liverpool law review volume 8 issue 1 1986 patrick thornberry -- international law and its...

8/20/2019 Liverpool Law Review Volume 8 Issue 1 1986 Patrick Thornberry -- International Law and Its Discontents- The U. S…

1/12

I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w : T h e U . S . R a i d o n L i b y a 5 3

I N T E R N A T I O N A L L A W A N D I TS D I S C O N T E N T S : T H E U . S .

R A I D O N L I B Y A

P a t r i c k T h o r n b e r r y *

1 . S t a te o f N a t u r e S t a t e o f N a t i o n s

I n h i s i n t ro d u c to ry re ma rks t o a re ce n t An g lo -So v ie t symp o s iu m o n

I n te r n a t io n a l L a w , G . I . T u n k i n , t h e d o y e n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y S o v i e t

I n t e rn a t i o n a l l a wye rs , s t re sse d t h e re sp o n s ib i l i t y o f t h e l a wye rs i n a n

a g e o f s u r v i v a l: t h e y m u s t e n s u r e t h e s t r o n g in t e r n a t i o n a l l a w

n e c e s s a r y t o s u c h s u r v iv a l , a n d n o t le a v e m a t te r s e n t ir e l y t o th e

p o l it ic i a n s . 1 Th e se w e l l re ce i ve d re m a rks w e re m a d e in t h e co n te x t o f

a n e xp lo ra ti o n o f b ro a d t h e m e s o f in t e rn a ti o n a l l a w o f co m m o n in te re s t,

a n d n o t w i t h sp e c i f i c re fe re n ce t o t h e re ce n t Ame r i ca n i n t e rve n t i o n i n

L ibya , bu t the po in t i s h igh ly pe r t inen t to tha t ac t ion even i f the no t ion

o f a M arx is t -Len in is t adv ise r on law and r igh t is one rep le te w i th mu l tip le

i ron ies .

T h e p o l i t ic i a n ' s r a t i o n a l e m a y b e g a r n e r e d f r o m s o m e r e c e n t

p r o n o u n c e - m e n t s b y le a d in g m e m b e r s o f t h e U n i t ed S t a te s

a d m in is t ra ti o n . In O c to b e r 1 9 8 4 , Se c re ta ry o f S ta te Sh u l tz d e l i n e a te d

a n a n t i -t e r ro r is t d o c t r in e in a sp e e ch in Ne w Yo rk C i ty . He c la im e d a

d i s c r e t i o n a r y r ig h t o f t h e U n i te d S t a te s t o c o m b a t w i t h f o r c e a n y

te r ro r is t th rea ts ab road , inc lud ing the r igh t to p re -em pt ive s t r ikes . Th is

w a s c o u p l e d w i th a n a s s u r a n c e t h a t o u r a c t io n s w i ll b e g o v e r n e d b y

th e ru le o f l a w , a n d t h e ru le o f l a w i s co n g e n ia l t o a c t i o n a g a in s t

t e r ro r is t s . ''2 Se c re ta ry o f De fe n ce W e in b e rg e r ' s sp e e ch in No v e m b e r

1 9 8 4 d e s c r i b e d s i x t e s t s t o g o v e r n t h e u s e o f f o r c e a b r o a d b y t h e

Un i t e d S ta te s :

1 ) Forc e sho u ld be use d on ly fo r v ital in te res ts ;

2 ) If u se d , t h e n it sh o u ld b e d e d i ca te d to w in n in g ;

3 ) W inn ing sho u ld be c lea r ly de f ine d in re la t ion to po l i t ica l and

mi l i ta ry ob ject ives;

4 ) Th e m i li ta ry ca p a b i li ti e s re q u i re d t o w in sh o u ld b e p ro v id e d ,

a n d a d j u s te d d u r in g t h e c o u r s e o f c o m b a t a s n e c e s s a r y ;

* Principal Lecturer, De partmen t of La w , L iverpool Polytechnic.

Anglo-Soviet symposium on publ ic internat ional law, Universi ty Col lege,

London, 28-30 Apri l 1986.

2 Ne w Yo rk T im es, Oc tober 26 th 1984 .


2/12

5 4 T h e L i v e r p o o l L a w R e v i e w v o I . V I I l ( 1 ) [ 1 9 8 6 ]

5 ) T h e w h o l e u n d e r t a k in g s h o u l d no t b e a t te m p t e d w i t h o u t

' s o m e r e a s o n a b l e r e a s s u r a n c e ' o f b r o a d b a c k i n g b y t h e

A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a n d C o n g r e s s ;

6 ) Th e com m i tme nt to fo rce shou ld be a las t resor t. 3

On e ma y l e g i t ima te l y q u e s t i o n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l e g a l a d v i ce , i f a n y ,

t e n d e r e d t o t h e p o l i t i c a n s t o e n a b l e t h e m t o m a k e s u c h c a t e g o r i c a l

p ro n o u n ce m e n ts . Bu t t h e w o r ry in g a sp e c t i s t h a t t h e re is n o la w a t a l l

in t h e W e in b e rg e r rule s , w h i l e Se c re ta ry o f S ta te Sh u l t z me re l y g i ve s

h i s a u d ie n ce a p a t o n t h e h e a d a n d a ssu re s t h e m th a t l a w , like G o d , i s

o n t h e i r s i d e . As F a l k p u t s it: W h a t is s t r ik i n g is t h e a b se n ce o f a n y

' t e s t ' t o r e c o n c i l e a p r o p o s e d u s e o f f o r c e w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w

re qu i rem en ts . .. .. .. 4

F a l k is a l a w y e r w h o d i s o w n s t h e w i l d e r t h e o r ie s o f i n t e rv e n t io n ,

e s p e c i a l l y d a n g e r o u s in t h e n u c l e a r a g e , t h e a g e o f s u r v iv a l o r

e x t i n c t i o n s u p r a ) . W h i l e h e m a y p r o t e s t s u c h t h e o r i e s , o t h e r s

f o r m u l a t e t h e m . D ' A m a t o ' s t h e o r y is o n e o f t h e w i l d e s t . D ' A m a t o

s t ig m a t i se s co n ce p t s s u ch a s n o n - in t e rve n ti o n in t h e i n te rn a l a f fa i rs o f

a S t a t e , s o v e r e i g n t y , t e r r i to r i a l i n t e g ri ty a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e a s

e le m e n ts o f a p o s i ti v is t S ta te -b a se d co n c e p t i o n o f i n te rn a t io n a l l a w .s

