List of Office Bearers 2

Welcome to New Members 4

Editorial: Professor Howard A. Bridgman 6

Modelling the Atmospheric Environment

Letter to the Editor 6

Members in the News 7 CASANZ Members get Environment Awards President's Column 8 Adelaide Conference Special Interest Groups Branch Committees Biennial Conference Working Paper Clean Air Society Home Page

Australian/New Zealand Standards 9

Cancer Disinformation Seminars 9

News from the Environment Protection Agency 10 Benzene: Background to the major issues

Company and Industry News 12 New Director of NSW Sustainable Energy Development Authority appointed Groundwater Technology and Soil Remediation New Environmental Manager appointed by ERM Mitchell McCotter Queensland 1996 Earth Award Winners NSW EPA releases three major Discussion Papers Australian Companies taking up 'The Greenhouse Challenge' Conference: Health & Urban Air Quality in NSW Exhibition of Scientific Equipment and Instruments Instruments from Lear Siegler Environment Issue has changed the reporting of News Instruments for Hire from EnviroRent Environmental Notes Environmental Publications Fast Growth for the World Fabric Filter Market

Contributed Articles: International Modelling and Simulation Congress, University of Newcastle, Nov 1995 22

E. Angelino, M. Bedogni, E. Bravetti, R. Gualdi, G. Lanzani, C. Lavecchia, A. Musitelli & M. Valentini Ozone in the North of Italy 22 Investigation of Ozone distributions in Northern Italy using a tridimensional prognostic meteorological model, CSUMM, followed by qualitative analysis and use of cluster analysis.

M. Azzi, G. M. Johnson, S. Quigley and H. Duc Interpretation of the Airtrak Data from Liverpool Monitoring Station using the Integrated Empirical Rate (IER) Model 27 The modelling procedures for the management of photochemical smog formation are described as measured by the Airtrak system and evaluated using the IER Model.

8

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 1

G.T. Johnson, H.A. Cleugh, L.J. Hunter and J.R. Barnett Field Evaluation of an Urban Canyon Airflow and Scalar Dispersion Model 31 Field data were obtained to evaluate SCAM, a three dimensional airflow and scalar dispersion model. SCAM is evaluated for varying canyon geometries and approach flows in a natural boundary layer.

Australian Chamber of Manufactures News 38 Cleaner Production Award for Original Juice Company Review of Industrial Waste Strategy NSW Air Plan Targets Industry Greenhouse Breakfast Briefing EMIAA's 1996 Annual Overview, 'Australian Environmental Solutions' now available Environment Awareness Workshop

Book Reviews 40 Sustainable Energy Systems: Pathways for Australian Energy Reform, Ed. S. Dovers Dictionary of Global Climate Change by W. J. Maunder Environmental Respiratory Diseases, Ed. E.M.Cordasco, S.L.Demeter, C.Zenz Warm House/Cool House - Inspirational Designs for Low Energy Housing by N. Hollo Climate Change Science: Current Understanding and Uncertainties, the Steering Committee of the Climate Change Study, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering

Conferences 44 A Report on the 13th International Clean Air & Environment Conference, 22-25 September 1996 Ausplume for Windows Training Course, 26 September 1996 Energy and the Environment, 27-28 November 1996

OUR COVER An image from the CSIRO LADM Numerical Air Pollution

Prediction Model used in MAQS for NSW EPA . At 8am,

modelled pollutants from the Sydney CBD travel to the south.

Some pollutants are caught in a clockwise circulation, carrying

them northward to Richmond in the Hawkesbury Basin.

ADVERTISERS IN THIS ISSUE • Aerkem Pry Ltd • Anotec Pty Ltd • A.W.N. (Air Water Noise) Consultants Pry Ltd • BEP Engineering Products Pty Lid

• Ecotech Pry Ltd • ETSA Corporation • HLA - Envirosciences • Kenelec • Lear Siegler Australasia Pty Ltd

• Oil Free Air Company • P.W. Stephenson and Associates • P. Thomas Electronics Pty Ltd

Conditions of Acceptance of

Material for Publication

All contributors to rhis journal, including advertisements, are accepted for publication only on the basis that contributors and

advertisers indemnify the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand, its servants and agents, against all liability whatsoever

arising from those contributors and advertisements, and warrant that the material supplied by them complies with all legal

requirement.

President: Mr Frank Fleer C/- AWN (Air Water Noise) Consultants Pty Ltd 4/18 Thomas Street (PO Box 155) Ferntree Gully Vic 3156 Tel: (03) 9758 7299 Fax: (03) 9752 2694

Deputy President: Dr Neville Bofinger C/- Department of Chemistry Qld University of Technology GPO Box 2434, Brisbane Qld 4001 Tel: (07) 3864 2244 Fax: (07) 3864 1804

Immediate Past President: Dr Ken M Sullivan AM C.7- K M Sullivan & Associates 67 Eurobin Avenue, Manly NSW 2095 Tel: (02) 9977 3568

Secretary: Mr Peter Williams C/- Axis Environmental Consultants I'ty Ltd 75-79 Chetwynd Street North Melbourne Vic 3051 Tel: (03) 9329 6877 Fax: (03) 9329 0920

Treasurer: Mr R (Bob) M Hope 50 Hannah Street, Beecroft NSW 2119 Tel: (02) 9484 1506 Fax: (02) 9484 1506 (Phone first for fax connection)

Executive Officer & Secretariat: Mr Geoff Angus Geoff Angus & Associates Pty Ltd 1 Denman Street, Mitcham Vic 3132 Tel: (03) 9872 5111 Fax: (03) 9872 5111

TRAINING ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE

Chairman: Mr David Johnson C/- EPA of NSW Tel: (02) 9795 5062 Fax: (02) 9649 8768

Secretary: Mr Peter Stephenson C/- Peter Stephenson & Associates 45 Chandos Street, St I.eonatds NSW 2065 Tel: (02) 9438 4399 Fax: (02) 9438 4311 Pager: (02) 9963 2670

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP CHAIRMEN

Indoor Air: Mr Dale Gilbert Director, Built Environment Unit Administrative Services Department GPO Box 2457, Brisbane Qld 4001 Tel: (07) 3224 5070 Fax: (07) 3224 5820

Modelling: Dr Peter Manins CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research Private Bag 1, Mordialloc Vic 3195 Tel: (03) 9239 4630 Fax: (03) 9239 4444

Odour Dr Ken Verrall Department of Environment Scientific Assessment Section P.O.Box 155 Brisbane Albert Street Qld 4002 Tel: (07) 3224 8029 Fax: (07) 3225 2660

Page 2 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 3

The following are the new members who joined the

Society during the April, May and June. We hope that their membership is both rewarding to themselves and their organisations and that they become personally involved in the activities of their respective Branches

New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory Branch Mrs Natasha Flemming BHPE - Environmental Health Lab Environmental Specialist

Mr Mizanur Mazumder Federal Airports Corporation Environmental Scientist

Dr Tony Wilkins News Limited Manager Environmental Secretariat

Ms Elaine Cornwell Peter A Jelliffe Consultants Environmental Scientist

Mr David Nelson ICI Watercare

Business Development Manger-

New Zealand Branch Ms Kay Baxter ESR Ltd Dr Bruce Graham Works Consultancy Environmental Scientist

Mr Ganesh Murugan Leaktight NZ Ltd Managing Director

Ms Francis Hudson NIWA - Atmospheric

Mr Robert Chauval NIWA - Atmospheric Air Quality Technician

Mr Mike Farrier Marsh it McLennan Ltd

Mr Cliff Tippler Woodward-Clyde (NZ) Ltd Principal

Ms Janet Petersen NIWA Auckland Environmental Engineer

Queensland Branch Mrs Kathryn Richardson Northern Smelters P/L Director

Ms Hindu Philip Department of Environment Senior Environmental Officer

Mr David Spooner * * = Rejoining member

Northern Territory Miss Melanie Cox Dames & Moore Environmental Scientist

Singapore Mr Hui Bee Lee CASANZ Prize winner 1996 free membership

South Australia Branch Mr Jason Cotton ICI Australia Operations P/L Business Development Manager

Mr Lindsay Hope EPA SA

Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr Ben Evans Connell Wagner Senior Mechanical Engineer

Dr Piya Dewundege EPA Vic Mathematical Modeller

Ms Toni Meek EPA Vic Manager, Customer Services

Mr Sam Brumale Dames & Moore Senior Environmental Engineer

Dr Chris Greaves EPA Vic Environmental Protection Officer

Dr Luigi Bonadio EPA Vic Emissions Inventory Consultant

Mr Barry Challenger Australian Institute of Petroleum Manager, Engineering, Health, Safety & Environment

Mr Brian Crews Air Pollution Control Consultant

Mr Jim Illingworth Kodak Australasia Environmental Manager

Mr Darryl Patching Envirogen Air Group Manager

Western Australia Branch Mrs Helen Carter NSW Branch Prize winner 1996 free membership

Ms Christine Killip Dames & Moore Atmospheric Scientist

Indonesia Ir Margana Koesoemadinata BAPEDAL Director, Air Pollution Control

New SouthWales/Australian Capital Territory Branch Ms Christine Schweizer EPA Commonwealth Manager, Strategy Development & Standards Section

Mr Ronald Sluis Maxitherm Boilers P/L Research & Development Engineer

Mr Paul Bowden Albany International P/L

Mr Greg Wheeler Campbelltown City Council Manager Environmental Services

Mr Mike O'Brien Australian Water Technologies

Mr Ian Hosking Coffey Partners International P/L Manager - Environment Division

Mr Ken Mascord ABB Power Generation General Manager Engineering

Mr Gordon Croudace The Environmental Group Managing Director

Mr Chris Salmon HBI - Australia Technical Writer

Mr David Spencer BEP Instruments Area Manager

Mr Jim Georges NRMA Limited Roads & Environment Manager

Mr Ian Fox ACT Dept of Health & Community Care

Mr Gordon Deans First State Power Manager. Environment

Mr Peter Holmes Incitec Ltd Technical Superintendent

Mr Mark McCann Lear Siegler Australasia P/L Sales Engineer

New Zealand Branch Mr Russell Herd Ecolo. N.Z. Manager

Ms Emily Foster Canterbury Regional Council Air Quality Officer

Mr Roger Cudmore Pattle Delamore Partners Ltd Senior Environmental Engineer

Ms Stephanie Elton Swift New Zealand Chemicals Marketing

Queensland Branch Mr Paul Van der List NRG Gladstone Operating Services P/L Environmental Scientist

Mr Kelvin Newman NRG Gladstone Operating Services P/L

Ms Melissa Nugent Brisbane City Council Air Quality Technical Officer

Ms Ann Smallegange Bureau of Meteorology Sen ior Meteorologist Services Development

Mr Jim Davidson Bureau of Meteorology Supervisor of Weather Services

Mr John Sangster Pacific Coal P/L Senior Coal Technologist

Mr Neil McKenzie Sugar Research Ltd Engineer

Mr Ron Anderson Department of Environment

Page 4 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Mr Anton Drobowiecki Ampol Refineries (Queensland) Ltd Senior Environmental Engineer

Mr John Kotlar SIMTARS Supervisor - Mackay Operations

South Australia Branch Mr Jeff Fendler METCO Industrial Equipment

Mrs Toni Godfrey South Australian Gas Company Scientist - Technical Services

Dr Andrew Langley South Australian Health Commission Manager, Hazardous Substances Section

Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr Sidney (Felix) Armstrong Controlled Environment P/L Managing Director

Mr Stig Strangert Stig Strangert & Associates P/L

Mr Ian McConnell Horizon APC P/L Senior Engineer

Ms Tracey Roberts Kemcor Australia P/L Environment Engineer

Mr Richard Coldham Herman Research Laboratory Manager, Environment

Mr Neil Jaycock Willis Coroon Richard Oliver Senior Environmental Scientist

Ms Jacinta Negrelli Dow Environmental Environmental Engineer

Mr Craig Mayfield Kenelec P/L

Mr Jeff Knight ICI Australia Operations P/L Environment Consultant

Western Australia Branch Mr Daniel Moir Midland Brick Co P/L

Mr Jim Riddle Western Power Corporation Environmental Officer

Mr Patrick Coffey Alcoa of Australia Ltd Senior Environmental Engineer

New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory Branch Mr Malcolm Rothe Macquarie Generation Environmental Officer, Bayswater Power Station

Mr Steve Ireland Macquarie Generation Fuel & Environment Manager

Mr Stewart Matley Macquarie Generation Environmental Officer, Liddell Power Station

Mr Michael Campbell Coal & Allied Industries Ltd Chief Chemist

Ms Sharon Howes Pasminco Metals - Sulphide P/L Manager, Site Services

Mr John Watson Pasminco Metals -Sulphide P/L Environmental Scientist

Mr Paul Chapman Pasminco Metals -Sulphide P/L Senior Occupational Hygienist

Mr Paul Morffew EML Air P/L Director

Queensland Branch Mr Brian DeBruyn BP Australia HSEQ Manager

South Australia Branch Mr Paul Heggen Adelaide Brighton Cement Ltd Process Engineer

Mr Michael Jones Adelaide Brighton Cement Ltd Cement Manager

Mrs Roslyn De Garis Adelaide Brighton Cement Ltd Operations Manager

Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr Geoff Davis Mobil Oil Australia Limited Legislation/Regulations Consultant

Mr Geoff White EML Air Pty Ltd

Mr Erol Akarsu Esso Australia Ltd

New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory Branch Mr Partha Gupta University of Wollongong M of Engineering (Hons) student

Ms Margi Bohm Australian National University

New Zealand Branch Mr Andy Reisinger University of Canterbury Ph D student

South Australia Branch Ms Jolanta Lynch Flinders University Ph D student

Ms Katherine Hope University of Adelaide B Sc student

Victoria/Tasmania Branch Mr Andrew Duffell Deakin University B Appl Sc student

ADDITIONS TO AUGUST 1995 LISTING OF AIR POLLUTION CONSULTANTS

POLLUTION CONTROL CONSULTANCY AND DESIGN (PCCD) 131 North Steyne Road Woodbridge NSW 2560 Tel: (046) 282 292

(015) 922 4 6 7 Fax: (046) 282 292 Alex Jochelson Services offered: 4, 5, 9 , 1 3 , 1 4

AMDEL LABORATORIES LTD 508 City Road, South Melbourne Vic 3205 Tel: (03) 9699 8 3 3 3 Fax: (03) 9699 9695 Mr Casmelo Chiappalone Services offered: 1, 2, 3, 8, 11

Refer to August 1995 issue of Clean Air for key to service numbers

Clean Air Volume 30 NO 3. August 1996 Page 5

MODELLING THE ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT

Professor Howard A. Brldgman

Over the past decade there has been a proliferation of attempts to assess the state of the environment by modelling its components. The atmosphere is no exception. At the International Modelling and Simulation Congress (MODSIM95), held at the University of Newcastle in November 1995, 223 papers related to environmental and economic modelling were presented. Of these, 31, or 14%, focussed directly on the atmosphere, at scales ranging from global (greenhouse warming and its potential impacts) to regional (biomass burning, acid deposition, ozone) to local (dust dispersion, urban airflows, local circulations). MODSIM95, sponsored by the Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia, is an excellent example of communication and cooperation between modellers in a wide range of core areas, including air pollution, climate, hydrology, ground water, agriculture, industry, ecology, economics, and

transportation. MODSIM conferences occur once every 2 years, and provide the opportunity to present the latest modelling developments to an interested and dedicated audience. The next one is in Hobart in December 1997 (contact Email:MODSIM97@ml.csiro.au)

Three of the papers in this issue of Clean Air represent an example of the range of modelling and measurement applications presented in the atmospheric sessions of MODSIM95. They focus on an area essential to future environmental understanding and control, the urban atmosphere. Angelino et al. describe the ozone environment in 5 provinces of Northern Italy, demonstrating spatial and temporal variations through cluster and graphical analysis. Azzi et al. demonstrate the practical aspects of linking an urban airflow model with ozone and precursor measurements from Airtrack, an integrated system developed to assess urban air quality.

