lecture 7: unification and separatist nationalism · lecture 7: unification and separatist...
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NationalismLecture 7: Unification and
Separatist NationalismProf. Lars-Erik Cederman
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)Center for Comparative and International Studies (CIS)
Seilergraben 49, Room [email protected]
http://www.icr.ethz.ch/teaching/nationalism
Assistant: Kimberly Sims, CIS, Room E 3, [email protected]
Nationalism’sThree Time-Zones inEurope
State-FramedNationalism
FrenchRevolution
UnificationNationalism
SeparatistNationalism
Unification nationalismCommon state?
No Yes
Com
mon
nat
ion?
Phase I:Nation-formation
Phase II:State-building
State-formationblocked
NoCentral & Southern Europe: -Germany-Italy
Yes
Historical pre-conditions of unification nationalism
The era of consciously articulated nationalism triggered by the French Revolution:• Early state-formation blocked by outside
powers and internal fragmentation• Nation-formation outside state
framework• Late state-building through mix of
conquest and voluntary merger
Differences from state-framed nationalism
• cultural meditation• identities and boundaries deeply contested• sudden mobilizationBecause of tricky geography and externalintervention, these areas were dominatedby small city-states and pre-modernprincipalities under a layer of imperial andreligious authority
“Risorgimento” nationalismReaction to French Revolution andNapoleonic wars:
– ideational revolution: democracy + popular sovereignty
– direct Napoleonic rule– French military model– Vienna 1815: elimination of
small geopolitical entities
Which came first? Nation or State?
Common state?
Com
mon
nat
ion?
No Yes
No
Yes
Radicalconstructivism
Essentialisttheory
Culturalnation?
The German Case
• Failed state-formation
• Charlemagne united most of Central and W. Europe in 9th c. but then the empire split
• Faced with invasions, the Holy Roman Empire developed into a weak dynastic umbrella: Reichsnationrestricted to nobility electing the Kaiser
Why did state-formation fail?• Reich too vast, terrain
too rugged, cultures too diverse
• Princes defended their sovereignty
• Confessional split: Luther rallies against Rome, but no religious unity: Peace of Westphalia in 1648 cements religious patchwork: “cuiusregio, eius religio”
Cultural convergence
Cities blossomed, intellectual and commercialcommunications across regional boundaries:• Gutenberg invents the printing press (Leipzig 1450)• Bible translated• Commercial contracts require standardization⇒ linguistic community beyond political orders;
Bildungsbürgertum and AufklärungJohann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) precursor
Reaction to French Revolution• Conservative and anti-nationalist (Austria)• Liberal and nationalist (Germany):
– Johann Gottlieb Fichte: “Address to the German nation” in 1807
• Nation-building through politicized organizations
• Democratization against neo-absolutism of Princes
• State-formation in opposition to Kleinstaaterei• Conservatives prevail at Congress of Vienna (1814-
15): German Confederation, but considerable geopolitical consolidation
Springtime of the nations!
Nationalist revolutions reverberatethroughout Europe
– July 1830: revolution in Paris triggers nationalist unrest in Germany and Italy
– Vormärz: gradual nationalist mobilization drawing on anti-French and anti-Danish feelings
– Revolution of 1848: unrest in France diffuses, shaking the Habsburgs
1848: agitation at the Michaelsplatz in Vienna
The Frankfurt ParliamentAfter revolutionary turmoil
tears apartGerman Confederation,
the FrankfurtParliament convenes in
1848. All partiesagree that nation-state
should be built, but:– boundaries
controversial (“klein-” or “grossdeutsch”?)