He u rg e s u s t o =c le a r a w a y t h e d e b r i s o f He g e l i a n S ta te -b a se d c la im s o f

r igh t , 8 and co uns e ls in te rven t ion in the se rv ice o f hum an r igh ts . H is

co n te x t i s n o t t h e su p p re s s io n o f t e r ro r ism ; it is ra th e r th e re m o va l o f

f o r e ig n r ~ g im e s w h i c h d e n y h u m a n r ig h ts . B u t t h e t h e o r y o f

i n t e rve n t i o n is se rv i ce a b le : i g n o re t h e a r ti fi c ia l so ve re ig n b o u n d a ry 7

o f t h e S ta te , i g n o re t h e Un i t e d Na t i o n s Ch a r te r , re v i ve se l f -h e lp ,

b e c o m e t h e b r i g h t a n g e l o f i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d s m i t e t h e e n e m i e s o f

f re e d o m . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c ti v e o f t h e U n it e d S t a te s w h e r e , D ' A m a t o

a ss u re s u s , th e re is a co n se n su s in f a vo u r o f su ch i n t e rve n t io n s , 8

th e o r ie s o f u n i l a t e ra l a c t i o n ma y a p p e a r a tt ra c t ive . Th e y a re n o t so

a t tra c t ive f ro m th e p o in t o f v i e w o f m i li ta r il y we a k S ta te s , n o r fro m th e

s ta n d p o in t o f w o r ld o rd e r . Ac t i o n s ca n c re a te p re ce d e n t s , a n d if t h e

res t ra in ing norm s o f the Un i ted N a t ions Ch ar te r a re no longe r f it, i t m us t

N e w Y o r k T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 2 9 th , 1 9 84 .

4 R . F a l k , T h e D e c l i n e o f N o rm a t i v e R e s t ra in t in I n te rn a ti o n al R e l a t io n s , 1 0

Y a l e J o u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 6 3 .

5 A . D ' A m a to , N i c a ra g u a a n d In te rn a t io n a l L a w : T h e A c a d e m i c a n d th e

R e a l , 7 9 A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f In t e r n a t i o n a l L a w ( 1 9 8 5 ) ,6 5 7 , 6 5 9 .

6 / b ~ . , a t 6 6 1 .

7 A t 6 5 9 .

8 E x c h a n g e o f C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i th D r . M i c h a e l A k e h u rs t, in 8 0 A m e r i c a n

J o u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w ( 1 9 8 6 ), 1 4 7 .


3/12

I n t e r n a t io n a l L a w : T h e U . S . R a i d o n L i b y a 5 5

b e a s k e d w h a t k i n d o f w o r l d o r d e r i s p r e f a c e d b y i n t e r v e n t i o n s a c r o s s

th e S ta te d iv i d e . W h o i s t o b e th e j u d g e o f r ig h t? W h o se d e f i n it io n o f

t e r ro r is m is t o p r e v a il ? T h e H o b b e s i a n S t a te o f N a t u r e b e c o m e s t h e

S t a te o f N a t i o n s , t h e n e w o r d o r e r u m . D ' A m a t o m a y c la im t h e

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , b u t it s d e c o n s t r u c t i o n s e e m s a

more l i ke l y resu l t .

2 T h e R a i d : J u s t i f i c a t i o n / R e a c t i o n s

T h e s e r a t h e r p e s s i m i s ti c r u m i n a t i o n s a r e o f fe r e d a s a b a c k g r o u n d

t o th e b o m b i n g o f L i b y a o n th e n i g h t o f 1 4 / 1 5 A p r il b y U . S . b o m b e r s ,

s o m e f ly i n g f ro m B r it is h b a s e s w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f

t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,

t h e a i r s t r ik e s w e r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s , t e r r o r is t

f a c il it ie s a n d m i li ta r y a s se ts t h a t su p p o r t M u a m m a r G a d a f f i' s su b ve r s i ve

a c t i v i t ie s , g W h i le t h e P r e s i d e n t s t r e s s e d t h e c a r e fu l t a r g e t i n g t o

m i n i m i s e c a s u a l t i e s a m o n g t h e L i b y a n p e o p l e 1 ° , e x t e n s i v e c a s u a l t i e s

w e r e c a u s e d , i n c lu d i n g th e d e a t h o f t h e a d o p t e d d a u g h t e r o f C o l o n e l

G a d a f f i. T h e s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s l e a d in g t o t h e s tr ik e i n c l u d e d t h e

e x p l o s i o n o f a b o m b i n W e s t B e r l i n i n a c l u b f r e q u e n t e d b y A m e r i c a n

S e r v i c e m e n o n A p r il 5 th , k il l in g 2 p e r s o n s a n d w o u n d i n g 2 3 0 ,

i n c lu d i n g 5 0 A m e r i c a n m il i t a ry p e r s o n n e l . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t L i b y a p l a n n e d t h i s a t t a c k a n d o f f e r e d

d i rec t . . . . p rec ise . . . . [and ] i r re fu tab le 11 ev idence o f the connec t ion .

T h e b o m b w a s n o t t h e w h o l e r e a s o n , s i n c e it w a s b u t t h e l a te s t a c t

i n C o l o n e l G a d a f f i' s r e i g n o f te r r o r . 12 T h e P r e s i d e n t a l so r e fe r r e d to

a n o t h e r p l a n n e d m a s s a c r e , ~3 a b o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e i n te l li g e n c e

e f fo r t s o f t h e Un i te d S ta te s a n d i ts a l li e s . I n e f fe c t , t h e a c t i o n o f t h e

U n i te d S t a t e s w a s a r e s p o n s e t o a n a c c u m u l a t i o n o f e v e n t s - a c t s o f

h o s t il it y b y L i b y a a g a i n s t A m e r i c a n s - a n d a p r e - e m p t iv e a c t io n a g a i n s t

t h e fu r t h e r e x p o r t o f t e r ro r b y L ib y a . T h e le g a l ra t io n a l e e x p o u n d e d b y

t h e P r e s i d e n t c e n t r e s o n h is s t a t e m e n t t h a t: = W h en o u r c i ti z e n s a r e

a b u s e d o r a t t a c k e d a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d , o n t h e d i r e c t o r d e r s o f a

h o s t i le r 6 g i me , w e w i ll r e s p o n d ... S e l f - d e fe n ce i s n o t o n l y o u r r ig h t , it i s

o u r d u t y . It is t h e p u r p o s e b e h i n d t h e m i s s i o n ... a m i s s i o n tu l ly

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h A r ti c le 5 1 o f t h e U n i te d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r ... W e