Johnson et al. link field evaluations of urban canyon airflow to a scalar airflow dispersion model, using NO as a tracer. The results in each case are excellent examples of the application of modelling to establish and assess problems, with the next step to develop strategies leading to planned solutions.

Modelling will expand as an essential tool in environmental assessment and management in the future. Model applications, however, must always be placed in context. Models are imperfect describers of the environment, and as such their limitations and problems must always be recognised. Without calibration and verification, their use as support tools for analysis and decision making can always be questioned.

A/Prof. Howard A. Bridgman Coordinator, Environmental Science University of Newcasde

LETTER TO THE EDITOR Dear Sir,

I am writing to offer you the services of a group of our students who are enrolled in the Diploma of Environmental Management, at Casey Institute of Technical and Further Education, Dandenong Campus. These students are second year students who will complete the diploma this year. One of the final year modules they have to complete is a Work Project of 50 hours duration. They are required to present a written

report and an oral presentation for this module. Projects can commence in July and must be completed by the end of January 1997. We are very keen to see that the projects they carry out are 'real' rather than just an academic exercise. For this reason I am writing to see if you have any projects which you would like our students to tackle on your behalf. No costs are involved for your organisation, as the main aim is to give our students experience in carrying out projects

on behalf of outside organisations. If you have any projects in mind which our students could take up, or if you have any suggestions or ideas could you please contact me on Phone (03) 9212 5232 or Fax (03) 9212 5164.

Yours Sincerely

Alan Stevenson Manager Environmental & Material Sciences Department

Page 6 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996

CASANZ MEMBERS GET ENVIRONMENT AWARDS

Two Clean Air Society members Dr Brian Robinson and Dr Jonathan Streeton have been presented with Environment Awards by the Victorian Government.

The awards honour those who have sustained a long-term commitment to environment protection and have made a significant contribution to Victoria's environment and to achieving the aims of the Environment Protection Act 1970, now celebrating its 25th anniversary.

Other winners were former Victorian Premier Sir Rupert Hamer; environment-enhancement activist Dame Phyllis Frost; 'brown' issues activist Peter Brotherton; leading environmental lawyer, Simon Molesworth; champion of the catchment approach to water quality, Noel Morgan; and Altona Chemical Complex and community representatives on the Complex Liaison Group who have worked together to lift the environmental performance of the Complex.

In presenting the awards, Conservation and Environment Minister, Mark Birrell, said Victoria was fortunate in being home to many dedicated individuals and groups who had devoted their talents to the environment at no cost to the community.

The award recipients were chosen from names submitted as a result of public advertisement or suggestions during the process of consultation with environmental interest groups.

Details of winners follow: Former Victorian Premier, Sir Rupert Hamer, 'Father' of the Environment Protection Act, champion of the Environment Protection Authority and initiator of the Garden State program. Dame Phyllis Frost, a lifelong and tireless driver of grass-roots local action to conserve and enhance Victoria's environment, particularly-urban environmental quality Founder of Keep Australia Beautiful Council.

Former Victorian Premier, Sir Rupert Hamer with his award and Clean Air Society memher and EPA Chairman, Dr Brian Robinson.

Medical practitioner Dr Jonathan Streeton, the first of his profession to take a direct interest in air quality and a public stand on the effects of poor air quality on health. He has contributed greatly to understanding the health effects of air pollutants, bringing the issue of health-based air quality standards into sharp focus and influencing the thinking of environment protection agencies Australia-wide.

In the last ten years Dr Robinson has been instrumental in shifting EPA's and industries' thinking from end-of-pipe pollution control to pollution prevention through cleaner technology. Under his guidance, EPA has been the first Australian agency to implement a comprehensive cradle-to grave system for the management of hazardous wastes; a system of licence fees that promote waste minimisation; and environment improvement plans that promote improved environmental performance and community consultation by companies.

'Brown' issues activist, Peter Brotherton, consistent and long-serving environmental activist, a senior Australian Conservation Foundation officer-bearer and a person constructively involved in major pollution-policy issues.

Long-time environmental champion and leading environmental lawyer Simon Molesworth who has been involved in the development of environmental legislative concepts over many years. President of the National Trust, he is involved in setting directions for many other bodies with goals to conserve and improve the built and natural environment.

Long-term champion of the catchment-based approach to environment protection, Noel Morgan. He steered the development of the central Gippsland catchment strategy, the first community-based strategy to be developed and the model for the Yarra and others to follow.

Altona Complex Neighbourhood Consultative Group (which includes companies in the Altona Chemical Complex, the City of Hobson's Bay and community representatives). Pioneers of a world-leading partnership to manage local environmental issues associated with a major industrial complex. The complex companies and community representatives have together built a model for others to follow.

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 7

PRESIDENT'S COLUMN

Frank Fleer, President

Frank Fleer President Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand

ADELAIDE CONFERENCE The 13th International Clean Air and Environment Conference in Adelaide (September 22-25, 1996) is fast approaching. The Organising Committee has done an excellent job in preparing a diverse technical programme with an outstanding group of keynote speakers. (See inside back page). This list alone should be sufficient enticement to potential delegates.

A number of other activities are now in place, including an Indoor Air Special Interest Group programme and an AUSPLUME training course.

T h e magnificent venue, the Stamford Grand Hotel, is positioned on t h e Glenelg foreshore, a suburb of Adelaide with many attractions.

T h e other obvious attraction for the conference is the chance to renew friendships and contacts with your peers. Society members are encouraged to promote the Conference in their workplace -the greater the number of delegates, the more successful the event.

T h e Conference has been well supported by the environmental industry with major sponsorship from the South Australian Environment Protection Authority, and other sponsorship from Adelaide Brighton Cement, BHP Steel Long Products Division, Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health, Ecotech, ETSA Corporation and Pasminco.

I look forward to meeting you in Adelaide.

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS With John Court's protracted

absence in Jakarta with the BAPEDA1 project (CASANZ Foreign Correspondent), the Odour Special Interest Group (OSIG) has been

without a Chairman. Dr. Ken Verrall of the Queensland Department of Environment has kindly agreed to stand in as Chairman. Ken was instrumental in the organisation of the highly successful OSIG Workshop on the Gold Coast in 1995.

Contact details for Ken Verrall are as follows: Department of Environment, Scientific Assessment Section, P.O. Box 155, Brisbane Albert Street QLD 4002 Tel: (07) 3224 8029 Fax: (07) 3225 2660

The Indoor Air Special Interest Group, having recently produced its fourth Newsletter, continues to fulfil an important role in disseminating information to members with a common interest. The number of Special Interest Groups has remained static in the past year. There are a number of other fields which would lend themselves to the formation of a Special Interest Group. These include; risk assessment, air quality measurement, environmental auditing and source testing. Under the guidelines established by the Council, any member can put forward a written proposal to the Executive Officer for the formation of a Special Interest Group. If any members are interested, they can contact Neville Bofinger or any member of the Executive to discuss the required proposal content. Neville is the Special Interest Groups Co-ordinator.

BRANCH COMMITTEES As I have emphasised previously

the regular rotation of members through Society Branch Committees is to be encouraged. I am therefore pleased to note that there has been sufficient interest in Branch activities

to require elections for Committee members in New South Wales and for Committee members and the President in Victoria. At the time of Journal publication nominations for Society Executive positions will have closed. Hopefully the increased level of interest in Branch positions has also occurred with the Executive.

BIENNIAL CONFERENCE WORKING PAPER

A Biennial Conference Working Paper prepared by the Executive has been circulated to the Branches, Training Activities Committee and the Special Interest Groups for comment. Topics covered in the Paper include; Executive representation on the Organising Committee; approval of budgets by Council; responsibilities of the Organising Committee in working to that budget; Conference venue and location; interaction between the Organising Committee and the Executive; anticipated number of delegates and guidelines regarding aim percentage profit; structure (SIG workshops, number of days, AGM); keynote speakers (number and expenses); IUAPPA involvement; gifts to speakers; entertainment; and International Advisory Committee. If any individual members would like to obtain a copy of the Working Paper, or wish to make some comment or input on any of the listed topics, please contact either myself or Geoff Angus/Society Executive Officer.

CLEAN AIR SOCIETY HOME PAGE Dr. Neville Bofinger/Deputy

President, is currently developing a Clean Air Society home page for the Internet. Any members with an interest in this area can contact Neville on (07) 3864 2244.

Page 8 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3.August 1996

AUSTRALIAN / NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS

Frank Fleer, President

The Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand is represented

on a number of Standards Association of Australia (Standards Australia) committees dealing with air quality measurement:

• Committee CH/19 Methods for Examination of Air'

• Subcommittee CH/19/1 'Stationary Source Emission Testing'

• Subcommittee CH/19/2 'Indoor Air'

• Committee CH/31 Methods for Examination of Workplace Atmospheres'.

A number of comments were received by Committee CH/19 on ISO 9855 - 1993

'Ambient Air Determination of the Particulate Lead Content of Aerosols Collected on Filters - Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method'.

A decision will be made at the next Committee meeting on whether to continue with the review of Australian Standard 2800 -1985

'Ambient Air - Determination of Particulate Lead - High Volume Sampler Gravimetric Collection - Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method', or to adopt the ISO Standard.

The Committee may also examine quality assurance and siting criteria for open path analysers. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Technical Committee drafts recently circulated include: • ISO/CD 12884 Ambient Air -

Determination of Gas and Particle Phase Polyn i iclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Collection on Sorbent Backed Filters and Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectro m etric Analyses'.

ISO Draft International Standards recently circulated include:

• ISO/DIS 4224 Ambient Air -Determination of Carbon Monoxide - Non-Dispersive Infrared Spectrometric Method'

• ISO/DIS10473 'Ambient Air -Measurement of the Mass of Particulate Matter on a Filter Medium - Beta-Ray Absorption Method'

• ISO/DIS 11222 'Air Quality -Comparison of Mean Values

CANCER DISINFORMATION SEMINARS

Speaker: Dr. Stephen Sternberg M.D.

Sydney: Thursday, September 19, 1996 Hilton Hotel, 259 Pitt Street, Sydney, 7:00 to 9:00pm. Includes drinks and finger food. Melbourne: Friday, September 20, 1996, ACM Auditorium, 380 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne, 12:00noon to 2:00pm. Includes buffet style lunch. Host: The Australasian Faculty of Occupational Medicine Cost: $25 per person (Payable to PACIA, GP0 Box 1610M, Melbourne Vic 3000) Bookings: Phone Ms Reggie Clark, PACIA on (03) 9699 6299 or Fax (03) 9699 6717

Speaker Details: Dr. Sternberg is Attending Pathologist at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA and is also on the Board of Directors of the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH). He is in Australia as an invited speaker at an international conference being hosted by the Royal Australian College of Physicians.

Seminar Outline: Dr. Sternberg will be talking about the increasing level of disinformation and hyperbole on cancer in the media and how physicians and scientists can help to reverse this trend. Following the seminar Dr. Sternberg will open discussion on the possibility of establishing an Australian based scientific and medical lobby organisation along the lines of the ACSH which could act as a media focal point for comment on important scientific and medical issues.

Determined From Air Quality Measurements With Prescribed Values'

• ISO/DIS 11632 'Stationary Source Emissions - Determination of Mass Concentration of Sulphur Dioxide -Ion Chromatographic Method'

• ISO/DIS 13752 'Air Quality-Assessment of the Uncertainty of a Measurement Method Under Field Conditions Using a Second Method as a Reference'

• ISO/DIS 13964 'Ambient Air -Determination of Ozone -Ultraviolet Photometric Method'.

There has been no action with respect to Committee CH/31 and Subcommittees CH/19/1 and CH19/2.

As noted in the last issue of the Journal, all of the Committees listed are joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand Committees, however there are currenuy no New Zealand representatives. If any New Zealand Branch members of the Clean Air Society think they can contribute to the Standards development process, can they please contact me. Other members wishing to submit comment through the Society on any of the above Standards, proposed Standards, or other Committee activities, should contact:

Committees CH/19,19/1 and 31: Frank Fleer A.W.N. (Air Water Noise) Consultants Pty. Ltd. P.O. Box 155 Ferntree Gully Vic 3156 Tel: (03) 9758 7299 Fax: (03) 9752 2694

Subcommittee CH/19/2: Dale Gilbert Built Environment Unit Administrative Services Dept. G.P.O. Box 2457 Brisbane Qld 4001 Tel: (07) 3224 5070 Fax: (07) 3224 5820

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996 Page 9

BENZENE

Background to the major issues

INTRODUCTION

Benzene, as an air pollutant with t h e potential for significant adverse health impacts (see Box 1), has recently b e e n the subject of considerable media speculation. This speculation appears to have been fuelled in large part by the national campaign to encourage the use of unleaded petrol in cars without catalytic converters. This 'Switch' campaign was an integral element of t h e National Lead Abatement Strategy (discussed in May edition of Clean Air (pl2)) .

This article provides some back­ground to the major issues in the debate a n d outlines research commissioned by t h e Environment Protection Agency (EPA) and others in an attempt to clear t h e air.

Benzene, Unleaded Petrol and Catalytic Converters: Some Common Misconceptions

There has been recent public debate that the use of unleaded petrol has led to a general increase in the content of benzene (see Box 2) and benzene precursors in petrol sold in Australia.

Australia moved to unleaded petrol in 1986 to allow the fitting of catalytic converters which were required to meet tighter emission standards. Leaded petrol damages the catalyst and therefore unleaded petrol was mandated for all new cars. In 1986, the octane rating of leaded petrol was 97 Research Octane Number (RON). The octane rating selected for the new unleaded petrol was 91-93 RON. This is similar to t h e octane levels used in Japan and the US, the main sources of Australia's vehicles and vehicle technology.

As a result of the 1993 Roundtable conference on lead in petrol, there was agreement to reduce the lead content of leaded petrol to 0.2 g/L (over a specified t ime period), and to reduce the octane rating from 97 RON to 96 RON in 1994 to accommodate this reduced lead content.

The misconception about generally increased benzene emissions from unleaded petrol stems from the experience in Europe where the car fleet has a much higher octane requirement than the Australian fleet (new vehicles in Europe require 95 RON) and 98 RON 'super unleaded' was introduced as a replacement for leaded petrol. In some cases, higher octane components such as the oxygenate methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) were used to boost the octane of unleaded petrol. Some high octane components used in blending comprise aromatic hydrocarbons which include benzene. High aromatic content in petrol is associated with high levels of benzene in exhaust emissions. Some, but not all refineries in Europe, relied on aromatics to maintain the octane. High octane super unleaded petrol (98 RON) was not introduced in Australia.

Premium unleaded petrol (PULP), with an octane of 95 RON was, however, introduced in Australia in 1987 for use in high octane imported cars. The benzene content of PULP is about 3-5% by volume on average compared to 2.5% by volume for both leaded and regular unleaded petrol. However, PULP represents less than 2% of the petrol sold in Australia. In addition, its use is discouraged through a price differential, as it sells for about 10 cents per litre more than regular unleaded petrol.

The EPA funded the analysis of exhaust benzene from a sub sample of vehicles surveyed in the recent national in-service vehicle emission study Motor Vehicle Pollution In Australia (FORS, 1996). The work, which was carried out by CSIRO's Divisions of Atmospheric Research and Coal and Energy Technology, shows that catalyst equipped vehicles have significantly lower benzene concentrations in the exhaust than those not so equipped. The report also shows that the benzene in the exhaust of older non-catalyst equipped vehicles was

lower when unleaded petrol was used compared with leaded petrol.

One of the often quoted misconceptions regarding catalytic converters is that they cease to operate after 80,000 kilometres. The in-service vehicle study found that the catalyst continued to be effective in removing benzene and other air toxics in most vehicles tested. Although the catalyst did show signs of degradation with age, high emissions were associated with defects and not age. A copy of the CSIRO study is available from the EPA (Ye, Y, Weeks, I.A., Galbally, I.E., Duffy, B.L.& Nelson, P.F.,1995).

