m. ^ ^ A window open on the world

February 1970 (23rd year) - U. K. : 2/-stg - Canada : 40 cents - France : 1.20 F

The Pearson Report

A NEW STRATEGY FOR

DEVELOPMENT

TREASURES

OF

WORLD ART

O

'Big cat' of Stone-age Cyprus

This animal head, probably of a lion or panther, was hewn from basalt rock by a Stone-agecraftsman in Cyprus, almost 8,000 years ago when these fierce members of the cat familyroamed the island. A mere 11 cm (4 in.) long, it was unearthed at Khirokitia from the remainsof one of the early Neolithic villages brought to light by recent excavations. The inhabitantsof these settlements were farmers and hunters, but they also numbered craftsmen skilledin working stone, fashioning bowls, dishes and tools as well as necklaces and amulets.

Photo © Gérard Souris Archaeoloçjia Viva. Cyprus Museum, Nicosia

CourierFEBRUARY 1970

23RD YEAR

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'PARTNERS IN DEVELOPMENT'

(I) A new global strategy

(II) Tragic consequences tomorrowif fail to act today

By Lester B. Pearson

THE STRATEGY IN A NUTSHELL

TAKING THE WIND BY THE ROOT

THE KALEIDOSCOPE

OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT

NO MORE UNWANTED CHILDREN

An answer to the population dilemma

THE RISING SPIRAL OF UNEMPLOYMENT

THE GREEN REVOLUTION

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

UNESCO NEWSROOM

TREASURES OF WORLD ART

'Big-cat' of Stone-age Cyprus

Cover design by Rolf Ifaach - Unesco

Cover

International co-operation fordevelopment over the last 20 yearshas been of a nature and on a scale

new to history. Yet massiveaid and vast efforts by thedeveloping countries have failedto close the gap between theindustrial nations and the rest of the

world. What new global strategycould close this gap and how soon?These are the questions examinedin one of the most importantstudies on development producedin recent years the Pearson Report.Our cover artist, Rolf Ibach,

has sought to symbolize theintercontinental facets of this world

problem, certainly one of the centralissues of our time.

THE

PEARSON

REPORT

This issue is devoted in major part to what has already come to be knownas the "Pearson Report", the most comprehensive analysis to date of economicdevelopment. Entitled "Partners in Development", the report proposes a newbasis for international co-operation and spells out the responsibilities of bothdonor and recipient countries. Its proposals represent a far-reaching pro¬gramme of action, a new global strategy that can transform the present aidframework into one that fits the changing needs of the developing worldin the next two decades.

Two years ago, the crisis of confidence in the effectiveness of develop¬ment aid led George Woods, then President of the World Bank, to suggesta "grand assize" in which an international group "of stature and experiencewould meet together, study the consequences of twenty years of develop¬ment assistance, assess the results, clarify the errors and propose the policiesthat will work better in the future."

In August 1968, the new President of the World Bank, Roberts. McNamara,asked Lester B. Pearson, former Prime Minister of Canada and Nobel PeacePrize winner, to form a Commission to undertake such a study. Three monthslater, the Commission on International Development held its first meetingin Mont Gabriel, Canada.

With Lester Pearson as its chairman, it comprised seven prominent inter¬national figures: Sir Edward Boyle (U.K.), Roberto de Oliveira Campos(Brazil), C. Douglas Dillon (U.S.), Wilfried Guth (Fed. Rep. of Germany),Sir Arthur Lewis (Jamaica), Robert E. Marjolin (France), and Saburo Okita(Japan). After 11 months of intensive investigations, including meetingsin Latin America, Africa, Asia and the Middle East at which some 70 govern¬

ments presented their views, the Commission drew up its findings andrecommendations in a 400-page report which has now been published (Forprices and other details see inside back cover).

The text below is the address Lester Pearson delivered in Washingtonseveral weeks ago before the World Bank and the International MonetaryFund, in which he summarized the major findings of this far-reaching study.Other articles in this issue present excepts and summaries of the conclusionsand proposals in the Pearson Report.

A NEW STRATEGY

FOR GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTby Lester B. Pearson Nobel Peace Prize, 1957

4

LESTER B. PEARSON. Prime Minister ofCanada from 1963 to 1968, was awarded theNobel Peace Prize in 1957. Statesman and

diplomat, he was an adviser to the 1945 SanFrancisco Conference that drew up the U.N.Charter. He also shared In planning that ledto the creation of the Food and AgricultureOrganization and of UNRRA, which helped torestore the economies of war-ravaged coun¬tries and cared for displaced persons. Heled successive delegations to the U.N. Gen¬eral Assembly, of which he was president In1952-53, and took a leading part in most ofthe historic International events of the time.In 1960, he became International executivechairman of the Council on World Tensions.

His books Include 'Democracy in World Poli¬tics" (1955), "Diplomacy In the Nuclear Age"(1959), "Peace in the Family of Man" (1968).

Nlot only is the question ofdevelopment difficult and complex initself ; but we have been examining it

during a tense and difficult period inhuman affairs. The tone of the times

is doubtful and discordant. A decade

which began with the all but totalliquidation of the old colonial orderhas ended with man walking on themoon.

Goals reached often serve only to

illuminate the long, dangerous roadahead. The absence of war has not

brought peace, but an uneasy twilightzone darkened by the shadow of totaldestruction. Concern for the rightsand dignity and freedom of all menhas not only sharpened conflict overhow to protect these essential valuesbut has revealed that there are multi¬

tudes who still do not enjoy them.

The implausible speed of techno¬

logical change has exposed and ren¬dered less tolerable the glacial pace ofsocial transformation. Unprecedented

economic progress in many areas has

CONTINUED PAGE 6

kC Xl

9

5

The eight members of the WorldBank Commission on International

Development, headed by Lester B.Pearson, who drew up the far-rangingstudy, "Partners in Development" .

Lester B.

(Canada)

Pearson

Sir Edward Boyle(U.K.)

GLOBAL STRATEGY (Continued)

Doubts, cynicism and disillusions

6

thrown into sharp relief the depriva¬

tions and flagging hopes of the lessfortunate.

The circumstances in which the

developing nations have tried tomodernize their societies present new

and unprecedented obstacles to theeffort. The results they have achievedcan only be properly analyzed andappreciated against the background ofthese obstacles.

Development is an ancient concept

but one which, in our modern age,has acquired new meaning and pur¬pose. Its pursuit unites two strands

of human thought : the belief in pro¬gress and the conviction that mancan master his destiny.

The roots of modern progress reachback to the origin of human civilization,but its acceleration since the industrial

revolution has had an uneven impactand has created serious strains. This

is true inside the industrialized

countries themselves where whole

regions are left behind in the surgeof rising prosperity. Above all, it hasproduced a wide gap between theindustrialized countries and the rest

of the world.

In an attempt to bridge this gap andto repair centuries of neglect andstagnation, nations untouched by thetechnological revolution have mobilizedtheir resources while the international

community has helped in an unprec¬edented manner by a massive transferof resources.

It is the nature of international co¬

operation for development that itshould have a tentative, gropingquality. These are largely uncharted

areas, and the costs of exploration

are as high as the results are uncertain.Some social and economic enterprises,

often experimental, will yield highreturns; others will not, and will be

pushed aside by more promisingendeavours.

It was not the task of our commis¬

sion to go into all the ramificationsof the development process; but ratherto enquire whether the internationalco-operative effort, derived from this

new feeling of commitment, and dedica¬ted to promoting the growth of low-income areas, warrants continued

heavy expenditures of energy andresources on the part of the richer,developed countries; and, if so, howthe effort can be strengthened andimproved by steps on both sides.

E are convinced that co¬

operation for development is not onlypracticable but is of essential im¬portance. Our study of the experienceof the last two decades has confirmed

that belief. The flow of public andprivate resources from developed to

developing countries, with the resultsachieved, represents an example of

foresight too rarely in evidence inworld affairs. It would be tragic if wenow turned our backs on this effort.

Nevertheless, doubts and fears now

afflict the development effort. Toooften, particularly in the larger donorcountries, the prevalent attitude is oneof weariness, disillusion, and even

rejection. Recipient countries alsohave increasing doubts about someaspects of foreign assistance, which

makes development co-operation moredifficult. Too many in both developedand developing countries are becomingcynical, not only about the effective¬ness of the aid effort, but about the

the validity of the very concept of aid.

Because some donor countries have

attempted to seek political influenceor direct economic gain from aid. sens¬itive leaders in governments of somedeveloping countries see in suchpolicies even if they are designated"aid" a form of neo-colonial inter¬

vention ; not an expression of genuineinternational co-operation, or anauthentic expression of internationalinterdépendance or human solidarity.

In some donor countries, there is

growing opposition or indifference toaid for development as costly, waste¬ful, ineffective and unnecessary. We

try to deal with these objections in

our report.

There are others, however, who

would wholeheartedly support agenuine policy of co-operation and aidfor development, who do not find thisin the current aid policies of somedeveloped countries which they feelto be too closely linked with narrowpolitical and commercial interests ofthe donor; or as something too closelytied to a wrong foreign policy.

The fact is that we are reachinga point of decision, even of crisis,in the history of this novel andnoble adventure in international co¬

operation.

To cope with it, we must face upto, and try to answer, the basic

question: why should countries, strongand affluent it is true, but beset by

Saburo Okita

(Japan)

Robert E. Marjolin(France)

many agonizingly complex domestic,economic and social problems, beconcerned to do anything about theplight of the poor countries? In short:why aid at all?

The first response to this questionis, of course, the moral one. Every

accepted system of values in theworld proclaims the duty of the richand the privileged to help the poorand the deprived.

Every religion, every article ofhumanistic faith, reminds the fortunate

of the responsibility which attendsgood fortune. The growth and spreadof civilization, the building of thecommunities which we have come to

call nations, the common rule of indiv¬idual and national behaviour which

makes possible our continued exist¬

ence in a nuclear age, all these re¬inforce the proposition that it is theduty of those who have resources andskills to share them with those who

have not.

This is a deep and durable reasonfor support of development and fordevelopment aid. Too often, in our

day-to-day struggle for national or per¬sonal interest, we forget the simplepower of this instinct; even thoughwe know how dehumanizing the con¬sequences would be if we were ever

finally to ignore it. However, humanita¬rian and moral concern for others does

not by any means exhaust the casefor aid.

Of equal to some people of greaterimportance are the requirements,

indeed the compulsions , of an in¬creasingly close and interdependentworld community. These requirementsdo not dismiss national interest as the

basis of policy but they insist that itmust include considerations that are

extra-national.