Broadcast ad dres s to the people of the U ni ted States, transcr ipt in T h e

Tim es, Apr il 16 th , 1986.

l o I b i d

11 Ib id

12 Ib id

1 3 Ib i d


4/12

5 6 T h e L i v e r p o o l L a w R e v i e w v o l . V l i l 1 ) [ 1 9 8 6 ]

A m e r ic a n s a r e s l o w t o a n g e r . W e a lw a y s s e e k p e a c e f u l a v e n u e s

b e f o r e r e s o r t i n g t o t h e u s e o f f o rc e , a n d w e d id . W e t r ie d q u i e t

d i p lo m a c y , p u b l i c c o n d e m n a t i o n , e c o n o m i c s a n c t io n s a n d

d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f m i l it a ry f o r ce . No n e su c ce d e d . 14 Th e r a ti o n a l e w a s

r e s t a t e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e S e c u r i ty C o u n c i l o f t h e U n i te d

N a t i o n s : t h e r a i d s w e r e a n e xe r c i se o f t h e i n te r n a t io n a l r i g h t o f se l f -

d e fe n c e u n d e r A r t ic l e 51 o f t h e Ch a r te r . i s

A r t ic l e 5 1 o f th e U n i te d N a t io n s C h a r te r , th e f u l c r u m o f t h e

j u s t if ica t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n b y th e Un i te d S ta te s , p r o v i d e s :

Nothing in the present Charter shal l impair the inherent r ight of

individual or col lective self-defence i f an arm ed attack occu rs aga inst a

M em ber of the Uni ted N ations, un t il the S ecur i ty C ounci l ha s taken

m easu res nece ssary to m ainta in in ternat iona l peac e and secur ity .

M easu res take n by Mem bers in the exerc ise o f th is r igh t o f se lf -

defence shal l be imm ediately reported to the Secur i ty Counci l . . .. ..

T h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t e r m s o f t h e C h a r t e r in A rt ic le 5 1 m e a n s o b v i o u s l y

A r t i c l e 2 ( 4 ) : a =P r i n c ip l e o f t h e Un i te d Na t i o n s : =A l l M e m b e r s sh a l l

r e f r a i n i n t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s f r o m t h e t h r e a t o r u s e o f f o r c e

a g a i n s t t h e te rr it o r ia l i n te g r i ty o r p o l it ica l i n d e p e n d e n ce o f a n y S ta te , o r

i n a n y o t h e r m a n n e r i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e P u r p o s e s o f t h e U n i t e d

N a t io n s . T h e P r i n c ip l e s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t io n s f o l lo w u p o n t h e

P u r p o s e s w h i c h in c l u d e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f i n te r n a t io n a l p e a c e a n d

sec ur i ty (A r t ic le 1 (1 ) ) as the f i r s t l is ted ob jec t i ve o f the U N o rgan isa t ion .

T h e t h e m e o f in t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e i s s t a t e d a l s o in A r t ic l e 2 ( 3 ) : = A l l

M e m b e r s s h a l l s e t t l e t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e s b y p e a c e f u l m e a n s i n

s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t i n t e r n a t io n a l p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y , a n d j u s t ic e , a r e

n o t e n d a n g e r e d .

T h e s e a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r a r t i c l e c i t a t i o n s t h a t m i g h t b e m a d e s e r v e

m e r e l y t o h i g h l i g h t t h e o b v i o u s f a c t t h a t A r t i c l e 5 1 d o e s n o t e x i s t a n d

f u n c t io n i n v a c u o a s a c o m p l e te s t a t e m e n t o f re le v a n t n o r m a t iv e

i n h i b it io n s o n th e u se o f f o r ce i n i n te r n a t io n a l l a w . Th e m a i n te n a n ce o f

p e a c e i s a m a j o r p u r p o s e o f t h e U n i te d N a t i o n s ; A r t ic l e 2 ( 4 ) is a

n e g a t i ve fu tu r e i mp e r a t ive - sh a l l r e fr a in - d i r e c te d a g a i n s t t h e u se o f

f o rc e . T o g e t h e r , t h e p u r p o s e s a n d p r in c i p le s c o n s t it u t e t h e r a i s o n

14 /b /d .

ts T h e G u a r d i a n , A p ril 1 6 th , 1 9 8 6 .


5/12

I n t e r n a t io n a l L a w : T h e U . S . R a i d o n L i b y a 5 7

d ' ~ . tr e o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . 18 A r t i c le 5 1 i s a n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e

C h a r t e r p r o h i b i t i o n o f f o r c e d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e t h a t m e m b e r s h i p o f

t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n i s n o t a c o m m i t m e n t t o s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n b y a M e m b e r

S t a t e : t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s y s t e m i s d e d i c a t e d t o s u rv i v a l; it i s n o t a

su i c i d e c l u b . It is , h o w e ve r , su f fi c ie n t l y c l e a r t o t h e p r e se n t a u th o r t h a t ,

a s w i t h a n y o t h e r tr e a ty , M e m b e r S t a te s o f t h e U . N . h a v e c o m p r o m i s e d

th e i r f r e e d o m to a c t o n l y a s n a t i o n a l i n te r e s t d i c ta te s , in t h e g r e a te r a n d

m o r e e n d u r i n g i n t e re s t o f i n te r n a t io n a l p e a c e . In t h i s p e rs p e c t i v e , t h e

d e m a n d t h a t A r t i c l e 5 1 s h o u l d b e g i v e n a n a r r o w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e m s

a p e r f e c t ly r e a s o n a b l e a n d d e f e n s i b l e p r o p o s i -t io n . W it h K e l s e n , o n e

m a y s a y t h a t t h e r i g h t o f s e l f -d e f e n c e h a s n o w n o o t h e r c o n t e n t t h a n

t h e o n e d e t e r m i n e d b y A r t ic le 5 1 .1 7

T o a g r e e w i t h K e l s e n i s o n l y a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , a n d s o m e d o n o t

a g r e e . It m a y b e a r g u e d th a t A r ti c le 5 1 r e fe r s t o a l a w b e y o n d it se lf .