Benzene Emissions and Vehicle Use

The fact that the benzene content of petrol sold in Australia has not generally increased does not, however, suggest that the issues of benzene and other toxics associated with vehicle emissions do not require further investigation.

Benzene is found at levels of up to 4g/L in crude oil. Its concentration varies from one source of crude oil to another. For example, benzene levels in crude oil from Australian sources such as Gippsland and the North West Shelf are higher than in oil from Middle East sources. Therefore benzene, or its precursors, are likely to occur in petrol regardless of whether or not the specific blending process involves increasing aromatic hydrocarbons.

The benzene content of petrol in Australia is determined by the Australian Standard for petrol, AS 1876, which sets a maximum of 5% by volume for benzene in petrol. While this standard has been agreed by Government and the petroleum industry, it is not mandatory. Spot checks and information from oil refineries indicate that the Australian levels are typically between 2.5% and 3.5% and may vary from refinery to refinery, batch to batch and season to season.

Benzene emissions associated with

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996 Page 10

Box l Benzene and Health Benzene is a well established human carcinogen. The most significant health effects from short or long term exposure to benzene are haematotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Acute exposure to extremely high concentrations can result in central nervous system depression, cardiac arrhythmia, respiratory failure and death. Deaths of workers have been recorded after exposures to very high concentrations in confined spaces (30,276,000 ppb for five to ten minutes).

Long-term exposures to high concentrations of benzene have been shown to cause leukaemia. At these high concentrations, there is strong medical evidence linking human exposure to benzene with acute myeloid leukaemia (a type of cancer of the blood-forming tissues of the bone marrow). Myeloid leukaemia has been demonstrated to occur when workers have been exposed to high concentrations (150,000 ppb - 650,000 ppb) over a period of years.

The current Worksafe Australia level for benzene in the workplace is 5,000 ppb average for an eight hour day. This level of exposure may occur in some industrial situations. Members of the general public are unlikely to be exposed to one-thousandth of the occupational benzene level over a yearly period.

Source: WHO, 1993, Environmental Health Criteria 150 BENZENE, IPCS.

motor vehicle use can be broken down in three ways:

• Exhaust emissions - 80-90%, • Evaporation from vehicle fuel tanks -

10-20%; and • Transportation, delivery and

distributing petrol at petrol stations -3-6%.

The known toxicity of benzene, together with its presence in petrol and release through vehicle emissions, raise a number of issues. These include whether or not there is a need for an ambient air quality standard for benzene in Australia; whether or not there is a need for a national fuel standard in Australia; and the need for an improved understanding of exposure sources and levels.

An Ambient Air Quality Standard for Benzene in Australia ?

There are currently no standards in Australia for ambient air concentrations of benzene, although there are standards and goals in other parts of the world. The question that needs to be asked is whether or not there is a need for a standard or goal in Australia. In 1995 the Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services, with funding from the EPA, commissioned a review of benzene exposure in the Australian population. The review was conducted by Dr Andrew Wadge, an adviser to the Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards in the United Kingdom. It includes recommendations for an Australian Air Quality Goal for benzene. At present, this study is subject to peer review and will be released later this year.

At the recent National Environment Protection Council (NEPC) meeting held in Perth on 21 June this year, the Council agreed to make a National Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) for ambient air quality standards for six pollutants. These pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, photochemical oxidants, sulphur dioxides, lead and particulate matter. It is anticipated that subsequent stages of NEPM development will address other pollutants including air toxics such as benzene.

A National Fuel Standard for Australia ?

There is currently no national standard for fuel in Australia. The desirability of a national fuel standard has been raised in the past in relation to a number of issues. The possible relevance of such a standard to the better management of benzene (and other air toxics) would lie in its ability to control the composition of petrol. The composition of petrol has a direct bearing on the nature and composition of vehicle emissions.

The EPA has funded research, in co-operation with the Victorian EPA and the Federal Office of Road Safety (FORS), into the effectiveness of the evaporative control systems (carbon canisters) on cars. The research includes investigation into the effects of altering the vapour pressure of fuel. It is anticipated that this research will be completed by the end of the year.

Understanding the Sources and Levels of Vehicle Related Emissions

A number of recent studies have investigated benzene concentrations at service stations, petroleum refineries, inside cars and in vehicle exhaust gases (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1995). The results of these studies should assist in furthering the debate on whether or not an ambient air quality standard is required.

The EPA is co-operating with the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) and the CSIRO's Division of Coal and Energy Technology to investigate the exposure to benzene by the occupants of cars on major commuter routes. The results of this study are due to be released at the 13th International Clean Air and Environment Conference in Adelaide in September 1996.

Box 2 What is Benzene?

Benzene is a naturally occurring organic compound. It consists of six atoms each of carbon and hydrogen, arranged in a ring structure (known as the benzene ring). It is a colourless liquid at room temperature and has an aromatic odour and a relatively low boiling point (80.1°C). It is relatively stable, with a half life of between one and ten days in air, has a high vapour pressure which causes it to evaporate rapidly at room temperature, and is highly flammable.

Source: WHO, 1993, Environmental Health Criteria 150 BENZENE, IPCS.

REFERENCES Australian Institute of Petroleum (1995), AIP Service Station Study Exposure to Benzene; CONCAWE, A Year Long Study of Ambient Air Concentrations of Benzene around a Sevice Station, Report No. 95/63. FORS (1996), Federal Office of Road Safety, Motor Vehicle Pollution in Australia, Report on the National In-Service Vehicle Emissions Study, AGPS. Ye, Y, Weeks, LA., Galbally, LE., Duffy, B.L. & Nelson, P.F. (1995), Benzene, Toluene, Xylenes and 1,3 Butadiene Concentrations in Emissions from a Representative Portion of the Australian Car Fleet, CSIRO Divisions of Atmospheric Research and Coal & Energy Technology.

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3 August 1996 Page 11

NEW DIRECTOR OF NSW SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY APPOINTED

The State Government has appointed a former environment adviser to

President Bill Clinton to lead its fight against greenhouse gas emissions.

'" Ms Cathy Zoi, for two years the deputy director of the White House Office of Environment Policy, has been appointed Director of the new Sustainable Energy Development Authority, reporting to the Minister for Energy, Michael Egan.

SEDA has $65 million to spend over the next three years to encourage energy conservation and increase the NSW market share of energy from clean, green sources.

Ms Zoi has been in Australia for a year as an adviser to the executive director of the Commonwealth Environment Protection Agency (CEPA) on issues including greenhouse strategy and urban air policy.

Energy Minister Michael Egan said Ms Zoi will be responsible to ensure the radical reforms of the State's power industry achieve solid environmental, as well as economic, results.

Mr Egan paid tribute to the former acting head of SEDA, Dr David Crossley, for his work in setting up the authority and getting it running.

Ms Zoi said she welcomed the challenge of jump-starting new-energy conservation and renewable energy industries in NSW. She said 'The NSW power industry is under real pressure to cut greenhouse emissions. This immediately improves the commercial prospects of a range of technologies that can reduce energy use around the home, office or factory.

'In the longer term, the reforms significantly improve the attractiveness of investors of solar power, wind power, gas turbines and other sources of renewable energy.'

Ms Cathy Zoi, new director. Photo courtesy of Energy Focus Magazine, NSW Department of Energy.

GROUNDWATER TECHNOLOGY AND SOIL REMEDIATION

In theory, the concept of air sparging (or aeration) as a soil and groundwater remediation

technique is simple using clean air to strip volatile contaminants from the site. However, the key to the success of air sparging, however, is dependent on a range of criteria including design

and introduction of a soil vapour extraction or soil vent system (SVE).

As evident in several recent projects in Perth, Sydney and Melbourne, international remediation authority, Groundwater Technology has demonstrated that air sparging can reduce remediation treatment time and standard costs involved by up to 50%.

Commenting on the success, Groundwater Technology's Managing Director, Mr Rodney Harwood explained, 'additional benefits and an expedient remediation process can only be achieved when all key facets are taken into consideration before commencement of on-site remediation. In order to determine the most effective and safest procedure, it is essential to consider the surrounding area, analyse and evaluate the site, introduce a highly exact design and the applicable engineering tolerances'.

Although impressive and simple in theory, air sparging can result in potential problems without highly specialised advice, correct treatment, monitoring and necessary precautions.

The diagram shows the progressive decrease in benzene levels from May 1994 to May 1995 using the new air sparging technique from Groundwater Technology.

Distributed by Collette Thompson, Milestone Media Group. Ph (02) 9954 9904

Page 12 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Site remediation and treatment/ analysis needs to be exact and thorough. In relation to air sparging, if not implemented professionally, vapour travel entrapment and the relocation of contamination can occur, explained Mr Harwood. Again, necessary precaution and sophisticated testing is essential in the early stages not only for efficacy but to eliminate any potential concerns.

With their own environmental laboratory and specialist skills that range from environmental site investigation and risk assessment, to implementing major remediation programmes, Groundwater Technology is well equipped to advise and conduct a range of site remediation treatments including the new and highly acclaimed air sparging technique.

For further information contact Rod Harwood Groundwater Technology Tel: (02) 9502 4844

NEW ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGER APPOINTED BY ERM MITCHELL McCOTTER QUEENSLAND

Primarily in response to the upsurge of interest in environmental issues as a result of implementation of the Environmental Protection Act 1994, ERM Mitchell McCotter is significantly expanding the range of environmental services offered by the Queensland Office of the firm. To provide a focus for this expansion, Claire Richardson, an environmental scientist with a wealth of national and international experience, has been appointed Manager of Environmental Services for the Queensland office of the firm.

In addition to a broad range of skills in the field of environmental management, Claire has particular expertise in air quality and acoustics. Recent projects performed by the Brisbane Office of the firm include environmental auditing and preparation of integrated environmental management systems Claire Richardson

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 13

as required by the Environmental Protection Act, environmental constraints analysis, odour and noise assessments. Currently Claire and her team are assisting the Brisbane River Management Group in the preparation of a noise management plan for the Brisbane River.

Claire has transferred from ERM Mitchell McCotter's Sydney Office, and prior to that was employed by the ERM Group in England.

For further information contact Sandy Vigar, Regional Manager, or Claire Richardson, Environmental Services Manager. Tel: (07) 3839 8393

1996 EARTH AWARD WINNERS

A project to reverse years of degradation on a South Australian hillside scarred by a

quarry and two major new port facilities in the Northern Territory have been named national winners of the 1996 Earth Awards.

The 1996 Earth Awards, announced in a ceremony held on the weekend on The Gold Coast, recognise the change of focus within Australia's civil construction industry towards projects and work practices which aim to protect and/or remediate environmentally sensitive areas.

The annual awards, supported by the Civil Contractors Federation (CCF) and sponsored by leading construction equipment supplier, Case Corporation, drew a record 38 nominations from around the country for the 1996 judging.

1996 Earth Awards National Winners are:

Overall Winner: • East Arm Port Development

in Darwin, NT. • Runner Up:

Kelly's Quarry, Mount Compass, SA.

Category 1: Project value under $1 million • First Prize:Kelly's Quarry

Rehabilitation, SA. • Entrant:

EP Quarry Consultants Pty Ltd, EM Earthmovers Pty Ltd, Mr and Mrs Colin Evanson

• Runner-up: Dust Suppression System at M&M Quarries, QLD

• Entrant: Harris Contracting, M&M Quarries

Category 2: Project value $1 million - $10 million • First prize:

Bing Bong Wharf Facility, NT • Entrant:

Leighton Contractors Pty Ltd, Fluor Daniel Pty Ltd, McArthur River Mining Pty Ltd

• Runner-up: Mandurah Quay Residential Resort Marina, WA

• Entrant: DM Drainage & Construction, Forx Pty Ltd

Category 3: Project value in excess of $10 million

• First prize: Darwin's East Arm Port Development, NT

• Entrant: Henry Walker Contracting, Northern Territory Department of Transport and Works, Darwin Port Authiority, Marine Ecology Unit of Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery, Environmental Chemistry Dept of Northern Territory University.

• Runner-up: East Perth Gasworks Site Remediation, WA

• Entrant: Multiplex.

NSW EPA RELEASES THREE MAJOR DISCUSSION PAPERS

The NSW EPA released three major discussion papers in June, 1996, including:

Managing Contaminated Land in NSW

This discussion paper outlines the in-principle proposals for new contaminated land legislation and its administrative framework. The key points of the paper include:

• The EPA will intervene only on risk sites, fie sites which pose a risk to human health or the environment). This will depend on the land use or zoning.

• Providing information on land contamination to the EPA and local government for public access.

• Adoption by the NSW EPA of Victoria's accredited auditor scheme. The NSW EPA will supply suitable experts on the panel.

• In the case of risk sites, the EPA will select an 'action party' to remediate land and provide them with legal support to retrospectively pursue the 'polluters' of land.

Lender liability and public funding for remediating orphan sites is discussed.

Submissions closed on 12 July, 1996. No public discussion is planned for the draft legislation before it goes to Parliament. Australian Chamber of Manufactures is concerned the EPA has washed its hands of non-risk sites leaving this area to local government and market forces.

Load Based Licensing Scheme -Draft Operational Plan

The Load Based Licence Scheme is expected to replace the concentration-limited system currently used on air and water licences by the NSW EPA. While concentration limits will not be abolished, their use will be reduced to protect the local environment.

Under this scheme, licence holders will be charged according to the mass or load of contaminants discharged together with their type, industry and sensitivity of the receiving environment. An administrative fee will also be applied. It is likely many companies will incur increased fees under the scheme.

The scheme specifies industry sector targets which are based on unit production or the amount of a raw material used. Long term and short term target emissions are tabled in the paper with some long term targets being zero emission of a particular contaminant. A six-year staged introduction is proposed so companies can meet the long term targets.

The Draft Operational Plan outlines the 'pollutant weightings' where the weight of selected contaminants discharged is proportional to the mass fee. Another weighting is applied

Page 14 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996

according to the sensitivity of the receiving environment.

The Draft Waste Minimisation and Management Regulations 1996 and RIS

These draft regulations set out the licensing of waste facilities, transporters and controlled waste activities (waste generators) as well as fees and levies payable.

Companies and organisations which generate over 10 tonnes per annum or store more than two tonnes of hazardous waste require a 'Controlled Waste Activity' licence. Hazardous wastes are defined in Schedule 1 of the regulations.

Waste facilities requiring licences are defined through a list of various waste disposal and processing activities. Some inclusions are: crushing and grinding works over 150 tonnes per day throughput of

demolition wastes, all hazardous waste treatment, processing and disposal works, incinerators of clinical wastes, landfill receiving over 5,000 tonnes per annum, organic waste reprocessing or treatment works of various sizes and waste types.

All wastes, with exceptions such as recycling purposes, going to these facilities will be charged the Section 72 levy at a rate of $10 per tonne (up from S7.20) increasing to $15 per tonne on 1 July, 1997, in the Sydney area. Levies in the Illawarra and Hunter areas start at $4 per tonne and increase to $8 per tonne in 1997.

ACM Members interested in commenting or receiving information on the above items should contact Andrew Doig, Manager NSW, Environment and Technical Services, on (02) 9372 0423.

AUSTRALIAN COMPANIES TAKING UP 'THE GREENHOUSE CHALLENGE'

Four major Australian companies and three industry associations took significant action today to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The Companies, BHP, CRA, ICI, Shell, and the industry associations, the Electricity Supply Association of Australia, the Pulp and Paper Manufacturers Federation of Australia and the Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association, have formally submitted their cooperative agreements to the Minister for Resources and Energy, Senator Warwick Parer, Environment Minister Senator Robert Hill and Science and Technology Minister Mr Peter McGauran.