National self-interest is a rational

basis for policy in aid and anythingelse but only if it is enlightened andfarsighted and looks beyond its ownboundaries.

The establishment of a good econo¬mic and political relationship throughco-operation for development is aworthy objective and could be a re¬warding one. Certainly there will bemore development and progress in thericher industrialized countries if the

poorer countries with two-thirds of theworld's population can develop.

IHE reverse is also true. It

becomes more apparent with everypassing day that the interests of eachnation and each man are inseparablefrom those of all others. It is now

almost without reason to ask where

one nation will be twenty-five yearsfrom now without at the same time

asking where the world will be.

The revolution in transportation, incommunications, in production meth¬ods, and in so many other aspectsof life and society has ended foreverthe day when individual countries can

gain lasting advantage through thedefeat or decay of their neighbours.

Recognition of these facts has ledto a new concept of national self-interest, which is not the less impres¬sive because it is so often honoured

in the breach. Basically, it asserts thatthe paramount, long-term interest ofall nations, rich and poor, is in thecreation of a world in which all the

world's resources, human and physical,are put to the greatest possible use.

This is the vision which should in¬

spire all who look beyond the anxietiesof today to the opportunities of to¬morrow.

We have learned in the last twentyyears that this vision can only berealized if the wealthy countries joinin a sustained effort to help the de¬

veloping countries to help themselves.

We no longer ask why rich peopleor rich regions of our homeland areto be taxed to help reduce and removepoverty in underdeveloped areas. Werecognize such commitments as thenatural obligations of community. Thetime has come for a similar national

commitment of assistance to those

developing countries who are them¬selves willing and able to expend theeffort necessary to achieve the eco¬nomic and social progress which thenew technology now makes possible.

Let us be in no doubt about the

intention of these developing countries.For them, development is no longeran option; it is an imperative. Theydo not intend to slumber for more cen¬

turies. Development is part of their

unfinished revolution: another stage intheir struggle for freedom.

The question is not whether develop¬ment will happen. It will. Rather, the

choice is between slow, halting growthin an environment of desperation withdeclining levels of assistance and em¬bittered international relations, orgrowth as part of a positive, concertedcampaign to accelerate and smooth theabsorption of the technological revolu¬tion in the poorer countries, with a

reasonable chance that the spirit ofshared concern and effort will reduce

the frictions and the dangers, andfacilitate and expedite positive results.

If the developing countries have nochoice, developed countries have. Butdo they realize how a choice for dis¬engagement would affect their own "7societies? /

The notion of the basic rights ofman is of the essence in all the civiliz-

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

GLOBAL STRATEGY (Continued)

An uneasy twilight zone

ed societies of the world. It shapes

and informs the values by which thesesocieties govern themselves.

Can the denial of these rights inthe economic and social sphere whichis what we are now dealing with totwo-thirds of the people of the worldbe ignored without damage to the prin¬ciple and interests of the fortunatefew? I think not.

If the rich and the strong of thisworld were to succeed in ignoring theweak and the poor, they would dowell to examine what they themselveshad become.

The division, the disparity, the gap,between the two worlds is widening

and becoming more critical. From this,tragic conclusions are drawn andfrightening results are predicted. Ofcourse, comparative statistics can oftenmake the situation worse than it is,

and give a misleading impression.

It does not make sense, for instance,

to suggest that a ratio of 15 to 1 inthe "per capita" income of twocountries means that the citizens of

one country are living fifteen times aswell as those of the other. There is

much more to the quality of life than

a rising income.

I realize that governments and citi¬zens feel a special responsibility to¬ward their countrymen. But the worldis now too small to confine that res¬

ponsibility within national boundaries.

If the nation-state cannot meet this

test, if it cannot co-operate with otherstates to ensure certain basic social and

economic conditions as the minimum

entitlement of all men, it may dis¬appear and it will deserve to do so.

Humanity is quite ruthless in dealingwith social and political forms andinstitutions which have outlived their

usefulness.

These are not new truths. We have

recognized them for years and haveaccepted, in principle, their implica¬tions. Indeed, there has been nothingmore encouraging since the end of thelast war, than the growing acceptanceof a commitment to help in this historictask of world development. Are weto abandon it now?

It could be for the evidence grows

that there is a weakening of the poli¬tical will to carry on with the commit¬ment in some, including the richest,of the developed countries. Some rea¬sons for this weariness and weakness

of will I have mentioned. Others stem

from expecting too much too soon;from forgetting there is no such thingas instant development.

Still others are traceable to wrongimpressions of how much aid has been

provided for development, as distinctfrom shorter term political and militaryobjectives. It is no more sensible to

criticize aid provided in support ofimmediate political or military goals onthe grounds that it has not resultedin development than it is to criticizeshipments of instruments of war forthe same failure.

To these things must be added agreat misunderstanding about whathas, in fact, happened in developingcountries; about what has been achiev¬

ed and what can be achieved in the

future if there is the will to sustain

' .;* \v^-/^.-

I

8

.CONOMIC statistics alone

do not give a true comparison betweenthe living standards and satisfactionsof a tenant in a high-rise housingdevelopment in a packed and pollutedmegalopolis and those of a villagein sunny Ceylon.

Nevertheless, after making all theseallowances, it is a frightening prospect,and could be a tragic one, if a smallminority of the nations of the worldmarch into the space age, exploiting itspotential and at least having the oppor¬tunity of solving its problems, while thegreat majority are denied entrance tothis new world or find such entrance

intolerably delayed.

Of course, none of this argues thatwe must now have or should have,

world government and that the nation-state should disappear. On the con¬trary, it is clear that the nation-statehas particularly vital functions at thisjuncture in history.

What it does mean is that there

must be a great concern in all nationsfor the fate of all other nations, andthat this must reflect itself in more

effective co-operation, including co¬operation for development.

>

ï0)

Z

the development effort. Look at therecord of growth in Gross NationalProduct. This is not by any means acomplete measure, for development ismuch more than G.N. P. As Gunnar

Myrdal says, "development is themovement of the whole social systemupwards".

But figures for G.N. P. do indicate theprogress which has been made. Theaverage annual rate of G.N. P. for alldeveloping countries between 1950 and1968 has been a remarkable 4.8 percent. Taking the 1960s alone it nowappears that the United Nationsdevelopment target of five per centper year will be met.

Even if we take income per head,the record is still historically impres¬

sive. Some forty-one developingcountries have, since 1955, managedaverage growth in income "per capita"of two per cent or more for a ten-yearperiod. This is roughly what thedeveloped countries of Western Europeand North America achieved in the

century starting in 1850.

It is even more encouraging thatthese forty-one countries, about a thirdof all the developing countries, are

not confined to any geographical area,topography, race, religion, or popula¬tion size. They are equally divided bet¬ween Africa, Latin America and Asia,

and they include some of the largestcountries as well as some of the

smallest.

I do not claim, of course, that this

achievement can simply be laid at thedoor of foreign aid and technical assis¬tance. Of course not. At least 85 percent of the whole investment effort has

been achieved by the developingpeople themselves. Aid in capital andexpertise has often been a catalystof local action. As a source of scarce

foreign exchange, it has frequentlybeen indispensable.

But the hard grinding work andsaving that underlie development, par¬ticularly in countries with desperatelylow standards of living this has been,as it must be, accomplished by thepeople themselves.

It is not easy to cast our mindsback twenty years. It reminds us oftoo many of our mistakes. But it isworth recalling that doubt was wide¬spread in the mid-40s whether therecould be any development of signifi

cance in countries which began withthe enormous backlog of poverty,illiteracy, inefficiency and instabilitywhich characterized so many of thedeveloping countries.

Those who doubted the possibilityof progress were wrong. Under¬development is not necessarily a vi¬cious circle; it is an evil that man

has the power to eradicate. To useProfessor Arthur Lewis' pungent phrase,underdevelopment is "a lickable pro¬position". But to "lick" it, a greaterand better managed effort for interna¬tional co-operative assistance is re¬

quired and we won't have a hundred

years to do it.

The record is all the more Impressiveif we recollect that over sixty newcountries gained formal independencein the twenty years following theSecond World War. They have addedtheir voices to a clamorous protestagainst the inequity of human con¬ditions.

Which of us, knowing the conflict¬ing political, tribal and cultural pres¬sures, as well as the economic weak¬

ness and lack of political experiencewhich afflicted new developing coun-

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

*

*£Sm\

GLOBAL STRATEGY (Continued)

tries, would have dared to predict thatthey would pass through the crucialearly stages of political independencewith, on the whole, only limited, though

highly publicized, turmoil and withstrengthened political frameworks? Ittook great faith and great foresight inthe new countries to do this. Fortu¬

nately, there were also men of thesame foresight and faith who wereprepared to help them by a massivetransfer of resources, material and

human.

Those qualities are now to be testedonce more, for we stand at a critical

point in the development effort.

The figures indicating progress areencouraging. They show what can bedone. But against the needs and themagnitude of the problem and againstthe present mood of disengagementthey give little ground for optimism andnone whatever for complacency.

D

10

ESPITE great over-all pro¬

gress, the impact made on the povertyof individuals comprising nearly two-thirds of the world's population is stillpitifully small. Living conditions inmost developing areas remain wellbelow the standard of Europe beforethe industrial revolution. Well over

half of the citizens of developing coun¬tries still must survive on average

annual incomes below $100 a year.

Many of these countries, includingsome of the largest and poorest, havefallen considerably below the averagerate of growth. With the rapid rise inpopulation the improvement in incomeper head is often imperceptible.People live longer, but often not anybetter.

Many more children are in school,but the education they are receivingis often irrelevant to their surroundings

and their country's needs. There areimmense problems of uncontrolledurban migration and unemployment.Even the encouraging results of the"green revolution" in agriculture havecreated new problems as well as re¬moved old ones.

These are but a few of the problemsahead. Yet, we now have the one

indispensable element with whichpolicy-makers in the 1940s were notblessed. We know, as they did not

know, that development programmescan work, that development can, in

fact, be induced where but only wherethere is the will and the work. We

must now ask how we can use this

knowledge for a new, accepted, andmore systematic approach to thedevelopment problems of the 1970sand beyond.

Tragic consequences will surelyfollow tomorrow our failure to

act today'

W.E strongly believe thatdevelopment must, in the future evenmore than it has in the past be an

active and a genuine partnership bet¬ween rich nations and poor. It is

futile to hope for the day when eitherside can stand off at a distance and

provide or receive large quantities ofaid without fully understanding andparticipating in the process by whichtheir allocation and use is decided.