A t t e n t i o n f o c u s e s o n t h e n e g a t i v e f o rm o f A r ti cl e 5 1 w h i c h s e e m s

e s p e c i a l l y p o w e r fu l . =N o th i n g ... sh a l l i mp a i r .. . t h e ri g h t o f se l f -

d e f e n c e , w h i c h i s f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e d a s a n i n h e r e n t rig h t . I n h e r e n t

h a s o v e r t o n e s o f N a t u r a l L a w : a s h u m a n r ig h t s a re i n h e re n t in h u m a n

b e i n g s , s o s e l f - d e f e n c e i s i n h e r e n t in S t a t e s . A r t ic l e 5 1 o n l y r e f e rs t o

a n d d o e s n o t d e t e r m i n e f u ll y t h e c o n t e n t o f s e l f - d e f e n c e : I t i s ...

f a l l a c i o u s t o a s s u m e t h a t M e m b e r s h a v e o n l y t h o s e r i g h t s w h i c h t h e

C h a r t e r a c c o r d s t o t h e m ; o n t h e c o n t ra r y t h e y h a v e t h o s e r ig h t s w h i c h

g e n e r a l i n te r n a ti o n a l l a w a c c o r d s t o t h e m e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s th e y h a v e

s u r r e n d e r e d t h e m u n d e r t h e C h a r t e r .... ,1 8 T h i s k in d o f v i e w l e a d s

n a t u r a ll y t o c l a i m s t h a t th e C h a r t e r h a s p r e s e r v e d o r r a th e r i m p a i re d t h e

f r e e - w h e e l in g l a w o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i m p l y i n g th a t S t a t e s c a n

~ The open ing words o f the P reamb le to the Char te r may be ca l led in

ev idence: WE THE PEOPLES OF THE U NITED NATIONS DETERM INED to

save succeeding generat ions f rom the scourge o f war , wh ich twice in our

l ifet im e h as brought untold sorrow to ma nkind . . .

17

T h e L a w o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s

London, Stevens and Sons, 1950,

914 .

1B D .W . B o w ett S e l f - D e f e n c e i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w M a n c h e s t e r

Manchester Universi ty Press,1958, 185.


6/12

5 8 T h e L i v e r p o o l L a w R e v i e w v o I . V l ll 1 ) [ 1 98 6 ]

u s e 19 f o r c e f o r th e d e f e n c e o f a w i d e r a n g e o f p e r c e i v e d v i t a l

i n t e r e s t s .

R e s p o n s e s t o te r r o r i s m c a n e a s i l y b e a c c o m m o d a t e d w i t h in t h is

v i ta l i n te r e s t s f r a m e w o r k , s i n c e e v e r y S t a t e is i n a u n i q u e p o s i t i o n t o

d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e s e a re . 2° M o r e n a r r o w ly , a n d w i t h m o r e r e s p e c t f o r

K e l s e n ' s a r g u m e n t f o r t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f A r t ic le 5 1 , i t m a y b e

a r g u e d t h a t a n a t ta c k o n t h e c i ti z e n s o f a s t a te , w h e r e v e r t h e y a r e

l o c a t e d , i s a n a t t a c k o n t h e S t a t e i t se l f, s i n c e p o p u l a t i o n is a n e s s e n t i a l

i n g r e d i e n t o f S t a te h o o d , a l o n g w i th t e r r i t o ry , g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e

c a p a c i t y to e n t e r in t o in t e r n a t io n a l r e l a t i o n s . W h i l e t h i s m i g h t a p p e a r t o

b e a c a t e g o r i c a l m i s ta k e e q u a t i n g c i t i z e n a n d S t a t e a n d e q u i v a l e n t t o

a r g u i n g t h a t th e r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s o f s h a r e h o l d e r s in a c o m p a n y a r e

i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e o f t h e c o m p a n y , i t is a v i e w w h i c h c l a i m s i ts

a d h e r e n t s . 21 A t h i r d p o s s i b l e l in e o f a r g u m e n t m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s

c o n t r a c t a r i a n : th e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , w h i le r e p r e s e n t i n g a l a u d a b l e

e f fo r t t o c o m b a t t h e e v i l s t a t e o f in t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t io n s p r e v a i l in g t o

1 9 4 5 , h a s f a i l e d in it s b a s i c o b j e c t iv e s o r in o n e o r m o r e o f s u c h

o b j e c t i v e s ; i n s o f a r a s i ts f a i lu r e i s a p p a r e n t a n d a p p a r e n t ly i r re m e d i a b l e ,

S t a t e s c a n c o n t r a c t o u t t o th e e x t e n t n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e o b j e c t i v e s

b y u n i la t e r a l m e a n s o r c o l le c t iv e m e a n s s t ri c t ly o u t s id e t h e s c o p e o f t h e

C h a r t e r . T h i s d o c t r i n e h a s b e e n s t a te d w i t h r e fe r e n c e to th e a l l e g e d

lY T he B ow e t t v i ew is no t a nov e l i y t o a c om m o n l aw y e r : in a s y s t em w he r e

sta tu te and c om m on law co-ex is t, the prec ise am bi t o f a s ta tu tory re form v is -&-v is

t he ex i s ti ng law m ay be qu i t e un c l ea r and ex e r c is e t he j udges f o r a c ons i de r ab l e

t im e . T h e r e s o l u ti o n o f s u c h i s s u e s d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r t h e c o u r t s a r e

prepa red to g ran t an e x tens i ve in te rp re ta t ion to the s ta tu te o r a con f in i ng one .

T he s c op e o f the r e f o rm ac h i ev ed by S ec t i on 3 (1 ) o f t he H o m i c ide A c t 1957

(p rovoc a t i on de fen ce i n re la ti on to a charg e o f m urder ) is a cas e i n po in t : t he

re la t ionsh ip o f th is sec t i on to the com mo n law on p rovoca t i on wa s a t t im es qu i te

unc lear . See J .C . Sm ith and B . Hogan , C r im in a l Law, Bu t te rwor ths , 5 th edn . ,

London , 1983 , 299 .

20 A n n o u n c i n g t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f ra p i d d e p l o y m e n n t f o r ce s i n 1 9 7 8 ,

P r es i den t C a r t e r o f t he U .S .A . des c r i bed a s upp l y o f o i l a s on e o f t he bas es o f

na t i ona l s ec u r i ty - T he e c onom i c hea lt h and w e l l -be i ng o f t he U n i t ed S t a tes ,

W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n d J a p a n d e p e n d u p o n c o n t i n u e d a c c e s s t o o i l f r o m t h e

P e r s i an G u l f. T he fo r c es w e r e s e t up to de f end ou r i n te r es t s t h r ough ou t t he

w o r l d , 20 S u r v i v a l ( 1978 ) , 176 . S ee a l s o t he f ir s t po i n t o f t he W e i nbe r ge r

s ta tement supra).