'These companies and associations have demonstrated that a win-win situation, a win for industry and a win for the environment, is feasible and achievable' the Minister said.

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 15

The agreements by the four companies cover 109 major sites across Australia, identify over 200 actions to reduce greenhouse emissions. Through taking actions, the companies' aggregate emissions will be reduced by approximately 18% for the year 2000.

'The Government encourages Australian companies to look beyond 2000,' Senator Purer said, 'Meaningful reductions in greenhouse emissions requires a concerted effort to invest in new technology and innovation.'

Mr McGauran applauded industry's participation in the program, and commended the companies and associations who signed their cooperative agreements today for their leadership and commitment to achieving sustainable economic growth.

Senator Purer recognised the role industry associations are playing in encouraging their members to participate in the Challenge.

Already, two paper manufacturers have submitted their agreements with another three close behind and 25 electricity bodies are intending to join the program.

More than 70 companies and industry associations from the mining, steel, cement, aluminium, petroleum, energy supply, manufacturing and commercial sectors have indicated they will be submitting cooperative agreements.

Further inquiries:

Senator Parer's Office Mr Bob Baudino Tel: 0419 438 818

Senator Hill's Office Matt Brown Tel: 0419 693 515

Mr McGauran's Office Carmel Christiansen Tel: 018 624 082

Greenhouse Challenge Office Louise Vickery Tel: (06) 271 6633

015 483 052 (mobile)

CONFERENCE: HEALTH & URBAN AIR QUALITY IN NSW Science, Policy and the Community - Sydney June 3-4 1996

The current levels of air pollution in Sydney and the Illawarra and Hunter regions have small but significant effects on health, delegates at the Health & Urban Air Quality in NSW Conference, held in Sydney on 3 & 4 June, were told.

According to the NSW Health Department's Director, Centre for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, l)r Andrew Penman, the most disturbing news is that there is a mortality association with air pollution.

The Health and Air Research Program (HARP) undertaken by the NSW Health Department in conjunction with the NSW Environment Protection Authority (EPA), found that there are 400 deaths per year in Sydney from particle (soot) pollution in people with pre-existing respiratory conditions.

Particle pollution was also found to have an effect on the number of hospital admissions in Sydney. The HARP report found there is a one-two per cent increase in hospital admissions for the Sydney metropolitan area on clays of high pollution for specific respiratory problems.

Dr Penman said, 'We have had a steady decrease in air pollution in the last two decades, however even at the current low levels, there are important effects on health. If we don't tackle air pollution now, the situation will most certainly get worse since pollutant levels are likely to rise because of population growth and increasing car usage.'

The two day conference, was opened by NSW Health Minister, Dr Andrew Refshauge, discussed these and the findings of some 20 other studies on the effects of air pollution on health including asthma, respiratory symptoms in children from air pollution and bushfires.

Findings from the Metropolitan Air Quality Study (MAQS), undertaken by the NSW EPA were also discussed along with the recently launched Air Quality Management Plan and Smog Action Plan.

Dr Penman said. The EPA's Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) is a blueprint on addressing air pollution. While there is no longer a single, major initiative that will reduce air pollution, small gains can be made across a broad range of programs, some of which are contained in the AQMP. Comment and contributions to this discussion paper from community and industry are now sought in the development of a range of air pollution solutions.

'The HARP report is the most comprehensive and the first of its kind in Australia that proves there is a link between air pollution and health effects. Together with the Air Quality Management Plan, they provide a solid basis for the development of solid, effective policy,' he added.

EXHIBITION OF SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

SCIENCE 2000 -1996 will be held in Victoria from September 24th - 26th 1996 at the new Melbourne Exhibition Centre, which has recently been completed. This new venue is a superb exhibition facility where there will be 4500 sqm of clear and uncluttered display space and which will allow the latest scientific equipment and instalments to be shown to advantage.

In the adjoining meeting rooms topical and informative seminars will be conducted whilst the exhibition is in progress.

The organisers of Science 2000, the Scientific Suppliers Association of Australia Inc. are pleased with the interest already shown by organisations planning to exhibit. Already over 85 companies have confirmed their attendance at the event that has now become the premier annual scientific instrument and equipment show in Australia.

Inquiries concerning exhibitor bookings or seminars should be directed to: John Jew National Secretary SSAA 767 Pennant Hills Road CARLTNGFORD NSW 2118 Tel: (02) 9871 6180 Fax: (02) 9871 4825

Page 16 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

INSTRUMENTS FROM LEAR SIEGLER

Dust Monitoring to allow Educated Decisions.

New technology from Grimm in Germany can put you in a position to make informed decisions.

Historically, the 24 hour load of dust was measured on a filter by before and after weighing. This provided information but nothing to allow real site management.

Grimm have developed a real time Dust Analyser that not only provides instant: dust levels, but in addition, breaks down that current dust load into fraction sizes. Such information can be used to monitor environmental, health, and process issues. Coupled to weather instruments or stand alone, it can eliminate the shotgun approach previously utilised to reduce particulate problems. Efforts can be concentrated in areas and at times which impact on the dust

levels not just attempting as much control as possible.

Real time data has already provided huge energy savings at sites throughout Australia.

Andersen High Volume Samplers

As a result of Lear Siegler's new exclusive arrangement with Graseby Andersen, the Andersen PM10 and TSP Hi-Vol samplers are proving popular in the marketplace. As the leading supplier of Hi-Vols in the US, Andersen through LSA can offer excellent delivery and a competitive range of products.

Thirty Years of On-Line Petrochem Analysis

Benke Fuel Analysers have been supplied for thirty years to refineries world-wide.

Benke continues to develop both in produce and technique recognising that sample conditioning is critical to the function of any analyser.

Benke have developed sample conditioning for Cloud Point, Flash Point Distillation Analysers and other systems.

A further step taken by Benke has been the attainment of ISO9001 accreditation. Benke remains the World Leader in Petroleum Analysers.

For further information on any of the above products please contact: Lear Siegler Australasia. Tel: (02) 9548 1322, Fax: (02) 9548 1323

ENVIRONMENT ISSUE HAS CHANGED THE REPORTING OF NEWS

Environmental issues treated seriously in major news bulletins just shows how 'news' has been redefined in recent years according to Griffith University graduate and journalist Kerrie Wilson. Ms Wilson, whose recent Griffith Master of

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 17

Environmental Education thesis explored agenda-setting in television news, believes the introduction of 'environment' rounds reflects a change in the concept of what news is.

'It takes us a step beyond what has been traditionally seen as news,'

she said. 'The environment is much more acceptable as an essential part of a news bulletin today. It has changed the philosophy of what is news by joining the ranks of the so-called "hard" news (politics, business, car accidents or murders)'.

Ms Wilson's research has caused her to take a long hard look at her own profession and the way she operates in her particular environment.

'A lot of journalist get a little regimented within an organisational culture,' she said. 'But it's very crucial to be able to look at what you do in your job and why you do it in a particular way.'

Source: Griffith University Gazette

INSTRUMENTS FOR HIRE FROM ENVIRORENT

Personal Air Monitors EnviroRent offer the AIM Logic 400/450 Series personal air monitors. These clip-on, single sensor monitors are listed as Intrinsically Safe, and are available for Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Chlorine, Ammonia or Sulfur Dioxide, plus other gases on application.

The 400/450 Series monitors feature hazard alarm buzzer and level display, and are available for sale or rental.

Sound Level Meter with Octave Band Analyser

EnviroRent has available for rental the Rion NA-29 sound level meter with octave band analyser, which allows 1/1 octave band analysis in real time. Both sound level meter and octave band analyser conform to IEC standards.

With a built-in memory unit and data processor, the NA-29 calculates the measurement results for displaying environment noise level evaluation values or level vs. time in each frequency band. The LCD shows both measurement and calculation results which can be outputted to an optional printer or the RS-232C interface allows connection to a computer.

The NA-29's versatility, simple operation, light weight and compact size make it most suitable for easy on-site measurements.

AIM logic 450 personal air monitor

Page 18 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Portable Flue Gas Analyser for Rental

EnviroRent now offers the Lancom 6500 portable flue gas analyser to provide fast, accurate and, most importantly, user-friendly gas monitoring. The Lancom 6500 can monitor five different gases including high and low Carbon Monoxide, Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulphur Dioxide.

Handy features include a printer giving hard copy of values obtained, as well as a variety of user-selectable information including operator number, boiler location etc., and an RS-232C interface for downloading to a PC. Flue and ambient temperatures are measured and probe lengths are available from 300mm to 3 metres.

With its menu driven system and comprehensive on-screen help facility, the Lancom 6500 combines user friendly versatility with efficiency.

Rion NA-29 sound level, meter

Sigma 900 and 900Max Liquid Samplers available for Rental

EnviroRent Pty Ltd. has available for rental the latest innovative water samplers from Sigma. Both of the 900

Series offer a high degree of sample integrity with guaranteed volume accuracy and repeatability, along with simple operation, compact size and rugged construction.

The Sigma 900 offers repeatable sample volume at a timed interval or after a predetermined volume of flow, with simple operation and reliability. For more sophisticated monitoring, the 900Max is the sampler of choice. The 900Max has multi-task capability allowing monitoring of rainfall, level, flow, pH, temperatures, oxygen reduction potential, dissolved oxygen and conductivity. It is perfect for sampling for regulatory compliance, monitoring of combined sewer overflows, storm water outfalls, biomonitoring and water quality research. Its RS232C interface eliminates the need for handwritten logs.

For more information, please contact EnviroRent Pty Ltd. Tel: (03) 9894 1808 Fax: (03) 9894 2445

Clean Air Volume 30 NO. 3. August 1996 Page 19

• Alternative to a CFC Refrigerant: One of the alternatives to CFC's is a butane/propane/lubricant refrigerant for car airconditioning systems, known as ER12. The refrigerant charge in the average car is about 300 gram. Apparently it is significantly more effective than the HCFC 134a that is currently being used as a replacement. It is being used extensively in Europe. The only potential hazard, but with low risk, is a catastrophic release of the refrigerant, where an ignition then ignites it, and causes an explosion in the engine bay. If you have more information for or against this refrigerant please contact me. Ph: (03) 9885 1269, Email: jsimpson@haztech.com.au.

Source: Jeff Simpson, Haztech Environmental Tel (03) 9885 1269

• Quality Control & Management Book: ISO 14000 and ISO 9000, B. Rothery, Hampshire, England, Gower Publishing Limited, 1995 $95.00, 278 pages. This is a practical 'hands-on' description of how companies can implement a comprehensive system to meet the requirements of the ISO 14000 Environmental Management Standard, and ISO 9000. It also discusses health and safety regulations and other general liability issues. Written by the leading authority in this field. It provides complete sets of generic documentation including a Quality Manual and all the environmental registers and manuals. Rothery takes account of the 'backlash' against the ISO 9000 certification process which uses checklists of documents to please inspectors rather than implementing real quality improvement schemes. Useful advice is given on introducing good, comprehensive systems rather than producing sets of bureaucratic documents. By presenting an integrated approach to the standards covering quality, health and safety and environmental Issues this is a very useful reference guide. Contact National Sales Centre Ph: 1800 029 955.

• Household Chemical Collection Info Kit: PACIA and the Waste Management Council (WMC) are developing an information kit for householder enquiries. It will cover four elements:

-An updated household chemicals disposal brochure. -An information sheet with locations and dates of collections in Melbourne in 1996. -An overall strategy booklet. -A refrigerator magnet-calendar for distribution at collection points and other relevant public days.

The kit is available from PACIA, (03.) 9699 6299, ask for Jim Smith.

Vic EPA New Releases:

• The Protocol for the Development of Regulations and Preparation of Regulatory Impact Statements, Victorian EPA. Developed in consultation with Australian Chamber of Manufactures (ACM) and EPA's Economics Working Group. This publication details:

-Consultation methods for EPA to obtain the views of environment, industry and community groups; -Impact assessment techniques for EPA to assess the environmental, social and economic benefits and costs of proposed regulations; and

-Criteria to help EPA choose which techniques are appropriate in any given case. The Protocol is available at no charge from Vic EPA Ph: (03) 9628 5622.

• The Enhanced Greenhouse Report: National and International Developments, Victorian EPA. Prepared for EPA by the Climate Impact Group of the CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research. It is a review of recent national and international developments in climate change research. It summarises recent research on a range of climate change impacts and the links between emissions of greenhouse gases and atmospheric concentrations. Cost $10.00 + $2.50 postage, available from Vic EPA Ph: (03) 9628 5622.

• Environmental Guidelines for Major Construction Sites, Victorian EPA. The publication will help the construction industry meet its obligations to minimise the impact of its activities on the environment. It provides a risk-based methodology, on which the preparation of environmental management plans can be based. The guidelines also provide suggested best practice options to control noise and air pollution, reduce erosion, prevent and control contaminated runoff into adjacent waterways, eliminate litter, manage chemicals and fuels on site, and dispose of contaminated soil. Cost $25.00 + $2.50 postage, available from Vic EPA Ph: (03) 9628 5622.

Other Vic EPA New Releases: A Guide to the Sampling and Analysis of Air Emissions, Publication 440, $5.00 A Guide to the Sampling and Analysis of Water and wastewater, Publication 441, $5.00 A Critical Review of the Biological Indicator Systems Program, Publication 429, $5.00 General Information on the Priority Sites Register, Publication 489, Information Bulletin, no charge

All publications add $2.50 postage, available from Vic EPA Ph: (03) 9628 5622.

Source: Jeff Simpson, Haztech Environmental Tet (03) 9885 1269

Page 20 Clean Air Volume 30 NO. 3. August 1996

FAST GROWTH FOR THE WORLD FABRIC FILTER MARKET

Sy the year 2000 industrial companies around-the-world will be spending over $3

billion on the purchase of fabric dust collectors. This is nearly double the 1994 sales level. Fabric filters are used by many different industries to capture dust from grinding, transfer and combustion applications. A year-by-year forecast by geographic region is incorporated in a comprehensive new report by The McIlvaine Company entitled World Fabric Filter System and Bag Market 1996-2000.

The rapid growth over the next five years will be the result of a variety of factors including construction of large numbers of industrial plants in Asia.

The development of new media is rapidly changing the market. Pleated cartridges have partially replaced tubular bags. This has resulted in more compact less costly installations. The improvement in ceramic fibres and media has expanded the market potential to high temperature applications such as coal gasification and pressurised fluid bed combustion.

The production of media with smaller fibre diameters has improved collection efficiency of very fine particles which health experts conclude causes pulmonary problems. Both the filter manufacturing segment and the media manufacturing segment are fragmented. The largest fabric filter company has no more than 10% of the market on any one continent. Worldwide, no manufacture of

equipment has even a 5% market share. The manufacture of bags and cartridges is also splintered.

The chemical industry is the largest purchaser of fabric filters. Steel mini-mills throughout the world are purchasing fabric filters for electric furnace applications. Other major purchasing industries include cement, mining, municipal incinerators and industrial boilers.

The two volume World Fabric Filter and Bag Market 1996-2000 contains market share data on 400 companies, product identification for 2,000 companies and over 1,000 individual market forecasts. There is a country-by-country analysis of the present and future market.

For more information on this report contact: The Mcllvaine Company, 290 Maria Avenue, Northbrook IL 60062-2024 Phone: 708/272-0010 Fax: 708/272-9673 Online: 708/272-0167

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 21

OZONE IN THE NORTH OF ITALY

E. Angelina, M. Bedogni, E. Bravetti, R. Gualdi, G. Lanzani, C. Lavecchia, A. Musitelli & M. Valentini

ABSTRACT

In the last years photochemical pollution has been recognised as a critical environmental problem. Summer smog episodes occur over large parts of Europe and also in Italy high ozone concentrations are measured. A working group is investigating the ozone distributions and estimating the contribution of breeze circulations transport to the actual ozone levels measured in the territories of the provinces of Milan, Bergamo, Varese and Como, in the Northern Italy. In this paper the principal results of this outstanding study are presented.

