Lecture 3Lecture 3

• Summing up: PlatoSumming up: Plato• AristotleAristotle

– Aristotle’s Theory of the WorldAristotle’s Theory of the World– Aristotle on HappinessAristotle on Happiness– Aristotle on Equality & InequalityAristotle on Equality & Inequality

The Upshot of Plato’s The Upshot of Plato’s GorgiasGorgias

• The proofs are inconclusive.The proofs are inconclusive.• What is important: Plato has What is important: Plato has

proposed an alternative to the proposed an alternative to the relativism of the Sophists, one that relativism of the Sophists, one that is open to scientific,philosophical is open to scientific,philosophical inquiry.inquiry.

Plato’s Two Central ClaimsPlato’s Two Central Claims

• 1. All human beings 1. All human beings willwill the same the same thing-- to live well.thing-- to live well.

• 2. Living well consists in being 2. Living well consists in being virtuous.virtuous.

Implications of Plato’s Implications of Plato’s ClaimsClaims

• 1. Value is not relative to the subjective 1. Value is not relative to the subjective perception of the individual. There are perception of the individual. There are true and false perceptions of true and false perceptions of happiness.happiness.

• 2. Moral virtue is valuable in itself, not 2. Moral virtue is valuable in itself, not merely as a means to getting on in merely as a means to getting on in society.society.

• 3. The standard of value and of moral 3. The standard of value and of moral virtue is to be found in human nature, virtue is to be found in human nature, not in social conventions.not in social conventions.

Aristotle’s Theory of The Aristotle’s Theory of The WorldWorld

• Aristotle builds on Plato’s Aristotle builds on Plato’s foundations.foundations.

• Aristotle’s views are shaped by his Aristotle’s views are shaped by his interest in biology.interest in biology.

• Aristotle rejected the materialism Aristotle rejected the materialism of many of his predecessors: of many of his predecessors: Empedocles, Democritus.Empedocles, Democritus.

The Four “Causes”The Four “Causes”

• 1. Formal1. Formal• 2. Final (teleological)2. Final (teleological)• 3. Efficient3. Efficient• 4. Material4. Material

The standard example: a The standard example: a bronze commemorative bronze commemorative

statuestatue• 1. Formal cause: shape of the bronze, 1. Formal cause: shape of the bronze,

its resemblance to military hero on its resemblance to military hero on horsebackhorseback

• 2. Final cause: its purpose as a 2. Final cause: its purpose as a commemoration of bravery and servicecommemoration of bravery and service

• 3. Efficient cause: its origin in a bronze 3. Efficient cause: its origin in a bronze forgeforge

• 4. Material cause: the mixture of 4. Material cause: the mixture of metals in its alloymetals in its alloy

Organs have all 4 causes: Organs have all 4 causes: the heartthe heart

• 1. Formal cause: the specific 1. Formal cause: the specific configuration of parts that make up a configuration of parts that make up a healthy, working hearthealthy, working heart

• 2. Final cause: its purpose as a blood 2. Final cause: its purpose as a blood pumppump

• 3. Efficient cause: its origin in the 3. Efficient cause: its origin in the intrauterine development of the fetusintrauterine development of the fetus

• 4. Material cause: the various tissues 4. Material cause: the various tissues (muscle, blood vessels, nerves) that (muscle, blood vessels, nerves) that constitute its substanceconstitute its substance

From Parts to the WholeFrom Parts to the Whole

• Aristotle reasons: if all the parts of Aristotle reasons: if all the parts of the organism have functions, so the organism have functions, so must the organism as a whole.must the organism as a whole.

• Sometimes accused of the “fallacy Sometimes accused of the “fallacy of composition”.of composition”.

• Although not a foolproof inference, Although not a foolproof inference, it does seem a reasonable it does seem a reasonable extrapolation.extrapolation.

The 4 causes of an The 4 causes of an organism: the human organism: the human

beingbeing• 1. Formal cause: the human "soul", 1. Formal cause: the human "soul",

with three aspects: vegetative, with three aspects: vegetative, perceptual/motor, and rationalperceptual/motor, and rational

• 2.Final cause: eudaemonia2.Final cause: eudaemonia• 3. Efficient cause: the processes of 3. Efficient cause: the processes of

human reproduction & developmenthuman reproduction & development• 4. Material cause: the various 4. Material cause: the various

organs and internal systemsorgans and internal systems

Atomism vs. HolismAtomism vs. Holism• Atomists (materialists): the parts are Atomists (materialists): the parts are

prior to the whole. The whole (human prior to the whole. The whole (human being) can be understood completely being) can be understood completely by understanding the parts of the body by understanding the parts of the body and their interaction.and their interaction.

• Holists (Aristotle): the whole is prior to Holists (Aristotle): the whole is prior to the parts. The parts of the body the parts. The parts of the body cannot be understood apart from the cannot be understood apart from the contribution they make to the proper contribution they make to the proper functioning of the whole.functioning of the whole.