21 Bowett , supra no te1 8 a t 87 -105 . Th e po in t re la tes to the use o f fo rce i n

re la ti on to na t i ona l s ab road w h ich app ears to b e the ma jo r fac tua l i ng red ien t i n

the U n i ted S ta tes j us t if ica t i on . I t i s a d if f e ren t ma t te r if t he a t tack i s ag a ins t

c i ti z ens on hom e t e r ri to r y - s uc h a c as e i s gov e r ned by s t anda r d s e l f- de f enc e

pr inc ip les .


7/12

I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w : T h e U S R a i d o n L i b y a 5 9

l e g i t ima cy o f h u m a n i t a r i a n i n t e rve n t i o n , b u t , a g a in , i t se e m s a p t t o

d e sc r i b e a n a rg u m e n t f a vo u r in g i n te rve n t io n t o s t o p t e r ro r ism . 22

D o u b t l e s s t h e s e t h r e e s t r a n d s o f a r g u m e n t - i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f

t h e t e x t , so l i c i t u d e f o r t h e t e x t , a n d i r re le va n ce o f t h e t e x t - d o n o t

e xh a u s t a l l i n t e rp re ta ti ve p o ss ib i li ti e s . Th e re is so m e f e e l in g a m o n g

in te rn a t io n a l l a wy e rs th a t , g i ve n va r i o u s e xe g e t ica l p o ss ib il it ie s in t h e

C h a r te r , a re so lu t io n o f v i e w s ca n o n l y p la u s ib l y b e a ch ie ve d a t t h e

le ve l o f co n se q u e n ce s . 23 Bu t w h i l e co n se q u e n t i a l is t /p o l i c y re a so n in g

is respec tab le in lega l a rgument , i t needs to f ind i t s p lace as a rgument

o f l a s t re so r t. It sh o u ld n o t li g h tl y b e a s su m e d t h a t , b e ca u se m o re th a n

o n e l e g a l c o n c l u s i o n o n t h e m e a n i n g o f a t e x t i s p o s s i b l e , t h a t o n e

co n c lu s io n is a s g o o d a s a n y o th e r . Th i s i s a d e n ia l o f ra t io n a l it y , a

d e n i a l o f t h e v i e w t h a t s o m e a r g u m e n t s a r e b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s , a n d is

e q u i va le n t t o sa y in g th a t l e g a l /m o ra l a rg u m e n t i s m e re l y t h e b a n g in g o f

r iva l f is t s o n t h e t a b le . Co n se q u e n t i a li s t a rg u m e n t is a n yw a y d re n ch e d

in va lu e co n s id e ra t io n s a t t h i s l e ve l, s o t h a t i t ce r t a in ly d o e s n o t e a s i l y

t ra n s la te in to o b je c t i ve me a su re m e n t . Th i s n o te h a s a l re a d y e n g a g e d

in so me co n se q u e n t i a l i s t sp e cu la t i o n w i t h s t a te d va lu e p re fe re n ce s f o r

t h e p r i m a c y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e a n d t h e e q u a l i t y o f n a t i o n s u n d e r

in ternat iona l law.

In in te rna t iona l law, i f t ex tua l reso lu t ion is ten ta t i ve ( though i t i s

su b mi t t e d t h a t t h e UN Ch a r te r ma ke s i t t o l e ra b l y c le a r t h a t u n i l a t e ra l

i n t e rve n t i o n s a re s t r i c t l y co n t ro l l e d , a n d t h a t se l f -d e fe n ce i s a n a r ro w

c o n c e p t ) , i t i s c o r r e c t t o l o o k a t h o w S t a t e s m a y h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d a

p a r t ic u l a r te x t o r h o w , a f o r t i o r i , t h e y m a y h a v e c u r t a il e d o r e x p a n d e d

o r a l te re d it t h ro u g h t h e g ro w th o f a n e w cu s to m a ry l a w . In t h e i n s ta n t

ca se , t h e re a c t i o n s o f t h e i n t e rn a t i o n a l co mmu n i t y t o t h e i n c id e n t i n

q u e s t i o n m u s t b e s t u d i e d I n ¢ o n c r e t o a s w e l l a s t h e re a c t io n t o

s imi lar inc idents .

S ta te p ra c t i ce re ve a l s little su p p o r t f o r t h e p ro p o s i t io n s cu r re n t l y

a d v a n c e d b y t h e U n i te d S t a t e s a d m i n i s tr a t io n ( a n d t h e U n i te d

M. M cD ougal and M . Reism an, Response [on H um anitarian Intervent ion] 3

I n t e rn a t io n a l l aw ye r (1969) , 438 .

23 Se e B . RS l in g , Asp ec ts o f t h e Ban o n Fo rce , 2 4 N e d e r l e n d s

T i j d s o h r i f t veer in t e rn a t lo n aa l R ec ht (1977), 242; T. Farer , Law and

W ar , in B lack and Fa lk (eds.) , Th e Fu ture o f the

In ternat ional Legal

O rd er , Princeton Universi ty Press, 1971, 30. On consequen t ia l ist reasoning,

see D .N. M acCormick , L e g a l R e a s o n i n g a n d L e g a l Theory , Ox fo rd ,

Clarendon Press,1978.


8/12

6 0 T h e L i v e r p o o l L a w R e v i e w v o I . V l l l 1 ) [ 1 9 8 6 ]

K i n g d o m G o v e r n m e n t ) 24 o n th e L i b y a n in t e rv e n t i o n. T h e

in te rven t ion i s t v i ew can be con t rad i c ted w ~h ev idence w h ich can on l y

be touc he d up on in th is note . De sp i te Ar t ic le 2(4) there have bee n a

c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f u n i l a t e r a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s a c r o s s S t a te

bou nda r ies s ince 1945. 2s The Grea t Pow ers natura l ly lead the wa y in

th i s s ince the y hav e the m i l it a ry capa c i t y t o i n te rvene . The range o f

j u s t i fi ca t i o n s p re se n t e d b y t h e i n t e r ve n e rs i n c lu d e s h u m a n i t a r ia n

co n s i d e ra t i o n s , r e t a l i a t io n 28 ( r e p ri sa l) , a n d - m o s t i n t e re s t i n g l y -

extended ra t iona les o f se l f -defence to inc lude pro tect ion o f nat iona ls

a b ro a d , 27 a n t i c i p a t o r y se l f - d e f e n ce 28 a n d so m e t h i n g l ike a v i t a l

in tere sts /s ec ur i t y doct r ine in a re la t ionsh ip w i th se l f -defence. 2~ Th e

reac t i on o f t he i n te rna t i ona l commun i t y a t l a rge has been ex t reme ly

unre cept ive to a ny doct r ine (hum ani tar ian in tervent ion, reprisa l) tha t i s

not spec i f i ca l l y accounted for in the Uni ted Nat ions Char ter ; ex tended

rat iona les o f se l f -defence

s u p r a )

have a l so be en sub jec ted t o severe

cr i t ic ism or , more prec ise ly , p ro tests as to the i r il lega l i ty . The idea o f

c ros s ing S ta te boun dar ies to roo t ou t cen t res o f t e r ro r i sm has a lso

bee n o verw he lming ly regarded as illega l. 3°

Wh i le such i n te rven t i ons a re d i s tu rb ing , t hey a re no t i nheren t l y

surpr is ing in an age o f ideo log ica l po lar isa t ion such as the present .