INTRODUCTION

In the last few years an important problem is becoming more and more essential for air quality management: the increasing levels of ozone measured in Europe, especially in the Southern countries of the Mediterranean area exposed to high insolation. It has been noticed that meteorological conditions typical of summer season (elevated solar radiation and temperatures), combined with the presence of intense sources of precursors, can produce critical episodes of photochemical smog, extending not only in urban areas, but also in rural ones, situated downwind to highly urbanised towns. In fact it has been observed that precursors can be transported up to hundreds of miles

and persist on the order of hours or clays. Ozone, produced during the movement of air masses or directly transported, arrives in rural areas.

We remember that ozone, which is produced in the atmosphere by complex photochemical reactions involving its precursors (nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds), is a secondary pollutant which may have effects on both health and environment, particularly on vegetation.

These phenomena occur in Italy, too, particularly in areas influenced by high emissions and geographically shaped so that air masses exchange are not favoured, constituting a local closed basin on the scale of approximately one hundred of Km.

THE AREA OF STUDY

Northern Italy contains a high concentration of industry, productive activities and an elevated density of inhabitants and roads with an high traffic volume. In this context Milan and its surroundings constitute an important precursor emissions source. We chose the area of study considering the typical wind fields of the basin and potential ozone transport trajectories. We limited the territory to the provinces of Milan, Bergamo, Varese and Como, which are located in a basin of approximately 150 Km in a south-north direction and 120 Km in an east-west direction. The topography of the study area is complex: the altitude increase from 30 to 3000 m above sea level going from South to North. On the northern side Alps Mountains are the physical barrier

between Italy and Switzerland; moreover numerous valleys cross the basin and many lakes are present on the territory (the most important are the lakes Como, Lugano and Maggiore).

The most recent Italian survey into the wind conditions in the area under examination was carried out as part of a programme of studies into the static/dynamic climatology in the Po Valley (Giuliacci, 1988). Given the predominance of summer breezes and their effect on photochemical pollution, it was decided to concentrate on the circulation of breezes on a local and intermediate scales. An analysis of surface winds at the survey stations during summers 1992-1993 highlighted the fact that the entire survey area is subject, on intermediate scale, to winds blowing in a north-south direction during the night until the early morning (although the winds are generally weak or calm at the time). The winds then reverse direction during the daytime from late morning through to the afternoon (when they increase in strength), until sunset. However, on local scale, it is possible that circulations generated by altimetric gradient prevail over mesoscale breezes; this happens in the Alpine and pre-Alpine belts and near the lakes. In fact winds in PreAlps and Alps blow along the principal valley's axes. The anemological field near Milan is affected by the 'urban heat island' effect. The wind blowing to the city is rotated in relation to the city centre and tends to settle its original direction once it has passed the city limits.

Page 22 Clean Air Volume 30 NO 3. August 1996

OZONE MEASUREMENTS AND THE OBJECTS OF THE STUDY

The Provinces of Milan, Bergamo, Varese and Como are equipped with air pollution survey networks for measuring both the concentration of chemical parameters (O3 but also CO, PTS, NOx, SO2) and weather parameters, such as temperature, wind speed and direction, rainfall, relative humidity and solar radiation. In particular, ozone in 1992 - 1993 was measured in 18 monitoring sites, located in very different areas, principally characterised by elevated population density or heavy traffic. A few of the stations are in suburban or rural locations. Future monitoring locations will tend to be located out of urbanised cities.

In this area frequent exceedences of the air quality standard ozone value occur during summer time (June to September). Italian laws define this standard as hourly averaged concentration of 200 µg/m3, which must not be

reached more than once a month. Table 1 shows a summary of guideline exceedences covering all monitoring sites in 1992 -1995 years: it may be seen that, alongside those stations where the number of hours was relatively low, there are others where the standard was exceeded for up to 50-100 hours. These are generally rural or suburban stations.

A time series analysis of monthly concentrations measured in Milan shows that the ozone concentrations are increasing in the last few years, especially in 1995, together with nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide concentrations are sharply decreasing and carbon monoxide more slowly (figure 1). In this context was established the working group, composed by the authors of this paper, with the aim to investigate ozone distribution on the area of interest and to characterise the contributions to exceedances in downwind areas, caused by precursors emitted in the

densely urbanised upwind areas located in Milan and surroundings.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The aim to investigate processes that cause high ozone concentrations has been pursued with different approaches.

First of all we described morphologically the area of study, to point out the breeze circulations and to constitute the basis to calculate the wind vector field by a tridimensional prognostic meteorological model, CSUMM, developed by the Colorado State University (Kessler, 1989). This allowed the characterisation of the circulation from and to the industrialised area, along the south-north axis and to established that pollutants emitted in the Milan area can be transported towards the northern provinces.

Then we analysed qualitatively the experimental data, looking at the shape, at the maximum concentration and at the nocturnal values. In this

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 23

way we observed that a 'bell-shaped' afternoon photochemical curve may be noted almost everywhere, in addition to a secondary nightime maximum, a minimum generally in the morning and a more or less high background level depending on the area in question. In fact a few of stations, located in the North, show high concentration levels throughout the night, with nocturnal maxima between 60 and 100-120 ug/m3, particularly between June-August.

Finally we applied a quantitative method to analyse the ozone distribution in the area under study. This was pursued by cluster analysis -application (Andeberg, 1973), with the aim to group together stations which show similar levels of hourly

concentrations or temporal trends. Thus the Euclidean distance and the correlation factor have been respectively chosen as similarity function. In fact, the Euclidean distance establishes similarities from a quantitative point of view, while the correlation factor focuses similarities among temporal trend phases.

The analysis has been applied to the months from June to September 1992, and to the week 28.07.1993 -04.08.1993, either to the hourly concentrations measured during 24 hours or to those measured during day-time (9.00 a.m. - 8.00 p.m.).

The application of the cluster analysis has shown similar results for the 24-hour period and day-time period. In both cases the

identification of four or five clusters has characterised groups in terms of homogeneity of members, and established differences between clusters. The spatial distribution of members belonging to each group allows to distinguish the following regions in the study area:

• Southern region, including the province of Milan, Bergamo and the South of the province of Como;

• Intermediate region, including the southern and the prealpine territories of the province of Varese;

• Northern region, including the high province of Varese and the high province of Como.

Page 24 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 25

In reality this classification is more complex: the presence of intense NOx

emissions sources, such as a busy street, or the existence of parks located near the monitoring sites can strongly influence measured data.

The comparison of clusters included into the three regions points out an increasing gradient of ozone concentrations going from the South to the North.

Similar results are obtained for the 1993 week. The analysis has been extended to 22 monitoring stations, adding 4 located in Switzerland, on the border of Italy and results are reported in figures 2 and 3 as example. The cluster with the lower ozone concentrations groups the stations located in Milan, Como and Lecco towns, near dense traffic streets. Not much higher values characterise members belonging to cluster 4, referred to stations located in the South of study area. The final 3 clusters show the most elevated values, respectively 92, 97 and 139 µg/m3 . It is also evident that

Switzerland sites belong to the same group that includes also Italian stations at the same latitude. In figure 3 are reported the ozone concentrations computed for the centroids of 5 clusters. At the bottom of figure 2 are reported the ozone concentrations computed for the centroids of 5 clusters during the weekly period. Some simple statistical parameters for each group (objects number, internal variance, average concentration) are also included.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis describes the spatial distribution of station clusters based on hourly ozone data, and the general relationship to transport from the main precursor source areas, in the Northern part of Italy.

This first step of the research will finish with a descriptive characterisation of photochemical smog and summer anemological fields, responsible of ozone and

precursors transport phenomena. The next objectives of the program are the characterisation of the transport trajectories and the study of the cause-effect relationships among ozone, precursors and meteorology.

REFERENCES

Andeberg M. R., 1973. Cluster analysis for applications. Academic Press, New York. Giuliacci M., 1988. Climatologia fisica e dinamica della Valpadana. Servizlo Meteorologico Regionale Emilia Romagna, Milan. Kessler R.C, 1989. User's guide of the Colorado State University Mesoscale Model. Sigma Research Corporation, Fort Collins, Colorado.

AUTHORS

E. Angelino, R. Gualdi & M. Valentini, Environmental Protection Office of Milan (RM.l.R of Milan), Via Juvara 22, 20129 Milano M. Bcdogni, Environmental Consultant, Via Lanfranco della Pila S7/e, 20162 Milano E. Bravetti, Environmental Protection Office of Varese (RM.I.R of Varese), Via Campigli "j, 21100 Varese G. Lanzani, Province of Como, Via Borgovico 148, 22100 Como C. Lavecchia, Galileo Ambiente s.n.c, Via Piero della Francesca 68, 20154 Milano A. Musitelli, Environmental Protection Office of Bergamo (P.M.I.P. of Bergamo), Via C. Maffei 4, 24100 Bergamo

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Page 26 Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3 August 1996

INTERPRETATION OF THE AIRTRAK DATA FROM LIVERPOOL MONITORING STATION USING THE INTEGRATED EMPIRICAL RATE (IER) MODEL

M. Azzi, G. M. Johnson, S. Quigley and H. Duc

ABSTRACT

This paper describes modelling procedures for the management of photochemical smog formation by the use of air monitoring data. The technique is based on the evaluation of the 'smog produced' (SP), extent of photochemical reactions (E) and the photolytic rate coefficient (Rsmog ) parameters invoked by the Integrated Empirical Rate (IER) model and measured by Airtrak system. Detailed evaluations using the IER model were performed for three successive days for typical urban monitoring station data and the results are presented in this paper. The variability of SP and extent parameters were investigated. A new way to represent data for estimating the age of precursor emissions was elaborated. Additional evidence for the role of the background SP profile in determining the origin of the sampled air parcels was found.

INTRODUCTION

Each summer urban and rural areas in the Sydney region continue to experience a few multi-day ozone episodes that exceed the guideline of 0.12 ppm. The Metropolitan Air Quality Study (MAQS), was initiated by the NSW Environmental Protection Authority to develop, implement, and evaluate a combined emission, meteorological, and photochemical modelling system that can be used to understand the reasons for elevated

ozone concentrations and to assist in developing an effective emission control plan for the Sydney airshed. During the summer of 1994 comprehensive air quality monitoring was conducted by the EPA with the aim of providing measurements for model development and evaluation. Air quality measurements was consisted of routine measurements in addition to two Airtrak monitoring systems located at suitable positions. The Airtrak system,( Johnson and Quigley [1989]), is an instrument which measures the photolytic rate coefficient (Rsmog) for smog production of the air (due to the presence of reactive organic compounds) together with the O3, and NOx . The real time Airtrak measurements are used as inputs to the Integrated Empirical Rate (IER) model which is used to assess the photochemical smog formation. The IER model (Johnson [1983]) employs ambient monitoring data to photochemically characterise a given air parcel. The use of the IER model avoids complexities required by the use of grid-based photochemical models.

In this paper we present data analysis and interpretation for three successive sampling days by Airtrak system installed at Liverpool station, which is located in the south-west area of the Sydney airshed, to explore the use of the air quality assessment data produced by the Airtrak using the IER model.

AIRTRAK SYSTEM

The Airtrak system samples continuously the air to determine the concentrations of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen oxides (NOy), ozone (O3), and the photolytic rate coefficient

(Rsmog), and SMOG. NOy represents all oxidised nitrogen species including NO, NO2 , HNO3 , PAN, and organic-nitrates. SMOG concentration is calculated as :

0 )

The Airtrak system provides a way to calculate the concentration of reactive organic compounds (ROC) which is determined by:

(2)

where aroc is an empirical derived activity constant for urban air.

IER MODEL OVERVIEW

The Integrated Empirical Rate (IER) photochemical model consists of functional relationships which were derived from the chemical interpretation of an extensive set of outdoor smog chamber data. In 1983, a first description of the IER model was published by G.M. Johnson [1983]. Then, these equations were revised by G.M. Johnson and M. Azzi [1992]. This section presents a brief overview of the IER model.

The model defines the formation of photochemical oxidants in terms of 'Smog Production' (SP), where SP represents the concentration of NO consumed by photochemical processes plus the concentration of ozone. According to the IER model the SP increases approximately linearly with respect to cumulative light flux until NOx decreases to zero, after which SP becomes constant. The first linear increase prior to NOx

= zero is called the light-limited regime which is followed by the NOx-limited regime.

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996 Page 27

During the light limited regime the rate of SP increase is proportional to the photolytic rate coefficient R s m o g which is measured immediately, for a given air parcel, by the Airtrak system. SP is calculated by

( 3 )

where J NO2 is the photolytic rate coefficient for NO2 photolysis. f(T) is a temperature function given as equation (4)

( 4 )

where y is a temperature coefficient determined from smog chamber studies and has a value 4.7; T is given in K. For the NOx-limitecl regime, where there is no new smog production, the concentration of SP is at its maximum and is proportional to the NO x previously emitted into the air

(5)

where [NOx]t

o denotes the NOx

concentration that would exist at time t in the absence of atmospheric chemical reaction and where, from smog chamber data, the β coefficient can be assigned the value of 4.1.

The current concentration of SP compared to the SP concentration that would be present if the NO x

limited regime existed is indicative of how far towards attaining the NOx limited regime the photochemical reactions have progressed. This ratio is defined by the IER model as the parameter 'Extent of smog produced' (E) and is given by equation (6):

(6)

From air quality monitoring data ' we can determine the regime of smog production by calculating the parameter Gt given by equation (7):

(7)

where F is the proportion of NOx

emitted into the air in the form of NO, P is a coefficient for loss of gas phase oxidised nitrogen into species and forms not detected as NOy When Gt <1 smog production is in the light-limited regime and, when Gt > 1, then the NOx-limited regime exists. For the light-limited regime we can calculate the following parameters:

(8)

(10)

The data provided by Airtrak can be interpreted via IER method to indicate the history and prospects for photochemical smog production for the air from which the sample was taken and to evaluate the effectiveness of various emissions control strategies.

AIRTRAK DATA ANALYSIS

This section reports Airtrak monitoring data collected during the following summer days 10, 11, and 12 of February 1994 at Liverpool station which is located at the south-west area of the Sydney airshed. These successive days cover three different categories of high, medium and low photochemically reactive air respectively. Six minutes average of Airtrak data recorded during these three days were presented in Figures 1A and 1B.

The selected three days Airtrak data assessment were in good agreement with the simultaneous measurements taken by conventional instrumentation. Only, on the 10th

of Feb, and between 0830 hr and 0940 hr the Airtrak recorded data were missing. On the 10th of Feb and between around 0940 hr and 1200 hr the ozone concentration was greater then 0.08 ppm. For the other time period this concentration was less then 0.06 ppm. On the 10th

and 11 t h and between around 0500 hr and 080(3 hr the Figure 1A shows that a plume of NO x emissions and another plume of reactive organic

compounds were detected. On the 12th these plumes were not clearly pronounced.

The concentrations of NO, NOy, O3, and R s m o g determined by Airtrak were used to calculate the various IER parameters according to version 2.2 of the model, Johnson and Azzi [1992]. The modelling results are given in Figure 1C where the variation of smog produced and extent were plotted in separate axis against time. As well, in Figure 1D the (R s m o g/NOxo) ratio was plotted against the time showing how sensitive is the photochemical smog formation to changes in anthropogenic hydrocarbon and NOx

emissions. The IER modelling results show that the light-limited regime was reigning over the three days period where the extent parameter values were always less then 1 (Fig. 1D). On the 10th polluted air parcels were detected between 0930 hr and 1200 hr, and on the l l l h other polluted air parcels were detected between 1100 hr and 1500 hr. These parcels were characterised with a smog produced concentration greater then 0.8 ppm. In the morning before the sunrise and after around 2000 hr the air sampled by Airtrak during the pervious two days had the characteristics of clean or background air where SP and extent values were less then 0.02 ppm and 0.2 respectively. On the 12th the concentration of smog produced was all day less then 0.03 ppm indicating that there was no pollution episodes detected on this day.