Key issue: legitimacy of Key issue: legitimacy of final/teleological final/teleological

explanationexplanation• Do organic systems (including Do organic systems (including

human beings) really have built-in human beings) really have built-in purposespurposes and proper or natural and proper or natural functionsfunctions, or do they only , or do they only appearappear so?so?– Materialists: only the appearance of Materialists: only the appearance of

function.function.– Aristotle: function is real and Aristotle: function is real and

fundamental.fundamental.

Aristotle on HappinessAristotle on Happiness

• What is Happiness?What is Happiness?• The comprehensive, ultimate final The comprehensive, ultimate final

cause of human life -- the end cause of human life -- the end to to which which or or for the sake of which for the sake of which humans are organized as they are.humans are organized as they are.

Proving that Happiness is Proving that Happiness is our Final Causeour Final Cause

• Two Steps:Two Steps:• A Subjective step: what is it that is A Subjective step: what is it that is

our “most final” and complete our “most final” and complete end?end?

• An objective step: what is our final An objective step: what is our final cause?cause?

The Subjective StepThe Subjective Step

• All of our actions have a purpose All of our actions have a purpose or end, either internal or external.or end, either internal or external.

• The chain of means & ends must The chain of means & ends must terminate in some ultimate ends -- terminate in some ultimate ends -- things valued for their own sake.things valued for their own sake.

• Happiness is our most final end.Happiness is our most final end.• In addition, it is self-sufficient: the In addition, it is self-sufficient: the

happy person lacks nothing.happy person lacks nothing.

The Objective StepThe Objective Step

• Assume that human beings have a Assume that human beings have a function & a final cause.function & a final cause.

• Principle of harmony: the functioning of Principle of harmony: the functioning of each part contributes to the functioning each part contributes to the functioning of the whole.of the whole.

• Our most final end (happiness) shapes Our most final end (happiness) shapes our choices, and our choices shape our our choices, and our choices shape our lives as a whole.lives as a whole.

• Hence, happiness must be our final Hence, happiness must be our final cause.cause.

If Happiness is our Final If Happiness is our Final Cause, what does it Cause, what does it

consist in?consist in?• The final cause of the whole person The final cause of the whole person

consists in the harmonious realization of consists in the harmonious realization of the final cause of the parts: the the final cause of the parts: the capacities for mental, social and capacities for mental, social and physical action.physical action.

• The function of reason is to order the The function of reason is to order the whole of life.whole of life.

• So, happiness consists in a complete So, happiness consists in a complete human life, governed by reason.human life, governed by reason.

We Must distinguish We Must distinguish Three ThingsThree Things

• The necessary conditions for The necessary conditions for happiness.happiness.

• The essential parts or components The essential parts or components or aspects of happiness.or aspects of happiness.

• Evidence, indicators and Evidence, indicators and symptoms of happiness.symptoms of happiness.

Some Necessary Some Necessary Conditions of HappinessConditions of Happiness

• Moral and intellectual virtueMoral and intellectual virtue• Friends and familyFriends and family• Sufficient material goodsSufficient material goods• Freedom and opportunity for Freedom and opportunity for

fulfilling work and recreationfulfilling work and recreation• A long lifeA long life

Some components of Some components of happinesshappiness

• Intellectual activity (learning, Intellectual activity (learning, inquiring, contemplating) [Most inquiring, contemplating) [Most important]important]

• Active civic/political life, conducted Active civic/political life, conducted with virtuewith virtue

• Participation in true friendshipParticipation in true friendship• Enjoying the artsEnjoying the arts

By-products and indicators By-products and indicators of happinessof happiness

• PleasurePleasure• EnjoymentEnjoyment• SatisfactionSatisfaction• Honor, good reputationHonor, good reputation

Aristotle vs. PlatoAristotle vs. Plato• Happiness is not virtue -- happiness is Happiness is not virtue -- happiness is

the use, not merely the possession of the use, not merely the possession of virtue.virtue.

• Consequently, one cannot be perfectly Consequently, one cannot be perfectly happy without freedom, property and happy without freedom, property and friends.friends.

• Aristotle distinguishes between Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual and moral virtue, and holds intellectual and moral virtue, and holds the intellectual life to be most the intellectual life to be most important.important.

Aristotle vs. HedonistsAristotle vs. Hedonists

• Pleasure is not identical to Pleasure is not identical to happiness: it is an indicator or by-happiness: it is an indicator or by-product of happiness.product of happiness.

• We can have false or illusory We can have false or illusory pleasures. The virtuous person is pleasures. The virtuous person is pleased by the right things.pleased by the right things.

Aristotle’s Ultimate Aristotle’s Ultimate ConclusionConclusion

• Happiness is a complete, active life, Happiness is a complete, active life, lived according to reason (logos).lived according to reason (logos).

• Reason (thought, understanding) is Reason (thought, understanding) is the unique, distinctive feature of the unique, distinctive feature of human beings.human beings.

• Reason is obviously a higher (more Reason is obviously a higher (more god-like) function than nutrition, god-like) function than nutrition, movement or perception.movement or perception.