No country has the right to intervenein another's policy-making, but anycountry or agency which transfersresources to another country doeshave a right to be heard and to beinformed about decisions which basic¬

ally affect the development it is helpingto support.

This partnership, which must beseparated as much as possible from

the vagaries of day-to-day politics, isbasic to a sustained relationshipcentred upon long-term developmentobjectives which is the only properbasis for a systematic approach to theproblem. It must cover not only theofficial resource flows, which are the

responsibility of governments andwhich, strictly speaking, are aloneentitled to be called "aid"; it must also

include policies with respect to tradeand private capital flows which can beequally important to the growth of thedeveloping countries.

These private flows, of course (theymake up now nearly half the total flowof financial resources to developingcountries) are no burden on the tax¬

payer. They may be a risk as well asa profit for the investor, but the

burden after allowing for the veryreal development value of the loan is

on those who have to do the repaying.That burden is now heavy in certaindeveloping countries and is increasingin some to the point where debt ser¬

vicing is exceeding new lending.

Second, it is clear that official aid

should increasingly be directed toeconomic development, as opposed tothe many shorter term objectives towhich it has been so often directed in

the past.

There are, of course, countries where

rapid development must await basicand long-term improvements in socialconditions, but for the great majorityof countries a concerted effort at

development which produces clear and

measurable progress should now bepossible and should be the basis forself-sustaining growth as well as forthe social progress which must not beseparated from it.

Additional aid, in short, should be

aimed at a clear and tangible objec¬tive and allocated according to explicit

criteria wh^ph emphasize, above all,the economic performance of the reci¬pient but do not ignore social change.

We feel that the over-all target forthe 1970s should be an average annualrate of growth of 6 per cent for thedeveloped world as a whole...

We understand and accept that thiswill be an average rate of growth, andthat some countries will do better and

some worse. Nevertheless, we believe

that this global target could be of greatuse in establishing a bench-mark bywhich progress can be measured andsuccess defined.

We also strongly believe that asimple growth rate and a global targetis not enough. To be satisfactory toboth developed and developing coun¬tries, aid must be planned to help aneconomy reach the point where growthis self-sustaining, and can be main¬tained without foreign financing onconcessional terms...

s,I OME of the machinery ne¬cessary for this purpose is already inexistence. We are encouraged by thework of the consortia, of the consulta¬

tive groups, and of regional organiza¬tions, which combine donors and

recipients in a regular forum in whichboth past performance and future aidrequirements are reviewed.

We believe that this sort of systemshould come into being in those count¬ries and regions where it is not nowthe rule. To this end we recommend

that the World Bank and the regionalbanks not only take the lead instrengthening these institutions wherethey exist, but also in helping to createnew ones where they are needed.There must be greater co-ordinationand broader consultation on all aspectsof the development process espe¬cially in the field if the aid relationshipis to be effective and satisfactory.

Both the concept of partnership em¬bracing all relevant resource flows, andthe allocation of additional aid princi¬pally according to agreed standards of

CONTINUED PAGE 12

The production of electric power has multiplied by seven In Asia,five in Africa, and four in Latin America in the last twenty years.Although in many parts of the developing world demand stillruns ahead of supply, power production has met the needsof rapidly growing industries, provided irrigation for agricultureand a vastly improved service for urban consumers, and hasmade possible a start on rural electrification.

Aid from the World Bank and Its associated

organizations for African development has increasedconsiderably in recent years. By March 1969,loans, credits and investments totalled over$2,000 million. They have helped to build roads,railways and pipelines, to construct hydro-electricinstallations, to improve and expand schoolingand technical training, and to develop industrialproduction and mining. Photo shows huge moundsof manganese ore in Gabon, where mining ofrich deposits has been extensively developed.

GLOBAL STRATEGY (Continued)

Is l*yo of G.N.P. too much

to ask the rich countries?

performance, underline the need fora much larger multilateral element inthe international aid system. The pre¬sent flow of concessional finance from

multilateral institutions comprises onlyabout 11 per cent of the total flowof official development aid. We be¬lieve that, by 1975, it should makeup at least 20 per cent.

Multilateral agencies enjoy specialadvantages for conducting an objectiveassessment of both feasibility and per¬formance, as well as the allocation of

aid, but, to play the bigger role we

12

visualize for them, they must be effi¬cient in organization and administra¬tion.

This does not mean, of course, that

there should be any diminution inbilateral aid. Indeed, our recommenda¬tions would result in two-thirds of the

increased flow going through bilateralchannels.

We particularly suggest a strongerrole for the International Develop¬

ment Association (I.D.A.). We believethat among existing organizations,I.D.A. is in the best position to exert

FINANCING DEVELOPMENT

Financing development is the business of three international organizations thatform the World Bank Group the World Bank, the International Finance Corporationand the International Development Association and of the United Nations Develop¬ment Programme.

THE WORLD BANK (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) hasacquired a formidable experience of development finance since it made its first loanin 1947. From early support of power and transport projects, it has diversified itsoperations to include financing of agriculture, industry and education. The Bank(110 member countries) also helps member states to draw up development programmes,advises on economic policy, assists in planning projects and studies developmentproblems.

THE INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION (IFC), established in 1956, assistsmember countries (today 91) to develop the private sector of their economies by loansand investments not secured by government guarantee. From financing mining andmanufacturing, IFC has entered new fields: food-processing, distribution services andtourism.

THE INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION (IDA), set up in 1960,supplies capital on especially favourable terms to the least prosperous countries. Itsfunds come mainly from contributions by 18 more prosperous governments of its102 member countries and from the World Bank's own net earnings.

During the past ten years, the World Bank Group has invested about $1,000 milliona year in development.

THE UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP) was set up in 1965by a merger of two existing U.N. development operations the Expanded Programme ofTechnical Assistance and the Special Fund to enable the entire U.N. family to respondmore effectively to the needs of the low-income countries. The world's largest multi¬national source of pre-investment assistance and technical co-operation, UNDP opensthe way for large-scale capital investment: more than $1,900 million in developmentinvestment has followed 37 major UNDP projects undertaken at a total cost of only$43 million.

leadership in the effort to establishcriteria for the allocation of aid which

emphasize economic performance,rather than the political relationshipsand historical accidents which bear

little or no relation to developmentneeds or performance. We also be¬lieve that I.D.A. can be central to the

establishment of new co-ordinated

machinery designed to pull bilateraland multilateral instruments togetherinto a more coherent and regularizedadministrative system.

With progress and improvement inthe allocation and organization of aid,we recommend a substantial increase

in its volume. Specifically, we believethat the already agreed objective ofpublic and private transfer from de¬veloped to developing countries of1 per cent of Gross National Productshould be confirmed.

We do not believe, however, thatit is realistic to assume that all

countries can reach the 1 per centtarget at once even though they haveaccepted it in principle. For somethe distance to be covered is too largeand the sequence of appropriation,commitment and expenditure too long.

We believe, however, that it is both

possible and necessary to reach orexceed this goal by 1975. All develop¬ed countries should accept this dead¬line; announce the steps they intendto take to achieve it, and reportperiodically on the progress made.

Perhaps even more important, we

believe that the flow of official develop¬ment aid, the only kind which reallyinvolves a burden on the taxpayer,should reach 0.7 per cent of the Gross

National Product by 1975. The addi¬tional average annual amount, about$1,500 million, required to reach thistarget is modest enough in relationto the annual increase of Gross Natio¬

nal Product in the developed countries,which will be about $120,000 million,

but we recognize that it may causedifficulty for some countries. Never¬theless, we firmly believe that nosmaller transfers can secure the inter¬

national development objective whichall seek.

It is not enough that there be moreaid. It must also be better aid, more

effectively organized and administered.It must be suited to the needs of sound¬

ly conceived development plans,whether this will require project or

non-project financing. It must be in¬creasingly untied so that the admini¬strative and economic evils of tyingare no longer visited upon the reci¬pients. It must be accompanied moreand more with integrated technicalassistance which provides the know¬ledge and skill necessary to make useof the funds provided. Our reportcontains many recommendations on

this matter of quality and I cannot overemphasize its importance.

This emphasis on official aid in noway means that we minimize the im¬portance of private flows. On thecontrary, we feel that private foreigninvestment and the transfer of know-

how are important and need to bestimulated. We make recommenda¬

tions to this end for improving theclimate that will take into account the

legitimate interests of both the foreigninvestors and the preoccupations ofthe recipient country.

The vital importance of trade fordevelopment is also underlined in ourreport. A continued vigorous expan¬sion of world trade is a basic condition

for rapid international development.Many developing countries must be¬come more outward looking and com¬petitive, but the developed countriesalso must review their trade policiesto remove obstacles to the expansionof the trade of the developing countries.

The ideas I have suggested areheavily dependent on the success ofanother effort; that to control the rapidgrowth in population. This growth islargely due to the fact that the deathrate has gone down not that the birthrate has gone up. Nevertheless, it isincreasingly clear that nothing we doin the development field in low-incomecountries will be of lasting significanceunless and until there is a substantial

slowing of the rate of population growthwhich now threatens in many countriesto overwhelm all other progress.

Population is still not an easy subjectto discuss though there has been muchmore candour in talk about it in recent

years. It remains, in our view, a matterof family and national decision in whichno outside authority ought to inter¬vene. However, it is so importantto the future of not only the develop

ment effort but the entire world that

no aid-providing agency can ignoreperformance in this area any more thanit can ignore performance in any other.

We are aware that economic and

social progress is in the long run thebest way of stabilizing population

growth. But we haven't a long runany longer. There is a populationexplosion and immediate action isneeded.

We would hope that the trend whichhas already appeared and seems tobe gathering force in developingcountries toward more concern with

family planning will gain even moremomentum in the years ahead.

These, then, are some of the basic

ideas of our report. In them, we havetried to balance the goal of self-sustained development in the low-income world by the end of this cen¬tury, with co-operative policy and actionfor aid based on a genuine partnership.

To those who have grasped the visionof balanced development in a worldcommunity, with all that this holds forthe future, but do not appreciate the

practical difficulties now in the way,the immediate steps suggested in ourreport will appear too timid.