AGE OF PRECURSOR EMISSIONS

The IER parameters which describe the photochemical characteristic of an air parcel can be used to approximate the parcel's age. The difference between the cumulative sunlight at the moment of sampling and the corresponding SP/Rsmog ratio, gives insight on how much the air parcel has been exposed to sunlight. The deduced value will allow to determine the approximate time of precursor emissions. A better estimation for the age of precursor emissions would be made by subtracting the existing background smog produced concentration allowing only to the anthropogenic emissions to be evaluated. This can be done by using (SP-SPb a c k)/R s m o g where SP b a c k is the time series of smog produced for

Page 28 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

(9). In the NOx-limited regime, where there is no new smog production, the concentration of

background air. In the absence of any knowledge about the SPback profile for the Sydney airshed and the aim to further proceed in the selected Airtrak data analysis, we have adopted the following methodology: The following two values of SPback

0.015 ppm and 0.030 ppm were used in this study. The modelling results which are given in Figure 2 show for every selected day, four different plots designated by A, B, C, and D. The first, the second and the third were obtained by using SP/Rsmog

(SP-0.015)/Rsmog and (SP-0.03)/Rsmog

respectively ana the fourth plot represents the cumulative sunlight profile for the selected day and its previous day. The ordinate serves to indicate how much cumulative sunlight an air parcel has seen. The time increments are quantified on the abscissa which indicate how much time has elapsed before or after midnight of the selected day. The negative values indicate that the air parcel has been emitted from the previous day. For example, let us consider the plot A at 11am parcel on the 10th, the calculations indicate that the average time of precursor emissions was some 11 hours before midnight eg. around 13pm from the previous day.

The plots A, B, ancl C indicate the sensitivity of the method to the accuracy of the SPback concentration. Since the plot A does not have any SPback correction, predictions of the age of the selected air parcels will be overestimated. For a given SPback if the calculated value at a given time is higher then the corresponding cumulative sunlight value, then the used SPback is not appropriate for that time. This can be seen on the following cases: on the 10th and 12lh

between midnight and around 730 hr and between around 1800 hr and 2400 hr the use of plot C was not appropriate. On the 11 th the plot C was not appropriate between midnight and around 800 hr.

The relationships represented in Figure 2 show that what ever the value used for SPback on the 10th, the air parcels sampled between around 930 hr and 1200 hr would be emitted in the afternoon of the previous day. On the 11 th and in the range of the variability of the selected SPback the three plots show that the polluted episodes, ranged between 1000 hr and 1200 hr, were originated from the

Page 29 Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996

previous day. On the 12 t h and in the accepted SPback range of confidence, all plots can be fitted to have the s h a p e of the corresponding cumulative sunlight profile without showing any delay with the time. The finding allow us to say that the 12 th was a clean day .

The last two days illustrate that the air parcels passing the Airtrak have low extent, indicating that they have either not received sufficient light flux to generate substantial photochemical products, or the dispersion of pollutants was high. These assumptions can be verified if we refer to an available windfield for these selected days.

CONCLUSION

Three selected Airtrak data from Liverpool area were implemented in the IER model to assess the air quality of the area. These Airtrak data show typical levels for NO, NO y , NO2 , O3 , and R smog . Airtrak measurements were in general agreement with measurements taken with conventional instruments. The IER parameters have produced information about ambient air quality including the age of the photochemical episodes precursors. This analysis provide valuable and effective tools for assessing ozone precursor control strategies. In addition, the Airtrak data analysis has shown that there is a big necessity to predict the background SP concentration allowing higher accuracy for an effective control strategy to take place.

REFERENCES

Johnson, G.M. (1983). An empirical model of photochemical smog formation. In: Proceedings 6th World Congress on Air Quality Vol. 1, pp 25-32. (IUAPPA, Paris, 1983). Johnson, G.M. and Quigley, S.M. (1989). A universal monitor for photochemical smog. In: Proceedings 82nd Annual Meeting. Air and Waste Management Association. Annaheim. USA. Paper 89-29.8 Johnson, G.M. and Azzi, M. (1992). Notes on the derivation of the Integrated Empirical Rate Model, version 2.2 CSIRO (March 20,1992), Internal report.

AUTHORS

Merched Azzi, Graham M. Johnson, Suzanne Quigley, CSIRO Division of Coal and Energy Technology PO Box 136, North Ryde, NSW, 2113, Australia and Hiep Due Environmental Protection Authority, NSW, Australia

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 30

FIELD EVALUATION OF AN URBAN CANYON AIRFLOW AND SCALAR DISPERSION MODEL

G.T. Johnson, H.A. Cleugh, L.J. Hunter and J.R. Barnett

ABSTRACT

The design and execution of two field experiments which measured airflow and scalar dispersion in model urban canyons placed in the atmospheric boundary layer are described. These data were acquired to evaluate SCAM, a three dimensional airflow and scalar dispersion model. Continuous, parallel rows of single storey buildings were used to simulate an urban canyon, with each experiment having different canyon lengths and height:width ratios. A scalar (nitric oxide) was emitted from a semi-continuous line source which ran along the ground for the full length of the canyon. The three dimensional flow field and scalar concentrations were measured using a spatial array of sensors throughout the canyon air volume. SCAM is evaluated for varying canyon geometries and approach flows in a natural boundary layer.

INTRODUCTION

The urban environment is home to an increasingly large proportion of the human population. Understanding the physical urban environment and its effect on atmospheric processes is imperative if we are to intelligently plan cities that demand fewer resources and reduce environmental costs. The urban canyon is the fundamental building block of the Urban Canopy Layer (UCL), comprising two parallel rows

of buildings (height, H) separated by an alley or street (width, W). The canyon height to width ratio (H:W) is considered to be a primary influence on the microclimate of the UCL. There have been a few detailed measurement studies in the complex UCL showing the nature of radiation exchanges, energy balances and airflow (Nunez and Oke, 1977; Mills and Arnfield, 1993) in urban canyons. However the sheer complexity of the UCL, and the logistical difficulties of mounting experiments there, means that modelling is the primary means by which further insight into urban canopy atmospheric processes will be gained.

Such modelling requires not only the development of physically-based models but also obtaining high quality measurement data sets for model evaluation. The research described in this paper is the third step in the development of a full energy budget model for a dry urban canyon which began with the development of a canyon radiation exchange model (Johnson et al., 1991). A steady state, numerical model for flow around buildings was then modified to simulate airflow in urban canyons (Hunter, 1989; Hunter et al., 1991, 1992). A scalar dispersion model was subsequently linked to the airflow model (Hunter, 1993). The combined airflow and scalar dispersion model is known as SCAM (Scalar Canyon Airflow Model). Rigorous evaluation of SCAM is required before it can be coupled with a radiative exchange model to achieve a full energy balance model. The collection of airflow and scalar concentration measurements in model urban canyons placed in an

atmospheric boundary layer is the subject of the research described.

The objectives of this article are to:

1) describe the design and execution of the two field experiments conducted to obtain an evaluation data set for SCAM;

2) describe the mean airflow regime in the urban canyon;

3) provide a preliminary comparative analysis of SCAM's predictions of the airflow.

FIELD EXPERIMENT

The data needed to evaluate a model such as this could be obtained in three ways: numerical simulations (eg. using large eddy simulation, (LES)); wind tunnel modelling; and field measurements in a 'natural' atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). With the resources at our disposal, we elected to conduct a field measurement program in the atmospheric boundary layer to obtain a validation set.

Site Selection Criteria

The need for strong, steady winds dictated the timing of the experiment. Vortex driven flows which are a feature of previous model studies (Hunter et al., 1992) are most likely when roof-level wind speeds exceed 2 ms-1 (DePaul and Sheih, 1986). Furthermore, neutral flows are required both upwind and within the urban canyon since SCAM does not simulate buoyancy. Finally, steady winds are required to achieve conditions compatible with the steady state wind flow model.

Page 31 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3 August 1996

In Sydney, such winds are most frequent either in the winter/spring seasons when westerly flows dominate or in the seabreezes that occur from spring through to autumn. These predominant wind directions meant that a north-south oriented canyon would have approach flow angles roughly

normal to the canyon's long axis and would minimise jetting flow parallel to the canyon. The canyon roof, walls and floor also needed to be smooth as SCAM cannot accurately simulate turbulence generated by wall irregularities.

A controlled scalar release was required, and a line source stretching

the full length of the canyon, at the canyon midpoint, provided a convenient option. In pollution studies, such a line source would simulate a line of traffic. Nitric oxide (NO) was selected as the scalar because it can be detected at very low concentrations, thus reducing the amounts of gas used and costs.

Two parallel rows of storage units, aligned north-south, at 'Allsafe Storage1 in Blacktown (Western Sydney) were selected for FP1. The canyon dimensions (L=68 m; W=7.5 m and H=3 m) yield a H:W ratio of 0.42. It was assumed that the large L:H ratio (>20) would effectively make this canyon two dimensional in terms of its flow characteristics. A grass paddock extended 500 m to the west of the canyon. The surrounding land-use was a mix of farms and light industries.

Figure 1 To evaluate SCAM, airflow and scalar concentrations measurements were needed at varying locations within the urban canyon airspace, focussing on the mid-canyon area where the vortex is centred. The following configuration was used to obtain these measurements:

1) For FP1, the line source for scalar emissions was a simple, pressurised garden soaker hose running the full canyon length at the canyon centre (Figure la). NO and air were mixed at mid-canyon and pumped into the hose. NO was thus released along the full length of hose through holes spaced at ca. 0.05 m intervals.

2) A 9 m mast placed upwind, and instrumented with a Met One cup anemometer and wind vane, recorded the approach wind speeds and directions needed for model initialisation.

3) Three 3D (Gill) propeller anemometers were deployed to measure the across-canyon, along-canyon and vertical wind velocities at three locations. Figure lb shows these initial locations: 2=0.75 m in the canyon centre at the mid-canyon point (MO; leeward wall at z=1.5 m (ML); leeward wall at z=2.9 m (also ML), but they varied between experimental runs. An R.M. Young Wind Sentry anemometer and wind vane were placed on the upwind roof (50 cm above the roof). Signals from these sensors were sampled and stored at 5Hz using a 21X Campbell Scientific micrologger and PC. Upwind winds were sampled every ten seconds and one minute statistics recorded.

4) Gas intakes were arranged in two vertical profiles at mid-canyon (Figure 2). Each profile had an intake at 0.75 m, 1.5 m and 2.9 m. One profile was located adjacent to the canyon leeward wall (ML) anci the other at mid-canyon (MO.

Figure 2 5) Two gas sampling units (Monitor Labs NOx Analysers)

were housed in CSIRO's mobile laboratory. Air from each of the intakes was bought back along separate PVC tubes to the two NOx analysers. These were switched such that two pairs of PVC lines could be sampled, consecutively, by each analyser, enabling a total of four sites to be monitored. These data were sampled at 0.1 Hz and stored on a PC. Measurements were obtained over a sequence of eight non-consecutive days from August - November, 1993. On only two days were gas sampling and airflow measurements obtained. The remaining six days recorded airflow alone.

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 32

Figure 1. Model urban canyon experimental layout in FPI: (a) plan view showing mid-canyon, centre canyon, leeward and windward walls; (b) cross section at mid-canyon showing location of Gill propeller anemometers (x) and rooftop anemometer. Note that the basic layout for FP2 was identical.

Four demountables were assembled into a north-south oriented canyon (H=3 m; L=18 m; W=3 m) on a large paddock adjacent to sports fields in Curl Curl, Northern Sydney. This canyon has an height to width ratio of unity and a length to height ratio of 6 - making it a truly 3D canyon. The fetch surrounding the canyon comprised grass paddocks and sports fields extending for over 500 m to the east and west allowing both easterly and westerly approach winds to be used in the data set. Basically the same configuration was used in FP2; however significant improvements were made to the line source and gas sampling procedures:

1) The line source was replaced by an elevated (0.1 m), 0.03 m diameter PVC tube with 0.5 mm holes drilled every 0.05 m. This rigid line source ensured an even pressure distribution, and hence flow rate, along its full length (18 m).

2) The same anemometers (cup and propeller) were used as in FP1, however the upwind anemometer and windvane were mounted at a height of 2 m. The sampling scheme and instruments were otherwise identical to FP1.

3) An extra NOx analyser was hired, enabling six sites to be sampled in a single experimental run. As in FP1, PVC tubing was used to bring air from the gas intakes back to the NOx analysers which were housed inside one of the demountables. The two profiles were used in a similar configuration to FPKFigure 2).

4) The six gas intakes were consecutively sampled (again using a switching arrangement) at 1 Hz using a Campbell Scientific 21X micrologger. The data were transferred to a PC at the end of each experimental run which, because of storage limitations on the 21X, had to be shortened to 30-45 mins.

A total of 15 experimental runs were acquired over six days in March and April, 1994. All but one (March 31) comprised both gas and airflow measurements.

Meeting these criteria was simplified by using a 'model' urban canyon rather than an existing street flanked by buildings. Two sites were selected for the field experiments: one in Western Sydney for the winter study and one at the coast in Northern Sydney for the autumn study.

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SCAM

In designing SCAM we have built on a pre-existing wind model (CITY) and have developed a dispersion model (SCALAR) which conforms as closely as possible both as far as its mathematical basis is concerned and also in terms of numerical solution techniques. CITY is an implementation of a k-e model designed by Paterson et al., (1989) to calculate mean steady-state velocity components and turbulent viscosity. SCALAR is a three dimensional model based on the atmospheric diffusion equation in which dispersion within, and out of, the canyon is assumed to result from advection and turbulent diffusion (Johnson et al., 1995). A model such as SCAM predicts a steady state flow regime on the assumption that the approach flow is constant in time. A scalar is then emitted into this flow and its within-canyon concentration calculated. Thus the output of SCAM is characterised by detailed spatial resolution, with limited temporal

variation as concentrations reach steady state relatively quickly. On the other hand the field measurements were limited spatially because of sensor availability but gave a detailed time record.

A series of analyses were undertaken to determine the sensitivity of the model to wind speed and direction and typical scalar distributions across the canyon. These analyses were also used to identify the most appropriate locations to place sensors in the field experiments. SCAM produced results which suggest that the assumptions made in the formulation of the model have not rendered it especially sensitive to changes in wind direction except at canyon-ends. Thus there is value in comparing model predictions with field measurements even though they will be taken in unsteady flow conditions. On the basis of these preliminary modelling studies it was determined that in the field program most measurements would be taken mid-canyon (lengthwise) both near the leeward wall and at centre-canyon (widthwise).

RESULTS

All data were averaged into one minute blocks for the initial analysis of the flow regimes. This is because the vortex circulation is believed to

be driven by the mean flow, rather than the turbulent flow. Periods when the upwind flow was fairly constant for periods of 10 mins were selected for model evaluation. Although the primary goal of the research was to evaluate SCAM, we firstly used the measured data to 'describe' the airflow regime present in each canyon, for varying approach flows.

Three questions were of particular interest:

1) is there a cross-canyon vortex? 2) is the flow skimming, wake

interference or isolated roughness (using the definitions of Oke, 1988)?

3) what is the effect of oblique flow and canyon ends on (i) and (ii), especially in the FP2 canyon?

This approach is adopted for two reasons. Firstly, the modelled gas concentrations will be incorrect if the predicted flow regime is incorrect, so an evaluation of the airflow predictions is crucial to the evaluation of SCAM. Secondly, despite our best efforts, the airflow is temporally variable which makes a direct comparison between wind velocities (measured and modelled) difficult. Rather, it is better to use the measured data to describe the airflow regime and then compare this with the predictions from SCAM.