– popular sovereignty fails because Princes resist
– Prussia fills vacuum
1848 convention of the Frankfurt Parliament
=> Failure: no unified state, no secure democracy, no cohesive nation
Late state-building
• After Italian unification in 1860 liberal momentum builds up, but Bismarck, the Prussian Kanzler, “hijacks” the nationalist issue: successful wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870-71) => German Empire 1871
• Instead of liberal nation-state, centralized, semi-democratic monarchy led by the Kanzler
Toward integral nationalism...• The German nation-state was born in war
and Prussian militarism became dominant• While liberal mainstream was bought off, the
masses remained excluded• Diversionary tactics: rallying against France,
Britain, and “internal enemies” (socialists and Jews)
• Uncertain Eastern boundary with Slavs
The Italian case
Parallels with the German case:– geopolitical fragmentation and foreign
domination– large, pre-modern entities (Catholic
Church)– effect of French Revolution– unification by leading state (Piedmont)
>>>integral nationalism results
Failed state-building
• Renaissance system of city-states locked into balance of power
• Difficult terrain and parochialism• French and Spanish domination• Napoleon’s conquest triggers
geopolitical reorganization but restoration of Papal and Austrian power after 1815
Growing nationalism• In 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini founds
Giovane Italia in Marseilles• In 1847, the newspaper Il
Risorgimento appears with Cavouras supporter
• In 1848, riots against Austrian rule in Lombardy but Austrians resist
• In 1852, Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; Garibaldi forms the Association for the Unification of Italy
Mazzini & Garibaldi
Cavour
State-building
• In 1860, the first “Italian Parliament” meets in Turin, and the One Thousand Red Shirts leave for Sicily
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel becomes king of Italy and the Kingdom gets a liberal constitution
• Integral nationalism leads to fascism in the 1920s
Collapse ofCzarist Empire
Collapse ofHabsburg Empire
Collapse ofOttoman Empire
Colonialism
Europe in 1925after the collapseof the empires
What came first? Nation or State?
Common state?
Com
mon
nat
ion?
No Yes
No
Yes
Phase I:State-formation
Phase II:Secession &collapse
Eastern Europe: Ottoman, Habsburg,Russian Empires
Nation-buildingblocked
Separatist nationalism
• State-formation creates a multi-ethnic empire as in state-framed nationalism
• But nation-building is blocked• Nationalities secede from the empire
– Internal causes: sub-state revolts against “foreign” rule (mobilization & coordination)
– External causes: weak military performance compared with more cohesive nation-states
Hroch’s main argument
• When nationalism hits an area, nationalist mobilization corresponds to the level of modernization.
• The later modernization happens, the less liberal and more violent the movement.
• See also Breuilly: imperial policies important for timing and character of nationalism
Hroch’s phase model
• Phase A. Scholarly inquiry• Phase B. Politicization• Phase C. Mass movementMore complex explanation than Gellner’s:
Social preconditions depend on more than industrialization (e.g. social mobility, communications, ideological “imports”, imperial policies)
Hroch’s typology
Depending on the timing of modernization || we get:• Type 1. Integrated nationalism: |B|--C-->
– Czechs, Hungarians, Norwegians• Type 2. Delayed nationalism: B--||--C-->
– Croats, Slovenians, Lithuanians, Latvians• Type 3. Insurrectional nationalism: B-C--||-->
– Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians• Type 4. Disintegrated nationalism: --||--BC-->
– Basque, Catalonians, Flemish, Welch
The Habsburgs• Multi-ethnic empire
headed by Vienna that dominated fragmentary but partly autonomous ethnic groups and territories through conquest and dynastic politics
• Led by Germans, but Hungarians enjoyed special status (especially toward the end)
• Feudal + absolutist tendencies
• Attempted but failed modernization
The Ottomans
• Sprawling Turkish dynasty that never tried to build national-state (“Sick Man of Europe”)
• Large degree of cultural autonomy and self-rule; masses un-mobilized (cf. Gellner’s agrarian phase)
• Millet system: tolerant religious system for Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Armenians
A chain reaction of nationalism
French Revolution,Napoleon
Vienna
Hungary
Croats Rumanians
Czechs Slovaks
Imperial policies
Serbs Greeks
Constantinople
The Magyar case• Pragmatic Sanction of 1723• A => B. Diffusion of ideas esp. from French
Revolution + German nationalism (Herder): Szechenyi and Kossuth. April laws.
• B => C. Vienna’s oppression. Revolt crushed by Vienna & Russia in 1849; War with Prussia creates Ausgleich (compromise) of 1867 which initiates the Dual Monarchy
The Croat case
• Croatia part of “military frontier” defending against Ottoman Empire (boundary effect!)
• A => B. The Sabor resists Magyar demands. Illyrian linguistic consolidation attempted (Gajand Strossmayer).
• B => C. Magyar repression esp. after Compromise of 1867. Yugoslavism on the rise.