Some cases o f i n te rven t i on ( t o say no th ing o f genu ine occas ions o f

z4 See the statem ent in the Ho use of Com mon s by the P rim e M inister of the

United Kingdom, T h e T i m e s , April 1 6th , 19 86 . The statement m akes

exclusive reliance on Art icle 51 for a legal justif ication of the U .S. action and

British suppo rt for it.

25 For a gen eral accoun t see M. Ake hurst, Hu ma nitarian Intervention , n Bull

(ed.), In te rv en t io n in W orld Po l i t i¢~ Oxford, O.U.P., 1984, 95.

2s R eta liat ion s not self-defence; the U.N . Cha rter perm its self-defence, but

m akes no me ntion of retaliation.

27 S e e , or exam ple, the reaction of States as express ed in the U .N. Secu rity

Counci l to the 19 76 raid on Entebbe (Uganda ) by Israel i t roops, 15 I .L.M .

(1976), 1224 ; A kehurst,

supra

no te 25 at 101-102.

2s The m ost outstanding exam ple in modern international relations is the raid

by Israel on the Iraqi nuc lear reactor com plex to forestall a possible developm ent

of nuclear weapons. SeeUND OC S/PV . 22 80 , Jun e 12th, 1981, 16-37.

29 C o n s ult I s r a e l i n L e b a n o n , T h e R e p o r t o f a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l

C o m m i s s i o n ,

etc. , London, I thaca Pre ss, 1983.

3o Passim.


9/12

I n te r n a t io n a l L a w : T h e U S R a i d o n L i b y a 6 1

s e l f - d e f e n c e a g a i n s t a r m e d a t t a c k ) 31 a r e le g i t im a t e : i f d i c t a t o r ia l

i n te r f e r e n ce in t h e i n te rn a l a f fa i rs o f a S ta te 32 i s t h e n e a r e s t a p p r o a ch

to a d e f i n i t i o n o f i n te r ve n t i o n , a r e sp o n se to a n i n v i t a t i o n - i . e . w i t h

c o n s e n t o f t h e t a r g e t S t a t e ' s g o v e r n m e n t - is n o t d i c ta t o ri a l. W h a t i s

i n te r e s t in g is t h a t S t a t e s a r e s o m e t i m e s p r e p a r e d to m a n i p u la t e t h e

d e s c r ip t i o n o f e v e n t s in o r d e r t o c la im t h a t t h e y w e r e in v it ed g u e s t s

r a t h e r t h a n g a t e c r a s h e r s . 33 C u s t o m a r y a n d t re a t y l a w r e s p e c t s th e

s o v e r e i g n t y o f S t a te s . N e w l a w is n o t m a d e b y t h e a c t io n s o f a f e w

S t a t e s , h o w e v e r p o w e r f u l , if o t h e r S t a t e s o b j e c t : i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w

d o e s n o t a d m i t o f a n y d is t in c tio n b e t w e e n a j u s m a j o r u m g e n t i u m

a n d a j u s m i n o r u m g e n t i u m .

I n c o n c r e t o , m o s t o f t h e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c t i o n i n

L i b y a h a v e b e e n h o s ti le . S o m e r e a c t io n s m a y b e p r e d i c t a b l e b u t

n o n e t h e l e s s n o t e w o r t h y in t e r m s o f t h e i r l eg a l c o n t e n t . T h u s , t h e

U . S . S . R . d e s c r i b e d t h e a c ti o n a s o n e o f a g g r e s s i o n , w h i c h c a n n o t

h a v e a n y j u s t i f i c a t i o n [ a n d ] i s a s i g n o f d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f

s m a l l S t a t e s a n d p e o p l e s a n d fl o u t s t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r t h a t

p r o h i b i t s t h e u se o f f o r ce i n i n te r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . ~4 G r e e ce d e c l a r e d

t h a t t h e a c t i o n u n d e r m i n e d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l o r d e r . 3s K u w a i t

r e f e r r e d t o b r e a c h o f A r a b s o v e r e i g n t y a n d t e r r it o r ia l r ig h t s . 3s T h e r e

w a s w i d e s p r e a d c r i t i c i s m a t t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l i n c l u d i n g a l l e g a t i o n s

o f a g g r e s s i o n , 37 a n d in m o r e m u t e d t e r m s b y m e m b e r s o f t h e W e s t e r n

a l li a n ce . A r e so l u t io n o f t h e E u r o p e a n P a r l ia m e n t d e sc r i b e d th e r a id a s

a f la g r a n t v i o l a ti o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w . ~ S t a t e s u n s y m p a t h e t i c t o

L ib y a s u c h a s E g y p t a n d S a u d i A r a b ia c o n d e m n e d t h e a c tio n .

i t i s c l e a r th a t t h e i n te r ve n t i o n in L i b ya h a s n o t b e e n a l l o we d to p a s s

u n c h a l l e n g e d in le g a l t e r m s . T h e i n v o c a t io n o f A r t ic l e 51 b y t h e U n i te d

S t a t e s a n d t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m in t h is c o n t e x t r a i s e s a n u m b e r o f

p r o b l e m s :

=1 The react ion of the Un i ted K ingdom to the Argent ine Invasion of the

Falkland Is lands w as in pr incip le a legi timate exe rcise of se l f-defence wh atever

doub ts one may have on the m odalit ies o f the exerc ise . In a comprehensive

l ite ra ture se e L .C. Green, The Fa lk lands, the Law and the War , Ye ar B oo k

o f W or ld A f fa i r s , 1984 , 89 .

3 L. Oppenheim, In te rn at ion a l La w , London, Longman, 8 th edn. , 1955,

305.