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 33

Airflow Regimes in FP1

A mean cross-canyon vortex will be characterised by a reversal in flow direction at the floor of the urban canyon. Thus for normal flow, the airflow at the canyon floor will be reversed and directed back towards the leeward wall. Nakamura and Oke (1988) identified such a flow feature in their wind measurements in an urban canyon (H:W=1) by comparing the wind direction at the upwind roof and the canyon floor (mid and centre canyon position). In their study they found a relation which approximated 'mirror reflection' of the flow from the windward wall with a 'spiralling vortex' due to 'cushioning' at canyon wall when the flow is at some angle-of-attack to the canyon axis. We found a similar pattern in this field program, but suggest that pure reflection is disturbed by lateral flow induced within the canyon. That is, lateral momentum is transferred to the reflected flow. Given the orientation of our canyon and the wind direction convention used, perfect reflection would be indicated by

Figure 3 shows the perfect reflection (1:1) line together with the regression line based on the measured data for two runs. The intersection of the two lines at about 195" confirms the presence of channelling flow and the displacement of the regression line from the 1:1 line confirms the observation of Nakamura and Oke concerning the angle of reflection. However, the correlation between the roof direction and canyon direction is not high, being 0.36.

Further investigation suggested that there existed a much stronger link between the wind direction measured near roof-level close to the leeward wall and inside the canyon (Ө t o p) and the flow near the canyon floor. Figure 4 is a plot of Ө c a n y o n against Ө t o p for the same two runs. The amount of scatter has been significantly reduced, the regression line and the 1:1 line match more closely than the Ө r o o f case, and the correlation is much higher at 0.86. This approach is confirmed in the data

for run 3 on 19 October 1993 (correlation of 0.93), a day where approach flows were more varied. For situations other than approach flow perpendicular to the canyon, reflection from the windward wall produces 'cork-screw' motion within the canyon. Down-canyon flow is somewhat accentuated within this motion.

Previous studies (Hussain and Lee (1980), Hunter et al.( 1992)) suggested that a simple cross-canyon vortex within a skimming flow regime only occurs in canyons where H:W>0.65. Given that the H:W ratio in FP1 was only 0.42, are these observed flow reversals actually a recirculating flow in the wake of an isolated building? Further insight was obtained by analysing the data

collected from the three Gill anemometers mounted at a height of 0.75 m in the centre of the canyon (MC) and at the leeward (ML) and windward walls (MW). Strong easterly flow is recorded at MC, a reversal of the above canyon flow. There is also a strong relationship between the updraft velocities (w u p) at the leeward wall and the downdraft velocities ( w d o w n ) at the windward wall (w u p =0.4w d o w n ). This close link is maintained even as the approach flow changes, suggesting that these are parts of a single flow feature, a cross-canyon vortex. Interestingly, DePaul and Sheih (1986) report typical downdraft velocities of 0.6 w u p for the vortex flow found in their canyon.

Page 34 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

Simulations for FP1

What flow does SCAM predict for FP1? If vortex circulation is present, the presence of increasing down-canyon flow. To investigate these issues , the wind-flow model was run with approach directions of 0" and 10* from the perpendicular. Vertical cross-sections at mid-canyon (Figure 5a) show that the model predicts a vortex circulation in each case, indicating qualitative agreement with the observed data. Plan views (Figure 5b) show along-canyon flow increasing as the approach angle moves from the perpendicular indicating the observed spiral pattern.

Airflow Regimes in FP2

The canyon used in FP2 had a H:W ratio of unity and on the basis of previous work (eg. Hunter et al., 1992; Nakamura and Oke, 1988)

should be characterised by a cross-canyon vortex as a component of a skimming flow regime. Correlations between Ө r o o f , t o p and Ө c a n y o n

failed to reveal any consistent patterns that would suggest this regime. One experimental run observed flow towards the leeward wall at ground level, however this was overwhelmed by lateral flow which broke down the structure. This influence of lateral flow was responsible for the failure to identify a cross-canyon vortex using these methods.

Analyses of each of the flow components, similar to those for FP1 (but note that the approach flow is now easterly - not westerly), were conducted to determine the general flow regime in FP2. The importance of the canyon ends and lateral flows was also assessed. For normal approach flows, downdrafts observed at the base of the windward wall (MW) were correlated with updrafts

at the base of the leeward wall (ML), although the relative strengths did not follow the pattern found in FP1. The cross-canyon velocities at MW and MC were consistently westerly (ie. reverse flow). This cross-canyon flow was correlated with the updrafts observed at the leeward wall (ML) and the down-drafts at the windward wall (MW). These findings are similar to FP1 and suggest a skimming flow regime.

Of considerable interest is the increased importance of lateral flows, and canyon ends for this short canyon. For approach flows that varied from 30° to 90° (Figure 6a) the within-canyon (MC) direction is constant at ca. 340°. Approach flows varying from 80° and 130° likewise are matched by fairly constant within-canyon flows of around 200° (Figure 6b). Once established, it appears that the lateral component within the canyon is maintained until overcome by an opposing flow from the opposite direction. In short, flow parallel to the canyon walls is not needed to maintain lateral flow within the canyon.

An experimental run with the Gill anemometers placed at the canyon ends revealed the importance of lateral flows. As the northerly flow component increased, stronger updrafts at the base of the northern leeward wall were observed, and vice versa for the southern end (Figure 7a and b). Thus the momentum from the flow penetrating the canyon is transferred into the lateral flow and the vertical flow via the vortex. The combination of these flow characteristics, plus the presence of updrafts throughout, suggests a spiralling vortex flow moving down-stream. This vortex decreases in strength with downstream distance in the canyon.

Simulations for FP2

The field data implied that significant lateral flow is induced once the approach flow is other than perpendicular to the canyon. Simulations with SCAM were performed to test the sensitivity of the predicted flow to variations in approach-angle for a canyon of the dimensions of that used in FP2.

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 35

Figure 8 shows modelled velocity vectors for the given canyon for approach angle of 5°. The small shift of 5° from perpendicular in flow direction induces distinct lateral flow (Figure 8b), although a weak vortex circulation is evident (Figure 8a). These predicted flows are entirely in accord with the characteristics of the flows actually observed, even though those flows were quite unexpected and their features suggest that some he rather simplistic descriptions of canyon flows may prove to be inadequate.

Page 36 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

CONCLUSIONS

The completion of the two field programs described has provided data which can be used to evaluate urban canyon airflow and dispersion models. Analysis of the airflow regimes has identified features which have been used to evaluate the airflow component of SCAM. The wind flows predicted by the model include similar features to those observed, which in several instances, are contrary to what might be expected on the basis of previous studies. The next stage will be the analysis of concentration profiles.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work was supported by the Australian Research Council. A/Professor Glenn Johnson, Department of Computing, School of Mathematics, Physics, Computing and Electronics, Macquarie University, NSW 2109. (Corresponding Author). Tel: (02) 850 9576 Fax: (02) 850 9551 Dr Helen Cleugh, CSIRO Centre for Environmental Mechanics, Canberra

Ms Laraine Hunter, Research Assistant, School of Mathematics, Physics, Computing and Electronics, Macquarie University Ms Jane Barnett, Nigel Holmes & Associates, Sydney

REFERENCES

DePaul, F.T. and Sheih, CM. (1986) Measurement of wind velocities in a street canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 14, 555-559. Hunter, L.J.(1989) Modelling airflow regimes in urban canyons, BA (Hons) Thesis, Macquarie University. Hunter, L.J., Johnson, G.T. and Watson, I.D. (1991) An investigation of three-dimensional characteristics of flow regimes within the urban canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 26B, 425-435. Hunter, L.J., Johnson, G.T. and Watson, I.D. (1992) Modelling airflow regimes in urban canyons. Energy and Buildings, 15-16, 315-324. Hunter, L.J. (1993) Modelling scalar dispersion in urban canyons, MA Thesis, Macquarie University, 1993. Hussain, M. and Lee, B.J. (1980) An investigation of wind forces on the 3-D roughness elements in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer flow, Part II -flow over large arrays of identical roughness elements and the effect of

frontal and side aspect ratio variations, Dept. of Building Sciences, University of Sheffield, Report No. BS56. Johnson, G.T., Oke, T.R., Lyons, TJ., Steyn, D.G., Watson, I.D. and Voogt, J.A. (1991) Simulation of surface urban heat islands under 'ideal' conditions at night. Part I: Theory and tests against field data. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 56, 275-294. Johnson, G.T. and Hunter, L.J. (1995) A numerical study of dispersion of passive scalars in city canyons. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 75, 235-262."

Mills, G.M. and Arnfield, A.J. (1993) Simulation of the energy budget of an urban canyon. I. Model structure a nd sensitivity test. Atmospheric Environment, 27B, 157-170. Nakamura, A. and Oke, T.R. (1991) Wind, temperature and stability conditions in an E-W oriented canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 22, 2691-2700. Nunez, M. and Oke, T.R. (1988) The energy balance of an urban canvon. J. Appl. Meteorol, 16, 11-19, 1977.' Oke, T.R., Street design and urban canopy layer climates. Energy and Buildings, 11, 103-113. Paterson, D.A. and Apelt. C.J. (1989) Simulation of wind flows around three-dimensional buildings. Building and Environment, 24, 39-50.

Clean Air Volume 30 N0.3. August 1996 Page 37

AUSTRALIAN CHAMBER OF MANUFACTURES

CLEANER PRODUCTION AWARD FOR ORIGINAL JUICE COMPANY

ACM congratulates the Original Juice Company for achieving the Cleaner Production Award 1996 in recognition of its impressive achievements in waste reduction and the introduction of clean technology in production.

The Original Juice Company initially modified its operations as a result of overwhelming costs and difficulties associated with disposal of waste citrus peel from processing operations. The company faced escalating charges for waste disposal into landfill. Operators of landfill sites had also become reluctant to handle the high volumes of peel produced from the juicing operation. The problem got so bad the earthmoving equipment needed to shift and bury the peel could no longer operate. The machines would often sink into the waste and needed to be winched out.

The company modified its operations in 1994 with a Cleaner Production loan from the EPA for treatment of peel wastes. They investigated processes which could alter waste characteristics such as high acidity, high levels of Biological Oxygen Demand, and high volumes occupied. The result of this investigation was the installation of technology to recover citrus oils and sugars from pressed peel. Benefits of the changes include a 90% reduction in effluent disposal costs, the sale of the recovered citrus oils as environmentally friendly citrus-based solvents for use in domestic and industrial cleaners, and sale of pressed peel for stockfeed.

The Award was presented to Craig Pound from the Original Juice Company by The Hon Marie Tehan, Minister for Conservation and Land Management, at a recent breakfast event at ACM. Mr Allan Handberg, ACM National Chief Executive and

EPA Chairman, Dr Brian Robinson also attended.

Winners of Cleaner Production Grants were also announced at the event. These grants were provided through the Cleaner Production Partnerships program, a joint activity of the Australian Chamber of Manufactures and the EPA and managed by the Australian Centre for Cleaner Production.

ACM also congratulates other winners of grants:

Insulform Hubert Textiles Abigroup/Salzer Australian Country Spinners Bruck Textiles Dulux Empire Rubber Penzoil Products Protectakote The Wool Scouring Group Project.

Finalists for the Cleaner Production Award included:

Shell Company of Australia Energy Brix Australia Alcoa Portland Aluminium.

REVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE STRATEGY

The Environment Protection Authority is reviewing Victoria's Industrial Waste Strategy and is seeking comment and involvement by industry in the formulation of the new strategy.

The present Industrial Waste Strategy was established in 1986 and has been central to the development of programs for minimisation of industrial waste and reduction of associated environmental impacts in Victoria. It has also been a major factor in the development of private sector

facilities for safely treating and disposing of wastes that could not be reused or recycled.

The EPA expects the revised strategy will build on experience gained and set the scene for the next 10 years. The focus of the new strategy will be to encourage a 'product stewardship' approach by industry, to continue promotion of waste minimisation through cleaner production and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of regulations.

Workshops will be held to encourage public comment on the revised strategy.

For more information about the above items contact John Newton at ACM Environment & Technical Services in Melbourne on (03) 9698 4389.

NSW AIR PLAN TARGETS INDUSTRY

A recent discussion paper on Sydney's air quality by the NSW Government raises some concerns for industry.

Although industry is recognised as a relatively small contributor of gas emissions to Sydney's airshed, ie, 11% of volatile organics and 14% of NOx it is being asked to further reduce these emissions.

The discussion paper 'Developing a Smog Action Plan for Sydney, the Illawarra and Lower Hunter', proposes industry:

• Reduces fugitive emissions • Cuts reactive organic compounds

from industrial processes • Limits the mass of NOx emitted • Lessens the use of reactive organic

compounds in products (ie paint thinners)

• Decreases emissions from petrol distribution.

Page 38 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

The paper lists a variety of regulatory and non-regulatory approaches being considered for reducing NOx. These include:

• Allowing new NOx generators the option of switching off on bad days

• Use of emissions trading (ie buying NOx credits)

• Use of load-based licensing, where the fees are linked to the quality of emissions.

The paper proposes reductions of organic compounds would be achieved through better maintenance of seals, pumps and storage. It also proposes the use of environmental audits for licence renewal.

ACM is concerned manufacturing will bear an unfair portion of the new controls to be introduced, while transport, domestic and commercial sectors make up over 90% of emissions from human-related activities.

Members interested in obtaining copies of the report or commenting on these issues, should contact Andrew Doig, NSW Manager, Environment and Technical Services, (02) 9372 0423.

GREENHOUSE BREAKFAST BRIEFING

ACM, in association with the Greenhouse Challenge Office recently held a Breakfast Briefing to inform industry about practical ways to reduce energy costs and reduce impacts on the environment.

Greenhouse Challenge is a joint program between industry and Government to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Companies which take up the Greenhouse Challenge sign a voluntary agreement with the Commonwealth Government to improve the energy efficiency of their business.

Speakers at the Briefing included Ms Louise Vickery, Director, Greenhouse Challenge Office who outlined the program, Neil Marsman,

CRA, who described his company's Cooperative Agreement and Geoff Andrews, Genesis Automation, who presented case studies reporting on techniques for energy efficiency for small to medium sized enterprises.

The first round of Greenhouse Challenge Cooperative Agreements were signed recently by BHP, CRA, ICI and Shell Australia. ACM has signalled its intent to participate in the Greenhouse Challenge and has submitted a Cooperative Agreement.

The steps involved in joining the Greenhouse Challenge include:

• Sending a letter of intent to the Minister for Resources and Energy, Senator the Hon Warwick Rarer to acknowledge your intention to participation in the program

• Setting up an inventory of your emissions

• Assessing opportunities for abating greenhouse gas emissions in your organisation

• Setting goals and preparing an action plan for greenhouse gas mitigation

• Signing a Cooperative Agreement with the help of the Greenhouse Challenge Office

• Monitoring performance against your action plan

• Reporting on progress and achievements.

For more information about the Greenhouse Challenge contact the: Greenhouse Challenge Office GPO Box 858 Canberra ACT 2601 Tel: (06) 271 6400 Fax: (06) 271 6450

EMIAA'S 1996 ANNUAL OVERVIEW, 'AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS' NOW AVAILABLE

The Environment Management Industry Association of Australia has just released the 1996 update of their publication, 'Australian Environmental Solutions'.

This publication is designed for corporate managers and

environmental managers in small to medium businesses. It provides up-to-date information of new approaches, best practice and technology alternatives in addressing environmental problems - from industrial effluent to energy management and site remediation. Included in the publication is a complete directory of the EMIAA membership.

'Australian Environmental Solutions' is available from the EMIAA Secretariat, (07) 3229 8522, at a cost of $24.95 including postage and packaging.

ENVIRONMENT A WARENESS WORKSHOP

Today, business faces a battle keeping up with environmental legislation affecting its operations. Compliance need not be difficult or expensive. ACM's Environmental Awareness Workshop will show you how to 'Take advantage of your obligations.'

ACM will again hold its half day workshop on Environmental Awareness on Wednesday, 25 September 1996 at the ACM Conference Centre, 380 St Kilda Road Melbourne.