Implications of Aristotle’s Implications of Aristotle’s ViewsViews

• 1. Ethical values are absolute, universal1. Ethical values are absolute, universal• 2. Virtuous action is an end in itself, not 2. Virtuous action is an end in itself, not

merely a means to social reward.merely a means to social reward.• 3. We have reliable, pre-scientific 3. We have reliable, pre-scientific

knowledge of ethics: common sense, knowledge of ethics: common sense, the consensus of wise peoplethe consensus of wise people

• 4. This knowledge can be supplemented 4. This knowledge can be supplemented and confirmed scientifically.and confirmed scientifically.

Justice and the “City”Justice and the “City”

• Justice is not merely a compromise Justice is not merely a compromise between competing interests.between competing interests.

• There is a "common good": all of There is a "common good": all of our individual happinesses depend our individual happinesses depend on participating in a just society.on participating in a just society.

• Thus, the city is a partnership, Thus, the city is a partnership, whose end (final cause) is living whose end (final cause) is living well (eudaemonia).well (eudaemonia).

Moral virtue is always a Moral virtue is always a “mean” between 2 “mean” between 2

extremesextremes• Cowardice -- Courage -- FoolhardinessCowardice -- Courage -- Foolhardiness• Stinginess -- Liberality -- ProfligacyStinginess -- Liberality -- Profligacy• Abstemiousness -- Moderation -- Abstemiousness -- Moderation --

DebaucheryDebauchery• Moral virtue is a matter of having the Moral virtue is a matter of having the

right desires in the right proportions.right desires in the right proportions.• These proportions are a matter of These proportions are a matter of

reason (logos).reason (logos).

Friendship is essential to Friendship is essential to happinesshappiness

Three forms of friendship:Three forms of friendship:• Friendships of shared tastes, Friendships of shared tastes,

interestsinterests• Friendships of mutual advantageFriendships of mutual advantage• True friendships: based on mutual True friendships: based on mutual

recognition of virtuerecognition of virtue

Aristotle on Equality and Aristotle on Equality and InequalityInequality

• Justice is treating equals equally, Justice is treating equals equally, and unequals unequally.and unequals unequally.

• Who are equal?Who are equal?

Aristotle on SlaveryAristotle on Slavery

• Aristotle assumes that most Aristotle assumes that most societies are close to a state of societies are close to a state of justice, just as most organisms are justice, just as most organisms are close to a state of health.close to a state of health.

• All developed societies in Aristotle's All developed societies in Aristotle's times were based on slavery.times were based on slavery.

• Consequently, Aristotle inferred that Consequently, Aristotle inferred that some forms of slavery must be just.some forms of slavery must be just.

Contrast with the Contrast with the Hebrew/Biblical TraditionHebrew/Biblical Tradition

• Hebrews are delivered from slavery in Hebrews are delivered from slavery in Egypt by God. Commanded to treat Egypt by God. Commanded to treat strangers as equals.strangers as equals.

• The Fall (Genesis 3): all societies are The Fall (Genesis 3): all societies are radically unhealthy (spiritually radically unhealthy (spiritually speaking). speaking).

• The Bible accepts slavery as a given, The Bible accepts slavery as a given, but puts limits on it (emancipation but puts limits on it (emancipation every jubilee -- 50 year cycle).every jubilee -- 50 year cycle).

In defense of AristotleIn defense of Aristotle

• Not a blanket justification of Not a blanket justification of slavery.slavery.– Slavery is justified only if the slaves Slavery is justified only if the slaves

are incapable of rational self-control.are incapable of rational self-control.– Applies only to household slaves (a Applies only to household slaves (a

kind of extended family), not to sheer kind of extended family), not to sheer exploitation: mass agricultural labor, exploitation: mass agricultural labor, galley slaves, etc.galley slaves, etc.

Defense, cont.Defense, cont.

• Aristotle’s system was (apparently) Aristotle’s system was (apparently) temporary in nature:temporary in nature:– Designed to inculcate virtue in the slaves Designed to inculcate virtue in the slaves

through participation in the household. through participation in the household. Implication: if successful, the slaves should Implication: if successful, the slaves should be emancipated.be emancipated.

– Since the children of slaves are raised in the Since the children of slaves are raised in the same household as the master’s children, no same household as the master’s children, no basis for inheriting a slave’s status (should basis for inheriting a slave’s status (should be as capable of virtue as the free children).be as capable of virtue as the free children).

Is modern world so Is modern world so different?different?

• We’ve abolished chattel slavery, We’ve abolished chattel slavery, but not all “slavery” in Aristotle’s but not all “slavery” in Aristotle’s sense, so long as some adults sense, so long as some adults (innocent of crime) are under the (innocent of crime) are under the control/guardianship of others -control/guardianship of others -– Mentally ill committed to institutions Mentally ill committed to institutions

for their own protectionfor their own protection– Severely mentally handicappedSeverely mentally handicapped