33 O n the F renc h intervent ion in the Centra l African E mp ire in 1979 to

overthrow Em peror B okassa, se e Akehurst, supta note 25 at 98.

34 T he Tim es , Apr i l 16th, 1986.

3 5 / b i d

I b i d

37 Th e G ua rd ia n, Apr il 16 th , 1986.

E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t Ne w s , A p ril 1 9 8 6 , 1.


10/12

6 2

T h e L i v e r p o o l

L a w R e v i e w v o h V i l l ( 1 ) [ 1 98 6 ]

1 . H a s a n a r m e d a t t a c k o c c u r r e d ? - p r o b a b l y n o t, o n l y a n a tt a c k o n

U.S. c i t izens, not terr i to ry .

2 . W h a t a b o u t f u t u re a t ta cks b y L ib ya , if o n e co n c e d e s th e e q u a t i o n

b e t w e e n c i ti z e n a n d S t a te ? A r t ic l e 5 1 a p p e a r s t o e x c l u d e

a n t i c i p a to ry se l f -d e fe n ce b y re q u i r i n g t h a t t h e a t t a ck sh o u ld h a ve

c o m m e n c e d . E v e n if o n e g o e s b e y o n d th e te x t o f A r t ic l e 51 w i t h

w r i te rs l ike B ow et t the re is st ill the p ropos i t ion o f imm ed iac y in the

C a r o l i n e C a s e :

t h e r e m u s t b e a n e c e s s i ty o f s e l f -d e f e n c e ,

i n s ta n t , o v e r w h e l m i n g , l e a v in g n o c h o ic e o f m e a n s , a n d n o

m o m e n t o f d e l i b e r a ti o n . 39 A s a p e r c e p t iv e w r i t e r t o t h e T i m e s

n o t e d , A m e r i c a 's a t t a c k o n L ib y a w a s u n l a w f u l b e c a u s e ,

i n t e r

a l i a , t h e r e e x i s te d b o t h th e c h o ic e o f m e a n s a n d a m p l e

o p p o r t u n i ty f o r d e l ib e r a t io n . ~

3 . W h a t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i ty ? T h e U . S . c l a i m e d

m in imu m ca su a l ti e s a n d th e U .K . a p p a re n t l y su p p o r t e d t h e a c t io n

o n t h e co n d i t i o n o f m in im isa t i o n o f ca su a l t i e s : b u t ca su a l t i e s we re

e x te n s i ve , in c lu d in g n o n -m i li ta ry p e rso n n e l . Th e u n p le a sa n t t e rm

o ve rk il l sp r i n g s to m in d : is t h is a n e xa m p le o f S ta te te r ro r i sm ?

Th e f o rme r B r it ish Am b a s sa d o r to th e Un i te d N a t io n s m a in ta in s t h a t

O n c e t h e d e c i s io n h a d b e e n t a k e n t o s u p p o r t t h e A m e r i c a n a i r a t ta c k

o n L i b y a , t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t w a s o b l i g e d t o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e

Am er ican ac t ion wa s jus t i fied in in te rna t iona l law und er Ar t ic le 51 . . . . To

h a v e f a il e d t o d o s o w o u l d h a v e b e e n t a n t a m o u n t t o s u p p o r t in g a n a c t

o f S t a t e v i g i l a n t i s m , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h n o s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g g o v e r n m e n t

w o u l d d o . 41 H o w e v e r t h in t h e c lo a k , th e s t a t e m e n t s b y t h e U . S . a n d

U . K . G o v e r n m e n t s m u s t b e t a k e n , u n ti l c o n t r a d i c t e d b y l a t e r

a d m in i s tra t io n s , a s in d i ca t i n g t h e i r l e g a l v i e w o f A r t i c le 5 1 . O n e m a y

q u e s t i o n i f t h e f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s u c h a v i e w h a v e b e e n t a k e n o n

b o a rd . Fo r t u n a te l y , m o s t S ta te s d o n o t a p p e a r t o a cce p t t h e v ie w s o f

t h e U .S .A . a n d th e U .K .

3 . W h a t i s t o b e d o n e ?

If t he e v idenc e o f L ibyan invo lvem ent in te r ro r ism is to be be l ieved ,

L i b y a h a s v i o l a t e d in t e r n a t i o n a l la w . W h i le L i b y a m a y n o t h a v e

a t t a cke d t h e Un i t e d S ta te s , a l l S ta te s mu s t re f ra in f ro m o rg a n is in g ,

~ The Caro l ine Case, 29

B r i ti s h a n d F o r e i g n S t a t e P a p e r s

1137; 30

i b i d

195.

40 T h e T i m e s A p r il t 8 t h 1986.

41 Sir Anthony Parsons, A Classic Cas e of H ow Not to Sw at a Ga df ly ,The

O b s e r v e r

Apr i l 20th , 1986.


11/12

I n te r n a t io n a l L a w : T h e U . S . R a i d o n L i b y a 6 3

i ns t iga t ing o r pa r t i c ipa t ing in ac ts o f civ il s t r ife o r te r ro r i s t ac ts in an o th e r

S t a t e . . . T h e s p o n s o r i n g of a c t io n s in a n o t h e r S t a t e v i o la t e s t h e b a s ic

c a n o n s o f S t a t e s o v e r e ig n t y , in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , a s t h e F o r e i g n

M i n i s t e r s o f t h e E . E . C . s t a t e d in a c o m m u n i q u e : ... S t a t e s c l e a r l y

i m p l ic a t e d in s u p p o r t in g t e r r o r i s m s h o u l d b e i n d u c e d t o r e n o u n c e

s u c h s u p p o r t a n d t o r e s p e c t t h e r u le s o f in t e r n a t io n a l la w . T h e y c a l l

u p o n L i b ya to a c t a cco r d i n g l y . 4 2

T h e i n te r n a t io n a l c o m m u n i t y h a s b u ilt u p a c o r p u s o f la w to c o m b a t

t e r r o r is m in s p e c i f i c m a n i fe s t a t io n s . T h e l a w , o f c o u r s e , l a c k s a p o l ic e

f o r c e t o ta c k l e t h e d e t e r m i n e d l a w b r e a k e r . B u t t h e r e i s a w i d e r a n g e o f

d ip l om a t i c a n d e c o n o m i c m e a s u r e s w h i c h c a n b e b r o u g h t t o b e a r o n

th e r e ca l c i tr a n t S ta te . 43 T h e r e a r e n o i n s ta n t so l u t i o n s , b u t d e te r m i n e d

i n t e r n a t io n a l a c t i o n o v e r a s u s t a i n e d p e r i o d c a n a c h i e v e r e s u lt s , it i s

i mp o r ta n t t h a t a c t i o n sh o u l d b e fu ll y i n te r n a t io n a l ise d a n d i n co n fo r m i ty

w i t h l a w T h i s r e q u ir e s p a ti e n c e o n t h e p a rt o f G o v e r n m e n t s a n d

e l e c t o ra t e s , a n d s t a t e s m e n n e e d t o t a k e t h e l o n g vie w .