Those who do not accept our assess¬ment of the problem may find themunrealistic and unnecessary. We, our¬selves, believe that these recommen¬

dations are practicable and attainableif and I know how big an "if'can be

there is the will to that end; a will

which will be shown on both sides of 1 Qthe development front. I U

We are not so presumptuous as toassume that our investigation and our

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

GLOBAL STRATEGY (Continued)

report reveals new truths. Our hope ismore modest. It is that our findings

may provoke the world-wide reconsi¬deration we believe the subject nowneeds; that, in the words of Mr. McNa-

mara, it may "stimulate discussion anddebate and prompt action on theissues in the widest possible forum;

among governments, among interna¬tional agencies, among public and pri¬vate organizations of every size anddescription which are concerned withwhat I believe history will regard asthe most crucial task that confronted

our century: the orderly developmentof mankind itself in an era of revolu¬

tionary technological change."

We are encouraged by Mr. McNa-mara's pledge given "to undertake acareful analysis of each of the com¬mission's recommendations which in

any way bears upon the (Bank's) workand to submit these analyses to theBank's directors with recommendations

for appropriate action."

In the policies and action to meetwhat is, in fact, a crisis in International

development, .indifference rather thanopposition is the greatest obstacle toprogress.

T,

14

HE time has come for all

men of good will to recognize thatthis indifference, or the kind of mild

support that gives development assis¬tance a very low priority, is not goodenough to meet the challenge. Aidfor development must be given a highpriority even in the company of guns,butter and outer space. History leavesno choice, in the coming decade, todeveloped and developing countriesalike, but to face together with honestyand energy the difficult, frustrating,but vitally important problems that arecaused by the grossly uneven patternof world growth.

Basically, what we have to offeras a rationale for action to change thispattern is our vision of a world com¬munity in which all peoples can parti¬cipate with dignity and self-respect;in which the deprived and disadvan¬taged will join the mainstream of tech¬nological and social progress.

We can only ask those who do notshare this vision to look ahead for

25 years and try to determine whatthe world will look like then, if the

division into the rich and the poor, thedeveloped and the stagnant societiescontinues and widens, as it will cer¬

tainly do if we do not work togetherto prevent it. Then think back to the

measures we could have taken, and

thereby have avoided the tragic con¬sequences that will surely follow to¬morrow our failure to act today.

THE STRATEG

IN A NUTSH ELLThe following are the 30 major goals and

recommendations of the Pearson Commission Report

on international development:

IN THE FIELD

OF TRADE Vigorous expansion of world trade is needed for rapid inter¬national development, with developing countries becomingmore outward-looking and competitive.

Developed countries should abolish import duties and excessiveexcise taxes on primary commodities produced exclusively bythe developing nations. Developing countries should be assuredof an increasing share of markets for their agricultural productswhich may also be produced in the developed countries.

Financing should be available to help poor countries meet short¬falls in export earnings.

Quantitative restrictions on manufactured imports fromdeveloping countries should be abolished during the 1970s.Trade between the developing countries themselves must begreatly expanded, partly through new mutual tariff concessionagreements.

Regional development banks should be more strongly supportedand they should extend export credits to developing countries.

International organizations should study the need for inter¬national payments arrangements to facilitate trade amongdeveloping countries, and they should negotiate mutual andwide-ranging tariff concessions.

Financial support is needed for stores of agricultural productsto meet periods of lean years and to stabilize prices.

FOREIGN

INVESTMENTDeveloping countries should remove impediments to foreigninvestment and assure stability and improved administrativeprocedures affecting foreign firms.

Foreign investors in developing countries should contributeto manpower training, local industry and national growth.

Developing countries should not grant foreign investorsexcessive protection and tax concessions.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

STRATEGY IN A NUTSHELL (Continued)

ECONOMICGROWTH

International organizations and creditor governments shouldset up an "early warning system" to let developing countriesknow they are nearing the danger zone of excessive debtburden.

Private foreign investment is not an alternative to public aid.Official aid to finance roads, schools and hospitals is aprerequisite to private investment.

Increases in aid should be clearly aimed at helping the develop¬ing countries to reach a path of sustained growth. The targetof the 1970s is to increase average annual GNP at least 6 percent per year. Countries that reach this level should be self-reliant by the end of the century.

Aid increases in the future should be closely linked to theeconomic objectives and development performance of thecountries receiving aid. In return, poor countries should expectcommitments of support from rich countries.

VOLUME

OF AIDThe U.N. target of foreign aid by wealthier nations equalling1 per cent of their gross national product should be reachedby 1975 at the latest. Public or government aid in the form ofgrants or low or interest-free loans should make up 0.70 per centof the gross national product by 1975 and in no case later than1980.

Food aid programmes will have to be replaced by other formsof aid as developing countries become more self-reliant infood production.

DEBT RELIEF Debt relief should be recognized as a legitimate form of aid.To avoid future debt crises, aid terms should be more lenient

and uniform among donor groups.

AID ADMIN

ISTRATIONForeign aid donors and receiving countries should meet thisyear to cut through administrative red tape and set up three-year programmes instead of annual budgets.

There should be less strings attached to aid-giving obligingdeveloping countries to buy goods in donor countries. Donornations should grant more leeway allowing their funds to beused for buying in other developing countries.

TECHNICAL

ASSISTANCE

16

Rapid growth during the 1960s of more than 10 per cent ayear has created shortcomings in this form of aid. It has oftenfailed to meet actual requirements of developing countries,especially in agriculture and education, and has not beenadequately integrated with capital assistance.

»OPULATIONCONTROL

HD TO

EDUCATION

AND

RESEARCH

MULTI¬

LATERAL AID

National and international corps of technical assistants shouldbe able to make a career of their work, with help from bothdonor countries and private institutions.

Family planning should be available to all. No child shoulbe born unwanted. Birth rate control must be stressed by

both donors and recipients when planning aid programmes.

A Commissioner for Population should be appointed by theUnited Nations to help direct population control programmesin the various U.N. agencies.

The World Bank in consultation with the World Health Orga¬nization should launch an international programme for themobilization of research resources in this field.

Greater resources should be made available for educationa

research and experimentation in new teaching methods indeveloping countries to increase their capacity to absorb,adapt and develop scientific and technical knowledge.

A share of research and development resources in indus¬trialized countries should be oriented towards problems indeveloping countries. Rich countries should help in settingup international and regional centres for research and develop¬ment in fields such as tropical agriculture, extension techniques,education, and urban planning.

International organizations must exert greater leadership anddirection to make development assistance a genuinely inter¬national effort.

The share of multilateral aid should be increased from the

present 10 per cent of official public aid to 20 per cent by 1975.The International Development Association (IDA), the WorldBank's easy-loan financing agency, should become a pivotalorganization in multilateral aid efforts.

IDA should almost quadruple its work by 1975 with nationalcontributions reaching a total of $1,500 million compared witha level of $400 million at present. Regional development banksmust also receive increased support.

The president of the World Bank should call a conference during1970 of all U.N. and other international, multilateral and bilateral

agencies to work toward co-ordinating their efforts, nowlacking direction, so as to create a coherent international aid

system. | 1 J

TAKING

THE WIND

BY

THE ROOT

WMV^MMl

In regions where soil is shallowand vulnerable to erosion by windand floods, tree roots, like friendlyhands, help to sustain and stabilizethe topsoil. When forests are cutdown indiscriminatingly the soil isswept away, leaving a bare erodedlandscape. Over the centuries thishas happened in Algeria to thedetriment of farming and also ofdams which are quickly filled with siltcarried in by flood waters. Tohalt the devastation of its arable land,

Algeria, with aid from FAO, haslaunched a big reafforestationprogramme in which young men andwomen will help to restore thecountry's vanished forests.Above, ploughing up land nearBatna, Algeria, where foresters willplant new trees (above left). Left,ranks of newly planted trees standguard on the edge of scarred,eroded land. Right, nursery foryoung trees where millions of pinesand eucalyptus saplings are raisedfor reafforestation projects.

Kaleidoscopeof the

Third World

l

20

HE phrase "less developedcountries" is used to refer to almost

100 nations, poor in money income butdiverse in culture, economic condition,and social and political structure.Consequently, the first implication ofconcern for their development isrecognition of their immense diversity.For example:

Low-income countries include India

with 530 million people, South Koreawith 30 million, Costa Rica with1.5 million, and Gabon with 500,000.

India has 17 states, the largest withmore people than any Europeancountry; Gabon has fewer people thana single borough of London.

Large size entails complex problemsof administration and political cohesionas well as large markets and potentialeconomies of scale; small countriesoften present a significantly differentpicture, with problems centering onlimited markets, shortages of skills,and weak bargaining power.

Population is growing rapidly inmost of the developing countries, butthere are great differences in socialand economic problems where thereare 1,200 people per square mile, asin East Pakistan, as opposed to wherethere are 26, as in Brazil. Where newlands can be opened up, at whatevercost, the psychology is not the sameas where fixed amounts of land are

subdivided into ever less adequateparcels.

The political systems of thedeveloping countries range from fullyparticipatory democracy through one-party systems to dictatorships. Theprivate sector is heavily relied upon insome economies, and the publicsector in others, with a majority ofeconomies somewhere in between,

except for public utilities and heavyindustries which are usually owned bythe state.

As political consciousness increasesand economic power is diversified,traditional values give way to newpatterns of behaviour, reflected in aneven richer kaleidoscope of politicalpatterns and economic policies.

The diversity among value systemsin low-income countries is at least as

great as in the industrialized world.Some societies are as old as the

Mexican or Indian; some were onlyrecently freed from colonialism; someare committed to rapid industrializationwhile others have yet to chart a cleareconomic course; some societies haveno choice but to devote most of their

energies to composing racial andtribal differences to achieve viable

statehood. Neither the acquisition ofwealth nor the regimentation of themachine are universally admired oraccepted.

The capacity to absorb political andeconomic change also varies widely,with the social flexibility, the colonialhistory, the reservoir of skilledmanpower, and a host of othervariables. The administrative capacityessential for coping with change isgreater in Latin America and Asia thanin Africa. However, even when thereis good administrative capacity, as inthe Asian subcontinent, it may proveunable to move from traditional law

and order functions to promotion ofchange without loss of efficiency.

There are also great variations inincome level and economic potential.Argentina has an income of more than$780 per head, India about $90 andseveral countries less than $60. Mostof the people in some countries liveon the brink of subsistence, while inothers the minimum amenities are, orcan be, assured.

There are similarly vast differencesin economic structure. There are

many economies which place heavy

reliance on foreign trade, but also afew, like India, which depend onlymarginally on trade. Such countriesas Zambia and Venezuela have largemineral sectors; a few, such as HongKong and Mexico, have substantialindustrial sectors; but the greatmajority are overwhelmingly dependenton agriculture.

