Lecture 24Quantitative Data Analysis

Observation study

ByAziza Munir

Learning Objectives

1. Types of Observed Phenomena 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of

Observation 3. Types of Observation Techniques

Observation as a data collection method

‘Observation involves the systematic observation , recording, description

analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour’

Saunders et al. (2009)

Types of observation

The two main types

• Participant observation – emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to actions (qualitative)

• Structured observation – is concerned with frequency of actions(quantitative)

Participant observation (1)

Definition

‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is happening but also feeling it’

Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

1. Types of Observed Phenomena

• Physical actions• Verbal behavior• Expressive behavior• Spatial relations and locations• Temporal patterns• Verbal and pictorial records

Phenomena Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers (buyers) movementaction pattern in a store

Verbal behavior Statements made byairline travelers who waitin line

Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

Examples for Observed Phenomena

Phenomena Example

Spatial relations How close visitors at anand locations art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns How long fast-food customerswait for their order to be served

Physical objects What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries

Verbal and Pictorial Bar codes on product packagesRecords

Examples for Observed Phenomena

“YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.”

Sherlock Holmes

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation

2.1. Benefits of Observing Human Behavior

• Communication with respondent is not necessary

• Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.: without social desirability) Bias

• No need to rely on respondents memory• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained

Benefits of Observing Human Behavior

• Certain data may be obtained more quickly• Environmental conditions may be recorded• May be combined with survey to provide

supplemental evidence

2.2. Limitations of Observing Human Behavior

• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed• Interpretation of data may be a problem (e.g.

misinterpretation)• Not all activity can be recorded• Only short periods can be observed• Observer bias possible (e.g. selective

perception)• Possible invasion of privacy

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3. Types of Observation Techniques

• Natural versus Contrived Observation

• Direct versus Indirect Observation

• Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation

• Physical-trace evidence Observation

• Mechanical Observation

3.1.Natural versus Contrived Observation

Natural Observation:• Reactions and behavior observed as they

occur naturally in real-life situations • A wide variety of companies are sending

researchers to the field to observe consumers in their natural environment.

• Natural observation is also suited for ethnographic research on foreign cultures.

Contrived Observation:• Environment artificially set up by the researcher. • Researchers are increasingly relying on computers to

conduct simulated market testing. • Offers a greater degree of control

– Speedy – Efficient – Less expensive

• However, it may be questionable as to whether or not the data collected does truly reflect a "real life" situation.

3.2. Direct versus Indirect Observation

Direct observation captures actual behavior or phenomenon of interest

Indirect observation consists of examining the results of the phenomenon.

• can give only relatively crude or imprecise indications of a phenomenon

• More efficient use of research time • More efficient use of research budget • May be the only way to get data from situations

impractical to observe directly.

3.3. Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation

Nondisguised observation:• Respondents are aware that they are being

observed • Data may be contaminated by respondent-

induced errors. • Data gathered through using disguised

observation might not be as rich as those from nondisguised observation.

Disguised Observation • Respondents are unaware they are being

observed • Allows for monitoring of the true reactions of

individuals. • Unethical if disguised observation monitors

– Normally private behaviors – Behaviors that may not be voluntarily revealed to

researchers.

• Mystery shopping – popular disguised observational technique – Mystery shopper

• Unknown to the retail establishment • Visits the store • Uses a structured script • Observes and records the shopping

experience.

3.4. Physical-trace evidence Observation

• Wear and tear of a book indicates how often it has been read• garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns

in garbage • detecting store traffic patterns by observing the

wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the floor (short term)

3.5. Types of Mechanical Observation

• Eye-Tracking• Response Latency • Voice Pitch Analysis • People Meter • Psychogalvanometer • Monitoring Web Site Traffic

Eye Tracking

Measures unconscious eye movements Records how the subject actually reads or views an

advertisement, product packaging, promotional displays, websites, etc.

Measures which sections attract customers' attention and how much time they spend looking at those sections

• Oculometers - what the subject is looking at • Pupilometers - how interested is the viewer (This

device observes and records changes in the diameter of the subject’s pupils)

Voice Pitch Analysis

• Measures emotional reactions through physiological changes in a person’s voice

• Used to determine – how strongly a respondent feels about an answer – how much emotional commitment is attached to an

answer. • Variations from normal voice pitch is considered a

measure of emotional commitment to the question's answer.

Response Latency

• It measures the speed with which a respondent gives a decision about a choice between alternatives

• It records the decision time necessary to make this choice.

• For instance: it can measure the effectiveness of an advertisement on brand preferences.

• It assumes that a quick expression of brand preference indicates a stronger preference.

People Meter

• Electronic device to monitor television viewing behavior – who is watching – what shows are being watched.

Psychogalvanometer

• Measures galvanic skin response• Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance

of the skin• Assumption: physiological changes accompany

emotional reactions

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Participant observation (2)

Points to consider

• Used both as the principle research method and in combination with other methods

• Researchers become immersed in the research setting

• Researchers try to understand the process by which individual identity is constructed and reconstructed (symbolic interactionism)

Data collection and analysis (1)

Types of data generated by participant observation

• Primary observations (e.g. Diary)

• Secondary observations (observer’s interpretations)

• Experiential data (perceptions and feelings of the observer)

Delbridge and Kirkpatrick (1994)

Data collection and analysis (2)

Points to consider

• Data may be classed as ‘descriptive observation’ and ‘narrative account’ Robson (2002)

• Data recording method(s) will depend on the role

• Data collection and analysis may be part of the same process

• Use of analytic induction leads to redefinition of the original hypothesis

Data collection and analysis (3)

Points to consider

• Threats to validity

• The perspective of the subject - not the researcher

• Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation are summarised in Table 9.1

Saunders et al. (2009)

Structured Observation (1)Points to consider

• Structured observation is systematic and aims to establish straightforward facts

• Structured observation was an important part of Mintzberg’s (1973) study of managerial work

• Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the scope of participant observation

• Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation are summarised in Table 9.2

Saunders et al. (2009)

Structured observation (2)

Data collection and analysis

• Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule

• Designing your own coding schedule

• Combining both types of schedule

• Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer) methods of analysis

Observation MethodsStructured Versus Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.

Observation MethodsDisguised Versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under observation.

Observation MethodsNatural Versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.

A Classification of Observation Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Observation

Mechanical Observation

Trace Analysis

Content Analysis

Audit

Fig. 6.3

Classifying

Observation

Methods

Observation MethodsPersonal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.

Observation MethodsMechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.– The AC Nielsen audimeter – Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or

leaving a building.– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) – Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement. – Eye-tracking monitors– Pupilometers– Psychogalvanometers– Voice pitch analyzers– Devices measuring response latency

Observation MethodsAudit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis.

• Data are collected personally by the researcher.

• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.

• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data in Chapter 4

Observation MethodsContent Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.

• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message).

• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.

Observation MethodsTrace Analysis

Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the

replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.

The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.

The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.

The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers.

The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite magazines.

Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.

Relative Advantages of Observation

• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior.

• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.

• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.

• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.

Relative Disadvantages of Observation • The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined

since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.

• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.

• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.

• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

Conclusion

• Observation technique• Types and methodology of observation• Use of observation in quantitative data sett of

primary appraoch