W h i le t h e l a w is im p e r f e c t, b r e a k i n g i t t h r o u g h i m p a t i e n c e c a n l e a d

to w o r se r e su l ts . Th e =a n t i- te r r o ri s t s t r i ke o p t i o n i s n o t co n f i n e d to

L i b y a - S y r i a a n d I r a n a r e a l s o r e g a r d e d a s s p o n s o r s o f a c t s o f a n t i -

A m e r i c a n t e r r o r i s m , 44 s o n o o n e w i ll b e s u r p r i s e d if t h e y t o o a r e

s u b j e c t e d t o s t ri k e s . B u t w h y s t o p h e re , a n d w h y o n l y t h e U n i te d

S t a t e s ? W h y n o t B r it is h r a i d s o n N e w Y o r k a n d D u b l in to s t rik e a t t h e

I .R . A . ? W h y n o t N i c a r a g u a n b o m b s o n t h e U n i te d S t a te s , s u p p o r t e d

b y a s y m p a t h e t i c a lly , s a y C u b a ( o r t h e U . S . S . R . ? ) ? T h e l is t o f

p o s s i b i li ti e s c a n b e p r o l o n g e d , p e r h a p s i n d e f in i te l y a s n e w o c c a s i o n s

o f h os t i l it y a r i se .

A s o m b r e f e a t u r e o f t h e e p i s o d e i s t h a t , e v e n g i v e n t h e e v i d e n c e

a g a i n s t L i b ya , t h e r e i s a ca u s e if n o t a j u s t if i ca t io n o f i t s p o l i c y : 4s t h e

s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e l e g a l r ig h t s o f t h e P a l e s t in i a n p e o p l e , a n d th e

u n c r i t ic a l A m e r i c a n s u p p o r t o f t h i s p o l ic y . T h i s t e r r o r is m i s n o t a

f o r m l e s s i n c u b u s h a u n t i n g t h e W e s t , p r o p e l l e d b y i t s o w n e v i l , b u t i s

c r e a t e d a n d q u i c k e n e d i n t h i s w o r l d b y t h e c o n c r e t e d e n i a l o f j u s t i c e .

4~ T h e T i m e s , Apri l 16th, 1986.

43 See Parso ns, supr note 41. Non -Mi li tary act ion is envisaged by the Tokyo

Declarat ion of the Seven Western Industr ia l Nat ions, T h e T i m e s , May 7th,

1986 .

44

S e e t h e

Sta tement o f P res iden t Reagan o f the U.S .A . upon the

complet ion of the Tokyo Summit,

T h e G u a r d i a n ,

May 7th, 1986.

4s Mr . Enoch Powel l, MP , d is t ingu ishes betw een the In ev i ta b i l i ty o f an

event (v io lent Uls ter react ion to the Ang lo-I rish ag ree m en t and its

j u s t i f i c a t i o n . Gadaf f i's sup por t o f the Pa lest in ian cau se throug h act ion

against the U.S .A. wo uld perhap s fal l into the category of inevitabi l ity .


12/12

6 4 T h e L i v e r p o o l L a w R e v i e w v o I .V I Il 1 ) [ 1 9 8 6 ]

The u l t ima te an t i - t e r ro r i s t op t i on i s t o dea l w i t h t he co re p rob lem w i t h

ene rgy , op t im ism and t he f u l l ness o f powe r .

4 . K e e p i n g a n A p p o i n t m e n t

The re fe rence t o t he rS le o f l awye rs a t t he beg inn ing o f t h i s no te

b r in g s u s to th e c l a im - a ls o m a d e b y T u n k i n - t h a t t h e r e a r e o n l y

i n te r n a t io n a l l a w y e r s , n o t A m e r i c a n , R u s s i a n o r T h i r d W o r ld

i n te r n a t io n a l l a w y e r s . S e d q u a e r e ? T h e r e is a n i n ti m a t e c o n n e c t io n

b e t w e e n l a w y e r s a n d t h e l e g a l c u l t u r e f r o m w h i c h t h e y d r a w

n o u r i s h m e n t . B u t s o m e l a w y e r s g o b e y o n d th i s a n d a p p e a r t o g i v e

t h e i r u n c r i t ic a l s u p p o r t to p o l ic i e s o f t h e i r G o v e r n m e n t s , h o w e v e r

i m m o d e r a t e a n d u n m e a s u r e d . A k e h u r s t m a d e a s h a r p p o in t a g a i n st

Ju l i u s S tone o n t h is ve ry issue , ' 8 and som e law ye rs i n t he U .S .A . (and

t h e U . S . S .R . a n d e l s e w h e r e ) a p p e a r t o f all in to t h e s a m e tr a p . T h e

resu l t s o f concep tua l i s i ng t he en t i re wo r ld i n t e rms o f na r row na t i ona l

i n te res t s can on l y be d i sas trous . Tu nk in i s in p r inc ip le co r rec t : t he re is

a r e s p u b l i c a j u r i s c o n s u l t o r u m , bu t i t i s weak and d i v ided , r i ven by

f a c t io n s . T h e j u r is t s s h o u l d ( a n d m a n y f o r t u n a t e l y d o ) k e e p a n

a p p o i n t m e n t w i th r e a s o n a n d c o m m o n s e n s e a n d d w e l l in t h e i r

Rep ub l i c : W e a re wa i t ing fo r G odo t t o com e - o r f o r n igh t t o fa ll. W e

h a v e k e p t o u r a p p o i n t m e n t a n d t h a t 's a n e n d t o t h a t. W e a r e n o t

sa in ts , bu t we have kep t ou r a ppo in tme nt . ''47

4b 'Book R ev iew ofJ . S tone , I s rae l

and Palest ine: Assaul t on the law

of N at ions, 53 Br i tish Y ear Book o f Internat ional Law 1982) , 248.

47 S am ue l Becke tt, W a i t ing fo r G odo t , London , Fab er and Fab er , 1956.

liverpool law review volume 8 issue 1 1986 patrick thornberry -- international law and its...

Documents