There are equally sharp differencesin patterns of ownership and incomedistribution. Economic potential is, ofcourse, difficult to assess accurately;discoveries of oil reserves, gas fields,or new uses for old metals continue to

prove earlier forecasts fallacious.Still, given our present knowledge,Turkey is reasonably well endowedwith raw materials and a temperateclimate Chad is not. India has all

the physical resources of a greatpower some countries hardly seemto have the basic requisites fornational survival.

Thus development problems arevastly different from country tocountry. National objectives aredetermined by past experiences andby cultural and political history, filteredperhaps imperfectly through the rulers'desires.

CONTINUED PAGE 22

Latin America's income per head hasgrown substantially since 1945, slightlyexceeding the average growth ratesfor Africa and South Asia.

Manufacturing has been the mostrapidly growing sector, expandingby an annual average of 6 per cent forthe region as a whole. Right, nylonprocessing plant in Colombia's largestsynthetic fibre producing factorywhich recently launched a $10.2 millionproject to raise production by 70 percent. The International Finance

Corporation, the World Bank affiliate thatinvests In private enterprise indeveloping countries, has provided$1.2 million for the project.

KALEIDOSCOPE OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT (Continued)

The role of governments may bewidespread or minimal. They mayinherit extensive or negligible infra¬structure and administrative skills;their people may be politically unstableor mature; they may have a traditionof thrift and industriousness, or theymay still need to build these traits.

Despite this diversity, a commonpurpose emerges in nearly everycountry: to reduce poverty; to ensureminimum levels of education, health,housing, and food to every citizen; toincrease control over nature by thenation and the individual; to broadenthe opportunity for choice.

The balance of the past hasbeen upset in many ways by newdesires, reduced mortality rates, newtechnology and the material objectivesfind new expressions as they mergewith old and varied cultures. One

would not expect the ascendancy ofnew aspirations to be a smooth orsilent process, and it has not been.

In most countries development hasresulted only through constant strugglebetween modernizing and traditionalelements.

22

LESS than twenty yearsago, much technology, some patience,and a great deal of money were thoughtto combine all the ingredients for over¬coming poverty. Most colonial powersbelieved that their colonies for manydeveloping countries were not yetindependent would need decadesof assistance before they had theeconomic and administrative capacityfor statehood. Talk of rapid progressafter independence was consideredvisionary.

In the developing countries, on theother hand, elimination of colonial

rule was almost everywhere seen asopening the way to early prosperity.The nature of the obstacles that

colonialism imposed were, naturally,seen differently in different countries.

To some it was a system that keptthem producing agricultural productsand minerals while denying them thebenefits of industrialization; to othersits most objectionable element wasits protection of foreign industrialundertakings, which could, afterindependence, be nationalized orcompelled by regulations to conformto national interests.

Of course, concern about un¬

favourable conditions of foreigndemand for traditional agriculturalproducts was not limited to newlyindependent developing countries, norwere there no similarities between

the general postures of low-incomecountries on matters of economic

policy.

Most such countries emphasizeddomestic, import-substituting industryas both politically necessary andeconomically desirable; most believedIn direct governmental action andownership of industry as an essential

ingredient of national planning andincome redistribution; and most gener¬ally ignored the importance to growthof increases in general productivity.

Economic development was oftenseen at first as something undertakenby the elite for the masses; the needto engage the energies of the peoplewas hardly considered important evenwhere in theory their participation wasconsidered desirable. Market forces,private ownership, and profit wereoften distrusted in part because theywere associated with the spread ofcolonialism, in part because the rulinggroups came from the military oradministrative elite. Those who were

concerned to distribute income more

equitably had no experience oftaxation, public expenditures, andgeneralized incentives as instrumentsof policy.

The role of government in promotingdevelopment was often misinterpreted.Particularly in the former colonialareas it was seen as an extension of

the centralized, control-oriented colo¬nial rule. Few fully appreciated thehuman resources needed for rapidgrowth, the growing pressure forsocial services, particularly in towns,the importance of more and bettereducation and better health facilities.

The donor countries also exhibited

imperfect understanding of theseproblems. The former colonial powerscontinued financial and technical

assistance to the newly independentstates, and some assistance began toflow from other donors, but develop¬ment did not become an importantfocus of assistance until the latter partof the 1950s.

Initially, it was assumed thattechnical assistance to transfer skills

and technology and commercial typesof financing was adequate. Evenwhere soft loans or grants wereavailable, e.g., from the United States,there was little understanding of thescale of problem being addressed, themagnitude of the necessary social andpolitical change, or the time it wouldtake. Nor were the impact of tradepolicy or the terms of assistance givenmuch thought.

u NDERSTANDING of de¬

velopment and its effect on the totaleconomy and society has graduallyimproved, but only in this decade hasthe improved understanding foundexpression in policy. The process isstill far from complete.

These oversimplifications led bothindustrial and low-income countries to

overemphasize aid flows and percapita GNP (Gross National Product)growth, a habit which is only slowlygiving way to the realization that theimpact of aid flows on GNP dependslargely on the efficiency with whichthe recipient uses domestic resourcesand on the over-all economic and

GROWTH IN GROSS NAT

PER CAPITA INCOME

(1967)

under $100

under $200

under $300

under $500

over $500

Source : World Bank

social policies which he pursues.

These policies have other goalse.g., equality of personal or regional

income distribution, or investment ineducation and social services which

sometimes must be met at the expenseof a lower rate of growth. There alsois an increasing understanding that aidflows may be offset, or growth limited,by unfavourable international tradeand monetary policies.

Past approaches are gradually beingmodified by the experience of twodecades.

Many developing countries nowrecognize that the economy must bemore outward-looking; that exportearnings, not aid, must be the principalsource of foreign exchange.

It is also increasingly clear that the

lONAL PRODUCT AND LEVEL OF PER CAPITA INCOME IN 69 COUNTRIES

GNP GROWTH RATE, ANNUAL AVERAGE (1960-1967)

Above 6% 5-6 % 4-5 % 3-4% Below 3%

- Guinea

Malawi

Pakistan

EthiopiaTanzania

India

Nigeria

Burma

Congo(Dem. Rep.)

Haiti

Mali

Somalia

Rep. of KoreaMauritaniaThailand

Bolivia

SyriaU.A.R.

Ecuador

KenyaPhilippinesZambia

CeylonCongo

(Brazzaville)Morocco

Sudan

Uganda

Cameroon

Indonesia

China (Taiwan)El SalvadorIran

Ivory CoastJordan

Honduras

IraqMalaysiaPapua and

New Guinea

Turkey

Brazil

Colombia

Paraguay

Dominican

RepublicGhanaLiberia

Tunisia

AlgeriaSenegal

NicaraguaPeru

Costa Rica

Guatemala

Gabon GuyanaJamaica

CyprusGreece

Israel

LibyaMexico

Panama

SpainTrinidad and

TobagoYugoslavia

Chile

Lebanon

Venezuela

ArgentinaUruguay

agricultural sector, which containsmost of the people, is capable of rapidgrowth and that promoting growth inthis sector is necessary to createdemand for domestic industries, to

provide industrial raw materials, andto fuel the drive for greater exports.

Even in the countries most committed

to public ownership, increasingattention is now being paid tomobilizing and allocating resourcesthrough individual incentives andinitiative. The public sector retainsits generally broad responsibility inutilities, transport, natural resources,and basic industries, but there is a

greater willingness to work throughthe market and use profit incentives,within constraints dictated by socialand political objectives.

Industrialized countries, on the otherhand, increasingly understand that theframework for development in today'sdeveloping countries Is immenselydifferent from that In Europe andNorth America during the IndustrialRevolution. Few cared then about

urban slums, child labour, poorworking conditions, and abysmalwages. Who does not care now?

Political consciousness has created

demands for public services andequitable income distribution which didnot occur in the industrialized coun¬

tries until a much higher level of in¬come and productivity had beenreached.

The demographic situation is alsovery different and imposes high costs.The equilibrium between deaths and

births has been disturbed abruptly andhas accelerated population growthrates while migration to new lands isseverely restricted.

Finally, the very technology whichthe developing countries inherit, andwhich makes rapid growth possible,also brings problems e.g., manpowertraining, maintenance, and a verymuch higher capital cost per workerwhich the industrial countries were

able to solve gradually. Educated tosome extent by their attempts toeliminate the vestiges of poverty intheir own societies, industrialized

countries are beginning to understandthe social and political complexities ofdevelopment.

Most important, they now understandthat there is no single strategy or

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

23

KALEIDOSCOPE (Continued)

universal prescription for developmentwhich is valid In all countries at all

times; many combinations of policiesand priorities are both possible andnecessary.

Some, but by no means all, of thisnew awareness has been reflected in

the aid programmes by which donorsgive meaning to their concern for thefate of the poorer countries. Externalassistance has been vital in manycountries to alleviate shortages ofskills, to make possible higher rates ofsavings and investment, to improvesocial services, and to accelerate, therate of growth.

But aid has also served a second

critical purpose. When provided inproper ways, it has afforded low-income countries some of the flexibi¬

lity necessary to undertake such boldpolicy changes as devaluation andliberalization of restrictions on imports.(Of course, the failure of aid to growin recent years has made it more andmore difficult to mobilize adequatesupport for significant policy changein countries where a lack of foreignexchange has been the first constrainton growth.)

|N Africa, where foreignexchange is not yet the majorconstraint, the volume of aid and theaid relationship nevertheless play animportant role in economic policyformulation.

Even where the importance of localefforts and policies has been recog¬nized, however, discussions betweendonors and recipients have often beenless than satisfactory. Sometimesjoint analysis of the problem has ledto effective joint action, but oftencommitment to development is lacking

on one side or on both or is

misinterpreted.

Problems range from the unwilling¬ness of recipients to interfere withvested interests to donor refusal to

assist potentially competitive sectorsor to open their markets to newproducts. Often, too, donor andrecipient differ about the importanceor political sensitivity of an act, or thespeed with which there is a likelihoodof it being accomplished.

Finally, political priorities of bothrecipients and donors are oftenindefinite and certainly changeable.Recipient countries have receivedconflicting policy advice from differentdonors, or from the same institution in

different years. Their priorities aresubject to the normal political press¬ures, and settling and acting on themis difficult.