Participants will receive a 100 page workbook on environment management which details environmental legislation requirements and introduces systems to enable you to begin development of an Environment Management System.

The topics covered includes Environmental Legislation, Emergency Response, Off Site Effects, Waste Management and Minimisation, Materials Storage and Handling, and Environmental Management Systems.

The cost of this workshop is $175.00 for ACM members and $250.00 for non members.

To register or for further information please contact Olivia Champion, Environment & Technical Services on (03) 9698 4371.

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 39

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS PATHWAYS FOR AUSTRALIAN ENERGY REFORM Ed. Stephen Dovers Cambridge University Press, 1994 A$29.95 paperback, A$90.00 hardback

Curious isn't it. Energy was a topic of national debate in the 1970's when the oil crisis was

going to lead to an Australian resources boom. Now, in the 1990's it has become a topic of national debate again because of climate change and the greenhouse effect. Emissions from the energy sector dominate greenhouse gas emissions.

The Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies (CRES) at the Australian National University started a 'Fundamental Questions Program' in 1988. As the editor confesses: 'I became convenor of the energy theme in the Fundamental Questions Program and thus editor of this book, by default and with little grounding in, but none the less a broad enthusiasm for, the complex area of energy'. Dovers' enthusiasm enabled him to get hold of the leading academic thinkers on Australian energy issues to present overviews. There are four parts to the book.

Part 1 gives historical and current patterns of energy use.

Part 2 deals with efficiency and conservation with articles by High Saddler (buildings and industry) and Peter Newman (transport and urban settlements).

Part 3 is on renewable energy with contributions by David Mills (solar energy) and Mark Diesendorf (Wind, biomass, and other renewables).

Part 4 puts energy considerations into a social context with essays by Michael Common (economic policies for sustainable energy use) and by Ian Lowe (towards sustainable energy systems).

The book, overall, tends towards the informative. It accomplishes this by following the conventions of scientific writing. Lots of references. The resulting compilation of information, facts and figures

provides the books greatest strength. It is an excellent starting point if you have any query about Australian energy issues. Even if the figures, tables and text do not contain the immediate answer to your query - the long reference lists will point you to other sources of enlightenment.

If you have even the slightest personal or professional interest in the latest thinking on Australia's energy future then you should have this book nearby.

Tom Beer CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research

DICTIONARY OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 2nd Edition by W. John Maunder UCL, 257 pp, A$49.95 paperback, Distributed by: Allen and Unwin

After agreeing to review this book, I realised that reviewing a dictionary is different to the

usual scientific book reviews that I write. There is little incentive to start the book at page 1 with:

'abiotic': Pertaining to the non­living part of an ecosystem or to an environment where life is absent

and continue through to page 257 to end with:

'zooplankton': The portion of the plankton community comprised of tiny aquatic animals eaten by fish.

There seem to be two approaches. Randomly inspect the book and judge it on the basis of the treasures, or the dross, that emerges. Or attempt to perceive the interests and needs of readers of Clean Air and see whether the book meets them. Let us use both approaches.

The dictionary starts with six pages of abbreviations and acronyms (pp xxi to xxvi). Very useful. Ever since the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) set up the IPCC, with suppaort from WMO and UNEP, there have been parallel developments on greenhouse gas inventories through OECD and IEA, and on global change through IGBP,

WCRP and HDP. As you can see, modern science abounds in acronyms, so a list of them is useful. In addition, each of the above acronyms has an entry in the dictionary itself.

I have recently been studying methane emissions from landfills. Methane is a greenhouse gas. There are entries in the dictionary for 'greenhouse gases', 'methane', 'methane concentration', 'methane and global warming', 'methane from rice paddles', and 'methane from ruminant digestion'. The entry for 'methane' mentions its emission from landfills but there is no separate entry for landfills, or, for that matter, for waste. Industrial and municipal waste water also emit methane.

Global Climate Change is driven by changes in the Earth's meteorology and climatology. Not surprisingly, there are many meteorological terms in the dictionaiy ranging from those of obvious relevance such as 'El Nino Southern Oscillation' to those such as 'Hovmuller diagram' that have only a tenuous link to global climate change.

The dictionary will be most useful to politicians, diplomats and lawyers who have to get to grips with the technical jargon used in the field. The pollution expert may find less of immediate interest. Nevertheless, because 'Aerosols' may reduce 'insolation' atmospheric pollution is recognised as being of importance to global climate change.

The dictionary is a useful reference work to all those involved in global climate change. Many things are there. Perhaps even most import things are there. I quote from the preface:

'....Among the comments were those who suggested that the dictionary should be more comprehensive. While that would be desirable, I believe that to make this dictionary much more extensive would require much more expertise than a single author would normally have... while coverage of most climatological and meteorological aspects of climate change has been attempted.... it was not always

Page 40 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

possible to cover other aspects .... particularly some of the more biological, ecological, geological, engineering, economic, political and social aspects'.

This explains why I looked in vain for entries under 'precautionary principle' or under 'risk'. The latter surprised me, because there was an entry for 'wait-and-see' versus 'risk minimisation' which summarised the views but failed to define the terms 'risk', or 'risk minimisation'. The book should at least have a sub-title such as: 'Climatologist's Perspective' to indicate its limitations.

Tom Beer CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES Ed. Cordasco EM, Demeter SL, Zenz C. Thomas Nelson Australia, A$161.95, hardback.

T he environment is increasingly topical, of concern to a growing

proportion of the population and attracting almost daily interest from the media. Not surprisingly, many branches of medicine too are focussing on the environment aspects of health and disease, reflecting this increased public awareness. This book is an attempt to consolidate all the relevant issues encompassed within respiratory disease and health, as they relate to the environment, within one text. It is an ambitious and worthwhile topic to address.

It is a large book over 600 pages including the index, although this is largely inescapable if the editors wanted to cover this enormous subject in any kind of detail. The scope of the book is broad with chapters covering many of the expected issues, epidemiology, pulmonary defence mechanisms, toxic inhalation, asbestos, and environmental asthma. The editors have not shied away from some more controversial subjects, and there are thought provoking chapters about the health risks of radon, indoor air quality and building associated

outbreaks, and multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome. The chapters on environmental surveillance, exposure assessment, and information resources are particularly useful. Such subjects are easily overlooked and yet constitute an essential body of knowledge.

There are chapters written by a large number of authors, many of them very well known, although the editors have obviously made a major contribution to the writing themselves. One benefit of this is that the information included is largely relevant and up to date. Most of the chapters are extensively referenced and quote a large proportion of recent publications.

Perhaps partly because of its size, it is relatively difficult to read and indigestible. Unfortunately its size is an inevitable consequence of the subject it is addressing, but it does mean that it fits more into the category of 'reference book' rather than 'bedtime reading'. This is probably also not helped by the book being multi-authored, as this leads to some differences in style and occasional repetition despite editing, again making the book harder to follow. Much of the book has a strong occupational influence. The chapter on respiratory health risks in agriculture, for example, deals almost exclusively with occupational illness, as does the chapter on asbestos problems. While the work environment is both important and relevant it may be that some readers whose background is not in occupational health would not find this of great interest without some extrapolation to broader environmental issues.

The chapter on pulmonary defence mechanisms was very detailed and complex, perhaps more than many readers would find easily comprehensible, and the combined chapter on pulmonary function testing and environmental pollution I found a slight incongruous combination. It may have been better to separate the two, or perhaps justify combining them in the introduction to the chapter. A chapter on legislation and regulation may also

have been a useful addition, although obviously it would soon be out of date and would need revising. It is also quickly apparent that the editors and the majority of the authors are North American, and the book is written very much from a North American perspective. While this is understandable, it does make the book slightly less relevant outside North America.

Overall, this book is informative, largely well written, and probably increasingly relevant to the majority of health practitioners. There are some aspects in which it could be improved, but the editors and authors are to be congratulated for tackling such a diverse and difficult subject. Many people will undoubtedly find this book a useful reference.

Jerry Beach Formerly Senior Research Fellow Department of Social & Preventative Medicine Monash University

Currently Institute of Occupational Health University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham. B152 TT U.K.

WARM HOUSE/COOL HOUSE -INSPIRATIONAL DESIGNS FOR LOW ENERGY HOUSING by Nick Hollo, Choice Books, ISBN 0947277226, 1995, Paperback 172 pp RRP $27.50

I n this book Nick Hollo gives a timely reminder that modern housing can provide thermal

comfort conditions without the need for the large quantities of fossil fuels used to moderate the internal environment in many of Australia's existing dwellings.

The book provides a comprehensive overview of the design techniques used to provide comfort to occupants in the diverse climates found in Australia, without wasteful use of energy. The work of a significant number of leading Australian house designers is

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 41

reviewed using floor plans and photographs to illustrate the features incorporated, and the comfortable ambience of the internal and external spaces provided.

The book is written in seven chapters. The first chapter 'How We Live' gives a brief introduction to the dimensions of energy used in dwellings and some of the other environmental implications of the way we, as community, build our dwellings, including the impact of the materials used.

The second chapter 'Design Principles for Comfort' gives a brief overview of the measurement of comfort. The diverse range of Australian climates are outlined. The five principles of good design are discussed in some detail; orientation, glazing, thermal mass, insulation and ventilation. The principles are explained using clearly understandable diagrams. However, many of the photographs and their captions don't add significantly to the explanation.

The diagram, on page 37, showing insulation values gives a misleadingly high R value for 300 mm thick earth constructions. The range quoted is ten times higher than that given in AS 2627.1

Chapter 3 'New Houses' shows a range of houses for various Australian climate zones. Project Homes are covered in Chapter 4, which describes some standard low energy home design and illustrates how project homes can be adapted to provide low energy solutions. A short but comprehensive section addresses the issues to be covered in selecting a project home for energy efficiency.

Chapter 5 covers one of the most difficult problem to face a low energy design, that of higher density housing. In this chapter Hollo describes some of the innovative techniques and design principles used to provide efficient solutions in confined spaces.

Making an existing house energy efficient is covered in Chapter 6, where once again the principles are illustrated with a wide range of examples from throughout the country.

A number of other issues are presented in chapter 7 'Beyond Passive Solar Design'. Active solar space heating is illustrated by an example built in Tasmania. Unfortunately the author doesn't provide any discussion of the relative merits of active and passive design, which would have added to the value of this section. Solar water heating and the use of photovoltaics to provide electricity are discussed briefly. A short section also discusses the broader environmental issues including the energy used in manufacturing materials and construction of the house, as well as the potential for materials to he recycled.

The book is written for those wishing to gain an understanding of how to make a lower energy, and environmental impact house. The author doesn't include many indications of actual performance of the built houses. Such performance information could be used to convince a sceptical reader that an energy efficient house is more comfortable or less expensive to run. However, for those that have experienced living in or visiting a well designed house, this book will provide a valuable resource on how to realise those benefits.

Ken Guthrie, Energy Victoria

CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE: CURRENT UNDERSTANDING AND UNCERTAINTIES, THE STEERING COMMITTEE OF THE CLIMATE CHANGE STUDY Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Parkville, Vic, 1995, 100 pp, paperback. Complementary

G reenhouse warming and associated climate change impacts are now important

components for future decision­making in most of the developed countries of the world. Australia is no exception. In order to develop a question, politicians, decision-makers, proper response to the greenhouse question, politicians, decision-makers,

Page 42 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996

and the public must have some basic understanding of the science behind greenhouse warming. There also must be a general consensus. The purpose of Climate Change Science: Current Understanding and Uncertainties (CCS) is to contribute to such a consensus and to review the current state of knowledge of the science of climate change. Written by a team of eminent experts in the field, CCS succeeds in its purpose, drawing heavily on the IPCC1 reports but placing their conclusions in an Australian context. CCS is written in a clear and understandable manner for the educated layman, but is useful for students, and for academics who wish a quick review. It is attractively illustrated, with clear diagrams in colour. Subjects requiring more detailed explanation are set apart in boxes.

CCS begins with a summary of the conclusions of the report and their importance to Australia. Beyond the introduction (Chapter 1), the main body of the report is divided into 4 chapters, each with a major theme. Chapter 2 provides a very basic introduction to climate, to underpin the importance of natural variability and change. Included are sections on global general circulation, the natural greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse impacts from anthropogenic emissions, and the role of water vapour. These concepts are then placed in the Australian context, supported by useful maps from the Bureau of Meteorology. The Walker Circulation and El Nino/Southern Oscillation are summarised, as the most important non-global circulation features influencing Australia's climate.

Chapter 3 focuses on the time scale of climatic change, from decades to centuries. Included are examples of major changes in temperature and atmospheric composition from the recent and geological past. A brief section on modelling climate follows, with a balanced discussion emphasising the limitations as well as the benefits of the modelling process. The text emphasises the importance of feedback, associated with clouds

and water vapour, and the present limits in understanding. Measurements of hemispherical temperature increases over the past 100 years are then presented, leading to a short comment about temperature changes over Australia. The chapter concludes by summarising the potential impacts from greenhouse warming, focussed on sea level rise.

Chapter 4 describes the links between greenhouse warming, climate change, and other areas: energy production, population growth, agriculture, and environmental change. A very good summary of the carbon cycle made me wish for something equal for the nitrogen cycle. The IPCC alternative scenarios of economic growth, energy supply, and population growth are summarised. Australia's contribution, relatively small in total terms but near the top of the country lists by GNP and per capita output, clearly indicate that Australia cannot sit

back and do nothing about its emissions. However, there are major difficulties because of our almost total dependence on a fossil fuel energy base.

The final chapter focuses on the uncertainties in the climate change question. Limitation in knowledge include sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, the role of clouds, the influence of oceans, the impacts of polar ice sheets, and land surface feedback processes. Whatever the future scenario or prediction, the risk of unpredicted surprise events, such as the Mt. Pinatubo eruption, affecting the process must always be considered. A discussion regarding atmospheric aerosols and their complex interaction with the climate process, followed by uncertainty in the socio-economic evaluation of climate change, concludes the chapter.

The report ends with a brief plea for further research, a summary of the National Greenhouse Response

Strategy, a page each on the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, The World Climate Research Program and the Global Climate Observing System, a glossary, and a brief but useful reference list.

I found CCS to be a highly readable reference to current greenhouse warming and climate change. I will be recommending it to my students, and have already used it as a reference for a book chapter. CCS belongs in the personal library of all who are interested in the greenhouse warming situation, with multiple copies in university libraries for student use.

The IPCC reports have been published in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 1995 by the International Panel on Climatic Change organised under the World Meteorological Organisation and United Nations Environment Program.

A/Prof Howard A. Bridgman Department of Geology University of Newcastle

Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996 Page 43

A REPORT ON THE 13TH OLYMPIAD sorry CONFERENCE

Writing this with one eye on the Olympics I have a positive feeling that our Conference will be a gold medal performance. The competition from authors to present papers has been intense. This Conference has a truly international flavour with 112 entrants from 14 countries, nearly 20% coming from overseas.

Having read many of the papers there is no doubt that some authors have set out to challenge conventional wisdom which should lead to some stimulating debate. Others are placing evidence before us which will disturb a much wider audience. In any event many have accepted the challenge to look beyond the next Olympics.

From the organisers perspective we are delighted at the sponsorship support we have received and that

the trade exhibition area is full. We are also pleased to be able to tell you that the new Governor of South Australia, His Excellency Sir Eric Neal has agreed to open the Conference.

As I mentioned in the previous Journal, we are inviting youth to participate as these are the people w h o will be carrying the baton beyond 2000. We unashamedly wish them to consider a career in science and engineering which is where the action will be and where the true talent should be. We hope you will encourage the youngsters.

We believe we have the programme details well under control; what we need n o w is the crowd support so come along and barrack for Clean Air and lets see those seats filled to capacity.

Alec Smith Head Coach 13th International Conference

Page 44 Clean Air Volume 30 NO.3. August 1996