailed work designv.The work group is responsible for
developing improved methods and practices for its area of activities
vi. The work group can set many of its targets and monitor its performance
vii. The work group can easily identify targets it has to achieve
ETHICS: steps 14
Step 14: Implementation the Design group has the role of implementation
group: selection of implementation strategy, e.g. total
change or phased change planning for the change process: activities,
problems, training discussions with Steering Committee and
constituents
ETHICS: steps 15Step 15: evaluation This occurs when the system has been
fully operational for a time Evaluate its ability to meet the objectives:
use variance analysis and job satisfaction analysis tools
ETHICS: good systems design
Mumford (1985):“The aim of good systems design is to introduce a mix of technical and organizational change that will assist the department, and the individuals working there, to achieve group and personal missions”
Provide the information to carry out key tasks and assist better control of key variances
Key tasks and key variances are stable
ETHICS: good systems design improvement in efficiency, effectiveness
and job satisfaction requires elimination or reinforcement of factors that are more easily changed
the involvement of users in the design process is the most effective way of
achieving a clear and comprehensive knowledge of the needs and behavior
of the user department
Characteristics of ETHICS Flexible Socio-technical design is an iterative process Consensus problem solving approach Importance of subjective, qualitative knowledge Is it practical?
Use of ETHICS Impractical:
- Unskilled users can’t do the design
- Management won’t accept it Mumford has used a version for requirements
definition (QUICKETHICS) ETHICS is flexible and has evolved over time as
experience in its use in different situations has developed (action research)
Mumford has published many case studies of its successful use in practice
Ethnography“Ethnography is in itself not so much a method as a
category of human-computer interaction research”
adapted from sociology and anthropology a method of observing human interactions in social
settings and activities people in their cultural context
Anthropology is the study of humankind in all its aspects, especially human culture or human development. It differs from sociology in taking a more historical and comparative approach.
Ethnographic observation:
very different from controlled observations in the laboratory!
The observer looks at what people do in real life, recording data in great detail, and then tells a story rather than quantifying the data.
Ethnographic observation vs. experiments
Ethnographic studies:
study behavior taking place naturally
Experiments:
study behavior during a controlled task
Ethnographic observation vs. experiments
Ethnographic studies:
study behavior taking place naturally
fewer observations
Experiments:
study behavior during a controlled task
many observations
Ethnographic observation vs. experiments
Ethnographic studies:
study behavior taking place naturally
fewer observations
very rich observations
Experiments:
study behavior during a controlled task
many observations
limited observations
Ethnographic observation vs. experiments
Ethnographic studies:
study behavior taking place naturally
fewer observations
very rich observations
no hypotheses
Experiments:
study behavior during a controlled task
many observations
limited observations
hypothesis-testing
Ethnographic observation vs. experiments
Ethnographic studies:
study behavior taking place naturally
fewer observations
very rich observations
no hypotheses
results may differ; speculative
contain confounds
Experiments:
study behavior during a controlled task
many observations
limited observations
hypothesis-testing
reliable results; scientific, replicable
eliminates confounds
Contextual Inquiry Approach developed by Holtzblatt
In ethnographic tradition but acknowledges and challenges investigator focus
Model of investigator being apprenticed to user to learn about work Investigation takes place in workplace - detailed interviews, observation,
analysis of communications, physical workplace, artefacts Number of models created:
Sequence, physical, flow, cultural, artefact Models consolidated across users
Output indicates task sequences, artefacts and communication channels needed and physical and cultural constraints
Summary of Today’s Lecture In order to meet socio-organizational
issues and stakeholder requirements different set of methodologies exists.
These methodologies focus on technical as well as social aspects of technology acceptance and rejection.
We have covered today, ETHICS and Ethnographic methods.