Thus, while attention has beensuccessfully focused on developmentpolicies and the support they require,the mechanism for implementing ajoint analysis is still, with some notableexceptions, far from adequate.

An answer to the population dilemma

N.I O other phenomenon casts

a darker shadow over the prospectsfor international development than thestaggering growth of population. It isevident that it is a major cause of thelarge discrepancy between rates ofeconomic improvement in rich andpoor countries. On the other hand,the likelihood of a rapid slowing downof population growth is not great,although some countries are in a farmore favourable position than othersin this respect.

Twenty years ago, it was not ex¬pected that .population growth wouldbecome such a major problem In low-income countries. As late as 1951, aU.N. projection assumed that between1950 and 1980 the populations of Africaand Asia would grow at an annual rateof 0.7-1.3 per cent.

The remarkable and largely unex¬pected success in reducing mortalitybrought a sharp change. The rate ofpopulation growth in developing coun¬tries increased steadily in the 1950s.By the mid-1960s, it settled down atan average level of 2.5 per cent.

Mortality is continuing its decline,but over-all fertility rates are only nowbeginning to drop. While in a numberof developing countries, fertility hasbeen declining for some time, in othersit is increasing as a result of improve¬ment in health and medical services.

Even if fertility should be considerablyreduced in coming decades, the popu¬lation of the less developed world willdouble before the end of this century.(See Table page 26.)

There has been a remarkable awak¬

ening to the acute problems posedby this population explosion. In only

a few years, ambitious policies tospread family planning have been intro¬duced in countries representing over70 per cent of the population of thedeveloping world. The developmentof ¡ntra-uterine contraceptive devices(lUD's) and of oral pills has amountedto a major breakthrough in family plan¬ning techniques.

However, many misconceptionsabout the nature of the populationproblem persist among policy-makersin low-income countries and contri¬

bute to complacency and indifference.Even countries which have adoptedofficial population policies do notalways accord to them the high prioritythey require.

Most widespread of all is the beliefthat in small or sparsely settled coun¬tries, rapid population growth is in thenational interest or raises no problems,as there is much empty land. Thisproposition neglects the fact that largecapital expenditures are necessary forcultivation and settlement in emptyland in the modern world, the pos¬session of land is not enough.

Another common opinion is that birthrates are high and families large be¬cause parents want it that way, andthat it would be difficult or even im¬

possible to persuade them to havesmaller families.

Actually, however, many of the chil¬dren born today are unwanted. Num¬erous field surveys of parents indeveloping countries indicate that birthrates would be reduced by one-thirdif parents had the knowledge andmeans to plan the size of their families.

The incidence of illegal abortions,and of maternal deaths from such

Photo © Lucien Clergue, Arles, France

No more unwanted children

abortions, is high enough to be agrave social problem in Latin Americaand elsewhere. As a consequence ofthe sudden decline in infant mortality,families tend to be larger than theirtraditional size, and larger than parentscan afford. In short, there is in manyparts of the world a silent demand forfamily planning.

All the burdens from large familiesand high growth rates are not borneby parents alone. When the popula¬tion doubles in twenty-five years, thetask of development and moderniza¬tion is compounded. It may even beimpossible to attain significant impro¬vement in living conditions and inde¬pendence of foreign aid. Some of thedirect difficulties created by very rapidpopulation growth are the following:

Expenditures for education, health,housing, water supply, etc., Increasesharply and create severe budgetarystrains.

The quality of the next generation,on which the prospects for develop¬ment crucially rest, is jeopardized.There ¡s a strong inverse correlationbetween child health and family size.Rapid growth of the child populationalso delays educational improvement.

Considerable resources are de¬

voted to the support of a large depen¬dent population which would otherwisebe available to raise living standardsand increase capital formation.

Aid requirements are larger whenpopulation rises fast, and the possi¬bility of future financial independencesmaller than if fertility is declining.

The distribution of income is un¬

equal, and population growth tends tomake it more so by raising land values

and rents while depressing wages. Asownership, too, is usually very un¬equally distributed, the bulk of the.population may fail to participate inwhatever improvement occurs.

Severe urban problems arise, partlyfrom natural increase and partly frommigration from the country into thecities. Urban populations tend todouble in fifteen to eighteen years.Housing already presents almost in¬soluble problems in many of the de¬veloping countries.

HETHER or not a deli¬

berate policy on population should beadopted is a decision which eachindividual country itself must face. Thisis, of course, a highly controversialmatter which, until very recently,placed family planning behind a wall ofsilence in the industrialized countries

themselves. But it is clear that there

can be no serious social and economic

planning unless the ominous impli¬cations of uncontrolled populationgrowth are understood and actedupon.

Demographic conditions in the lessdeveloped countries are extremelydiverse. In parts of Asia the densityof settlement is so high as to raiseconcerns about the shortage of land.In Africa and Latin America, on the

other hand, settlement is so sparsethat it is impossible to speak of over¬population. But in all developing coun¬tries the population is rising very muchfaster than only two decades ago.

It is important to distinguish betweentwo quite different reasons for therapid increase in population. One is

that many parents have more childrenthan they wish, especially after therecent declines in infant mortalitywhich have had the consequence thatfamily size increases sharply unlessbirth rates decline. Another reason,

however, is that the number of chil¬dren parents in developing countrieswant to have is also quite large.

Family-planning policies by andlarge address themselves to the prob¬lem of preventing unwanted births.They are based on the assumption thatparents have the right to decide onthe number and the spacing of theirchildren, and on the evidence that highand unrestricted fertility is a majorsocial problem.

Malnutrition and mental retardation,

high infant mortality, and illiteracy areall more probable when a new childmust compete for survival with itselders in conditions of great poverty.The need for responsible parenthoodis not disputed even by those who donot yet endorse all contraceptive tech¬niques, and we believe that the rightof individuals to knowledge and meansof family planning is fundamental tosocial progress.

However, rapid population growthmay also be injurious to a society eventhough individual parents desire tohave large families. This dilemma pre¬vails in many countries, rich and poor.A conflict between social and privateinterests in a matter so intimate as

this is bound to raise delicate issues.

But no society which has learned tocontrol mortality can long escape theneed to control birth, and many of thedeveloping countries are now con¬vinced of the need for population

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

POPULATION DILEMMA (Continued)

Family planning and economic realities

policies to bring down birth rates.Developing countries should identifytheir population problem, if they havenot already done so, and recognize therelevance of population growth to theirsocial and economic planning, andadopt appropriate programmes.

Aid-givers cannot be indifferent topopulation planning and policy-making,inadequate or otherwise, in the receiv¬ing countries. In particular, they mustbe concerned if even the magnitude ofthe present population is unknown andif trends for the future receive little

attention, as is the case in some ofthe poorer countries.

B

26

ILATERAL and interna¬

tional agencies should, in their aidnégociations, press for- adequate ana¬lysis of population problems and thebearing of these problems on develop¬ment programmes.

But it would be particularly unwisefor aid-givers to insist on the adoptionof population policies by other coun¬tries as a condition for aid. Only agenuine conviction on the part ofgovernments in developing countriescan produce the strong political sup¬port and the determined leadershipwhich experience has shown that fami¬ly-planning programmes and populationpolicy require.

In many of the rich countries, gov¬ernments have not yet moved as farin their own public policies as theircitizens have in the adoption of familyplanning. To convey to their aid part¬ners their awareness of populationproblems, such governments must firstbe in a position to preach what theypractice.

The population problem is seriousenough, even in the industrializedcountries, to call for much greaterpreoccupation with population studyand research. This is also a pre¬requisite for any serious technical ass¬istance to developing countries. Out¬side a very few of the largest industrialcountries, demography and populationstudies still receive no more than

casual attention at universities and

research institutes.

The wealthy countries can hardlyqualify for an active discussion aboutpopulation policy in developing coun¬tries without giving firm support tointernational organizations which havea much larger role to play in this fieldthan they have so far done. The pas¬sivity and hesitancy of internationalbodies has to a large extent reflectedthe ambivalence and confusion of the

industrialized member countries.

It seems particularly wrong for coun¬tries which themselves have so far

been spared the acute need for popu¬lation policy to refuse international

organizations the right or the meansto help countries which request assis¬tance in this field.

Since 1965, there has, in fact, beena very pronounced tendency to enlargethe scope for international action inthis field. UNICEF and other specia¬lized agencies have all received man¬dates to assist in the formulation and

execution of family-planning policies.

Both for the study of demographictrends and their implications, and forthe initiation and extension of family-planning programmes in countrieswhich have decided to pursue them,there is an acute need for experts andtraining. This is one of the most im¬portant tasks of these organizations.

The financial requirements of family-planning programmes are not verylarge compared to other developmentexpenditures. Budgets in developingcountries, however, are often so

strained and foreign exchange short¬ages so acute that programmes areheld up by bottlenecks which can bebroken by relatively modest amountsof aid.

Such aid is now provided by somebilateral donors, notably the UnitedStates and Sweden, and on a modestscale by international organizations.For aid suppliers who hesitate to buildup specialized machinery for this kindof assistance, the use of special trustfunds administered by internationalorganizations should commend itself.

In 1967, a Trust Fund for PopulationActivities was established in the United

Nations, with the purpose of support

ing activities in the population field.We believe that this fund could expectfar more generous support than it hasso far received if prospective donorscould be assured that good projectsare, in fact, available, and that U.N.activities in the population field aresatisfactorily co-ordinated.

As things now stand, there are bothgaps and overlaps in the handling ofpopulation problems by U.N. agencies.Effective organization of assistance forpopulation programmes is needlesslydelayed.

Among the proposals for improvedco-ordination is the creation of a

United Nations Commissioner for

Population. His task should be toobtain and maintain an over-all view of

the needs of developing countries inthe population field, to have principalresponsibility for the allocation of theTrust Fund, and to head up machineryto co-ordinate the population activitiesof U.N. agencies.

It is necessary to take far-reachingbut practicable actions if the greatopportunities for international assis¬tance in this area are to be utilized.

To make the knowledge and meansof family planning available to all isan enormous task in societies where

communication and commercial distri¬

bution channels are highly imperfect.Experience suggests that whereverpossible it is desirable to integratefamily-planning activities with publichealth programmes.

Facilities for maternal and child

health programmes to instruct womenin family planning after delivery seem

Population projections for the year 2000(In Millions)

1968 2000

Low High

Industrialized Areas 1.040 1.250 1.400

Europe 460 490 530

Soviet Union 240 320 350

North America 220 290 350

Others 120 150 170

Developing Areas 2,430 4,720 5.560

China (Mainland) 730 1,000 1,400

Other Asia 1,100 2,300 2,600Africa 330 770 860

Latin America 270 650 700

World 3,500 6.000 7.000

* The two variants ot the projection for the year 2000 are based on assumptions about'low" and "high" fertility. Some fertility decline is assumed in both cases, faster in the"low" variant, slower in the "high" variant. Mortality is expected to continue its declineuntil the expectation of life at birth reaches seventy-four years. The variants have beenselected from the projections in World Population Prospects as Assessed in 1963 (UnitedNations, 1966), on the basis of the experience in the 1960s.

particularly valuable, as the desire tohave fewer children is closely linkedto the conviction that they now have abetter chance to survive.

In the developing world many par¬ents want large families for good andvalid economic reasons; not because

they are ignorant or improvident. Insuch cases, access to family-planninginformation and facilities will not makemuch difference.

When child labour makes a sig¬nificant contribution to family incomeand when parents are dependent on alarge family for protection and securityin old age, there will be few incentivesto reduce fertilily, no matter what thesocial cost of a rapidly expandingpopulation.

T,HIS is why the populationproblem is also related to a greatnumber of policies and institutionalchanges which affect the social andeconomic functions of the family in atraditional society. In the long run,economic growth and modernizationtend to make a large family a heavyeconomic burden rather than a source

of gain and security, and thus todiscourage fertility and slow popu¬lation growth, but this process takesa long time if it is not deliberatelyaccelerated.

Education, and perhaps particularlyfemale education, is recognized to beof great Importance, but only if it reallyalters people's attitudes and ambitions,which is not always the case.

The development of mass mediapress, radio, and television helps tospread new Ideas, among them thenotion that the ideal family shouldhave fewer but healthier and better-

educated children.

The creation of savings banks forsmall savers, as well as life insuranceand pension funds, substitutes otherand more efficient ways of providingfor old age.

Most developing countries alreadyhave policies of social security ofone sort or another, but most of themare poorly administered and under¬financed. As a result social policytends by and large to subsidize child-rearing more effectively than it pro¬vides social security for old age. Thismeans it probably encourages largefamilies Instead of discouraging them.

These large and important fields ofsocial policy which are closely relatedto the problems of family size shouldreceive the greatest attention from de¬veloping countries. They also deservewide support from all aid suppliers.

In the world today, where economicand social change is so accelerated,it would be a mistake to believe that

welfare policies which reduce the

CONTINUED PAGE 33

In all developing countries population is rising very much faster than only two decadesago. But recently there has been a remarkable awakening to the acute problemsposed by the population explosion. In only a few years, ambitious policies to spreadfamily planning have been introduced in countries representing over 70 per cent ofthe population of the developing world. Above, a newly-opened family planning clinicin Pakistan which, with an annual population increase of 3 per cent (compared with0.6 per cent in England and France), faces a serious threat of overpopulation.

27

The rising spiralof

unemployment

28

IN many, If not most of thedeveloping countries, unemployment isturning into a major social problemand obstacle to development. Thefailure to create meaningful employ¬ment is the most Iragic failure ofdevelopment. All Indications are thatunemployment and under-utilization ofhuman resources have Increased in

the 1960s, and that the problem will

grow even more serious with the rapidgrowth of population.

Although there is much evidence ofthe appalling magnitude of the unem¬ployment problem, there is little speci¬fic information about it. The Interna¬

tional Labour Organization is trying tomuster the resources for a largeemployment survey in the developingcountries, and this deserves all

support.

A great difficulty, especially in tra¬ditional societies, is that there Is nohard and fast distinction between

unemployment and underemployment.

Underemployment describes a sit¬uation in which individual capacity

to work is not fully engaged, as whenhighly trained personnel are forced towork at menial labour for lack of

demand, or when agriculture does notbegin to absorb the labour available.

Although there are no firm estimatesof underemployment, it is clear thatrecorded unemployment in the de¬veloping countries understates theproblem.

Both unemployment and underem¬ployment are results of the failure toabsorb the large increase of the lab¬our force which has followed the

acceleration of population growth.Population policies can greatly affectthis problem but only in the long term.Those who will constitute the labour

force over the next fifteen years arealready born.

It is not impossible for employmentto grow fast, but It requires a high

degree of dynamism and flexibility,energetic entrepreneurship, and en¬couragement of rapid change. In thenonfarming sectors of low-Incomecountries, one of the reasons whyextensive development efforts have

failed to create adequate employmentopportunities has undoubtedly beenthe overstimulation of capital-intensiveand labour-saving technology by arti¬ficial distortion of factor prices.

Such technology is readily availablein the industrialized countries, and

there has been a tendency for aid-giving agencies and foreign contractorsto transfer it without modification.

Although In many cases the adoptionof such technology is -unavoidable oreven desirable to preserve competi¬tive efficiency, present policies oftenmake capital-intensive methods ap¬pear too attractive. Concessional in¬terest rates, overvalued exchangerates, and differenciated tariffs reduce

the private cost of Imported capitalequipment, while market wage ratesoverstate the real cost of labour.

Increasing capacity to absorb lab¬our also requires that wage rates arenot raised so high as to discourage theuse of labour and encourage the useof capital-intensive and labour-savingmethods of production.

But in many developing countries theinequality of income distribution is aninducement to employment policieswhich are determined by political con¬siderations and which make the cost

of labour very high. Such policies mayalso have the consequence of attrac¬

ting labour from the rural sector tothe towns where even occasional em¬

ployment may be more remunerativethan full-time agricultural work.

The main burden of absorbing theincrease in the labour force falls in¬

evitably on agriculture which, in mostof the developing countries, occupiessome 60 to 80 per cent of that force.Only a fraction of the new workers can

find employment in non-agriculturalsectors even If these expand withgreat rapidity.

A strategy for agricultural devel¬opment which Increases employmentopportunities rapidly without depres¬sing incomes must focus on lab¬

our-using and capital-saving ways ofImproving agricultural productivity.Much pessimism has been voiced

about the possibility of significantchange in this direction.

A,i N encouraging aspect ofagricultural development In the lastfew years, however, Is that the majorincreases in yields resulting from thenew varieties and intensified irrigationare not dependent on large-scalesubstitution of capital for labour.

Nevertheless, there ¡s a danger thatas agricultural income rises, well-to-dofarmers will prefer to invest in agri¬cultural machinery rather than to em¬ploy large numbers of people, espe¬cially if government policy stimulatespremature mechanization. It seemsparticularly important that the mistakesof industrial policy in this regard arenot repeated In the design of agricul¬tural development strategy.

The urgency of the unemploymentproblem requires positive policies andprogrammes to reduce unemploymentand underemployment. In many areas

CONTINUED PAGE 30

The increasing flow of migrants fromcountryside to city, a constant trendin the developing world, adds tothe already acute problem ofunemployment (photos right). Urbangrowth is almost universally twiceas rapid as the growth of the populationin general. If present trendscontinued, cities such as Calcutta(India) would have over 35 millionInhabitants by the year 2000.

aWmmVaWmmWrnWPhoto © J. Kosldowski

Photo S Alain Keler

In probably no otherarea of social

improvement havegreater victories beenwon In the past 20 yearsthan that of publichealth. Most of the

developing world hasrecorded gains In lifeexpectancy whichtook a century toachieve in the

industrialized countries.

The scourge of malaria,for example, has beeneliminated in vast

areas, thus increasingcapacity to work andopening up territoriesfor new cultivation.

Photo shows

insecticides beingsprayed on haunts ofmalarial mosquitosin Senegal.

30

UNEMPLOYMENT (Continued)

more unskilled labour could be used

to meet many urgent needs. Housing,construction of schools and health

facilities, rural markets, secondaryroads, irrigation facilities are all exam¬ples. While this requires a massive

administrative effort and also a greatamount of money, it would create ad¬ditional incomes which generate ad¬ditional demand.

Unhappily, even where the adminis¬trative capacity exists to undertakelabour-intensive programmes on amassive scale, countries are restrain¬

ed from doing so by fear of their in¬flationary impact and by shortage offoreign exchange. Foreign aid and

sensible fiscal policy can mitigatethese problems if the former is pro¬vided on suitable terms.

Progress must be made in solvingthe unemployment problem if socialand political turmoil is not to arrest

the development process. For it isin the volatile cities of the developingworld that agricultural stagnation andindustrial unemployment combine toproduce their gravest consequences.

Urban growth is almost universallytwice as rapid as the growth of thepopulation in general, and some of thelargest cities have even higher ratesof expansion. Rural stagnation stimu¬lates a flow of migrants from the land,and urban death rates are often lower

than those in the countryside whilefertility generally remains high.

It must be asked whether urban

trends can be left to be the by-productof other forces in society. If presenttrends continued, the largest city inIndia would have over 35 million

inhabitants by the year 2000.

Planning strategy in developingcountries must emphasize the growthof small and intermediate regionalcentres, to offer market, service and

storage facilities, and light labour-in¬tensive industries processing localmaterials. The construction of such

new centres could offer a consider¬

able measure of employment for un¬skilled labour.

The

Green

Revolution

yINTIL quite recently itseemed that the hopes for rapideconomic progress in many of thepoorest countries were doomed byvery slow growth of the huge agri¬cultural sector. Agricultural productionbarely kept pace with populationgrowth," and In many areas fell behind.

The less developed countries, whichhad been net exporters of 14 milliontons of cereal grains each year in the1930s, became net importers of10 million tons per year in the 1960s.Imports rose even further fh 1966 and1967 after the monsoon rains in South

Asia had failed two years in succes¬

sion. There was widespread pre¬diction of imminent famine.

These dire forecasts could not take

into account the progress that has nowbeen made in seed research, in

irrigation practices, in extension work,and in agricultural education. Theyalso ignored the impact price incentivescould have on agricultural practicesand production. As controls overproduction were relaxed and pricesfor farm products were made remu¬nerative, farmers proved willing to

adopt a new technology with amazingrapidity.

The situation today is radicallydifferent from earlier pessimisticforecasts. A good part of the develop¬ing world is now experiencing amajor breakthrough in food production,widely characterized as the GreenRevolution.

In 1968-69, India's food output was

about 8 million tons larger than theprevious record of 89 million tons in1964-65. Pakistan increased its wheat

production by 50 per cent in two years.Ceylon's rice production has gone upby 34 per cent between 1966 and 1968,and in the Philippines two bumper riceharvests seem to have ended half a

century of dependence on imported

rice. The most dramatic advances

have been concentrated in Asia.

These dramatic increases are well

illustrated by experience in India andPakistan. Indian agriculture employs70 per cent of the population andcontributes 46 per cent of the nationalproduct. Yet, before the mid-1960s,agriculture received only about 15 percent of the Indian public developmentexpenditures and was not regarded asa potential growth sector.

Little attention was paid to priceincentives for farmers, to the provision

of such agricultural inputs as fertilizer,improved seeds, and farm machinery,or to problems of farm credit.

IHE droughts which strucklarge parts of India in 1965 and 1966made it necessary to raise the level offood imports to 10 million tons per

year. This highlighted the necessityof a drastic revision of agriculturalpolicy

Almost simultaneously, new high-

yield varieties of wheat and ricebecame available. These "dwarf"

varieties had been developed In

Mexico and the Philippines under thesponsorship of the Ford and Rocke¬feller Foundations. They permit pro¬

fitable application of up to three orfour times as much fertilizer as

traditional varieties, which combined

with irrigation and pesticides makespossible a doubling or tripling of yields.

These improved strains were quicklyadopted in India, investment in agri¬culture was expanded, and supportprices were raised. Together, thesesteps represented substantial newincentives, leading to improved yields.

In West Pakistan, lack of drainagehad by the 1950s raised the ground¬water level, which put large areas

of farmland out of production byincreasing salinity in the soil. However,the threat of disaster was turned into

a blessing.

The solution to the salinization

problem was the sinking of deeptubewells to lower the water level by

intensive pumping, which permittedthe saline soil to be reclaimed. The

tubewells also produced large suppliesof irrigation water.

Originally, it was assumed thatmassive public programmes wouldbe required, but individual farmersadopted this innovation spontaneouslybecause of the tremendous use in

yields made possible by the increasedgroundwater supply.

The surge in private tubewelldevelopment became one of the mostspectacular elements of agriculturalmodernization in West Pakistan. In

1959-60, about 1,300 of these wells

were installed by private farmers. By1963-64, the annual rate of installation

had accelerated to 6,600, and by

1967-68, to about 9,500.

Although, from a technical point ofview, these wells were not very

efficient, they were extremely profit¬able. Private and public tubewellirrigation accounted for nearly half ofthe expanded agricultural output duringthe period 1959-60 to 1965-66.

As in India, the introduction of the

new varieties was swift. The acreageunder the new wheat seeds rose from

200,000 acres in 1966-67 to 2.3 million

acres the following year.

The new rice variety called IR-8 was

planted on 9,000 acres in 1967, whichproduced the seed for almost 900,000acres in 1968. Fertilizer supplies,

largely financed by foreign credits, 01were rapidly expanded, and dramatic W Iincreases in grain production did infact occur.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

GREEN REVOLUTION (Continued)

New advances in seed research and irrigation

32

The Green Revolution has been a

matter of both new technology andnew policy. Although it is too earlyto say how deep and how rapid theimpact will be and whether similarbreakthroughs will be repeated Inother parts of the world, prospects forgrowth obviously look far brighter.

Above all, it has been demonstrated

that the peasant farmer, contrary tomany expectations, is not hopelesslyfettered by custom and tradition andthat he is not insensitive to costs and

prices. Given the reasonably secureexpectation of large returns, he islikely to respond. The lessons of thisexperience for development policyextend beyond the sphere of agri¬culture.

In the fertilizer field, which is

essential to the new agriculturaltechnology, progress has been striking.There have been substantial cost

reductions in the postwar period andfurther improvement is in prospect.The capital cost of new nitrogen plantsIs almost 50 per cent lower than for"old" (pre-1963) plants. Consumptionhas risen rapidly.

IN India, fertilizer supplieswere increased by almost 80 per centin 1966-67 over the previous year, andby another 50 per cent the followingyear. Domestic fertilizer productionmore than doubled between 1965 and

1968; imports of fertilizer and fertilizerraw materials now equal over one-fifthof India's total export earnings.

In Pakistan, fertilizer use has

doubled every two years since 1960.Increases ¡n other developing countrieshave been equally dramatic. Comparedto the average for the five yearsending in 1956-57, total consumptionof nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizerin 1967-68 was five times as great andpotash use had increased sixfold.

The growth of several non-foodcrops, though not as dramatic as thatin wheat and rice, has also been

substantial. Between 1953 and 1967,

cotton production in Asia and Africarose by 40 per cent and this has beenthe basis for rapid growth of the textileindustry in these areas.

Coffee production In Africa has

almost tripled from 393,000 tons to1,145,000 tons in the same period sothat Africa now produces about 30 percent of the world's coffee. This

rapid growth of coffee exports fromAfrica has created marketing problems,

but it does illustrate the potential oftropical agriculture for diversificationand higher productivity.

If the Green Revolution signals amajor breakthrough in food grainproduction, ¡t also brings with It anarray of new problems.

For one thing, continued heavyexpenditures on agricultural researchare necessary, as one seed variety Islikely to last only for a few years andmust be replaced by new varieties asnew diseases evolve.

Moreover, accelerated agriculturalextension and massive investments In

irrigation and fertilizer production areneeded. Increasing production alsoraises the demand for better marketingand distribution facilities and for more

farm credit.

It will also be difficult to maintain

a set of incentives for farmers which

is adequate to elicit the necessaryproduction, stimulate the continued

adoption of new technology, andsupport diversification into other crops.

Increased tax revenue will be

needed, but to tax agricultural incomedirectly is difficult In most developingcountries for the good reasons thatmost farmers are very poor, that sucha tax would be politically explosive,and that the cost of collecting the taxmight well exceed the yield.

However, the new technology israising some rural incomes sharply.If large increases in income are to

arise In agriculture, some of theincreased revenue must come from

these incomes. Agricultural taxationand the general division of the fruitsof increased agricultural productivityamong urban consumers, rural pro¬ducers, and landowners will presentthorny policy issues which have gravepolitical implications and will alsoaffect future development.

A,l REAS untouched by theGreen Revolution, such as most of

Africa and Latin America, face a more

difficult task in stimulating technolog¬ical change in the countryside. Manyof them still seriously neglect ruraldevelopment. For all countries it isimportant to achieve new technicalbreakthroughs in crops other thanfoodgrains, especially in exportableones, not only to increase the foodsupply but also to improve its quality.

Land reform and consolidation of

fragmented holdings will be needed Inmany developing countries not only toaccelerate technological change andstimulate production in the long run,but also to generate rural employment.

History teaches us that land reformis seldom a tidy affair and is alwaystime-consuming. However, most gov¬ernments now have at their disposalthe means to minimize the short-run

disruptions and conflicts arising froma programme of structural change inland ownership.

THE JACKSON REPORT

An appraisal of U.N. development operations

A mammoth, 6,000-page report just published presents the findings of a far-rangingstudy of the operating capacity of the U.N. development system. "The Capacity of

the U.N. Development System," as the study is called*, was commissioned by the

Governing Council of the U.N. Development Programme, which appointed Sir RobertJackson of Australia as commissioner in charge. His report may be considered as

complimentary to the Pearson Report ("Partners in Development"), but whereas

the latter dealt with the broad perspective of problems of development aid, the

Jackson Report tackles the more specific question of the actual and potential

capacity of the U.N. system to make an effective contribution to world and economic

and social development. Its proposals are conceived as the first steps in a

long-term process of consolidation, co-ordination and rationalization of the U.N.

bodies and specialized agencies dealing with economic and social development.

They will be studied by the Governing Council of the U.N. Development Programmewhose recommendations will be submitted to the U.N. Economic and Social Council

later this year. "(From Sales Section. United Nations. New York or Geneva: Vol. I.

$1.00; Vol. II. $6.50).

Letters to the Editor

MAN AGAINST NATURE

Sir,

The Soviet magazine "Za Rubezhom"recently published some "global" obser¬vations by the American astronaut,Michael Collins, and the Norwegianseafarer, Thor Heyerdahl.

Michael Collins described the fasci¬

nating beauty of our planet with itsazure expanse of oceans, and remarkedon the striking contrast it presents withthe lifeless desert of the lunar

landscape.

Thor Heyerdahl commented sadly onthe same oceans whose beauty Collinshad admired from outer space. Heexpressed his concern over the growingpollution of the oceans by man, andwarned that if the pollution of our envi¬ronment continues, we shall soon "have

sawn off the branch we are sitting on".

As Nature Is the heritage of allmankind, the way people treat It shouldbe controlled by laws applicable to all,and the United Nations should be

directly responsible for seeing that theyare observed.

The United Nations should also be

given adequate means for making theoceans and continents healthier places,and funds for this should be raised

by a special tax imposed on Industriesand other enterprises whose operations,ships, factories, vehicles, etc., pollutesoil, water or air.

It is the duty of every thinking personto show genuine concern for the pro¬tection of Nature on our planet lest weunthinkingly transform it into a sadsemblance of the Earth's satellite.

Kim KarpovMoscow, U.S.S.R.

TIMELY...

Sir,

Your issue on Youth (April 1969) isa stirring, thought-provoking, timelycollection of articles by writers whohave been moved by the contradictionbetween what the world could be and

what is happening to the world because

of man's greed. I predict this numberof the "Unesco Courier" will come to

be regarded as a seminal classic.

Rachmiel Forschmidt

U.S.A.

..OR TEDIOUS ?

Sir,

The subject of Campus Unrest (April1969) is one that most people haveheard discussed too much. This num¬

ber on Youth 1969 was repetitious andwordy. I found it the only uninterestingone since I have been reading the"Unesco Courier". Regardless of thestature and expertise of the writers,I doubt that many people would readit through.

E. Stockton

U.S.A.

CELTIC CULTURE TODAY

Sir,

As a long-standing reader of the"Unesco Courier", I have alwaysenjoyed your articles on the valuesand traditions of relatively little-knowncultures. My only regret is that so farnothing has appeared on Celtic cultureand in particular on the forms in whichit has been handed down and preservedin Brittany, my birthplace.

You would have no trouble in findinga rich mine of material for articles and

illustrations. For a great many Bretons,like myself, the linguistic and artisticheritage of our Celtic ancestors is avery real part of our daily lives.

Jean-Roger ChasleMaintenon, France

ECONOMISTS IN EMBRYO

Sir,

I am convinced that a most importantasset to world co-operation could befurnished by providing primary schoolchildren of all countries with instruction

in elementary Economics and a textbook

giving the scientific definitions and rela¬tionships of the few terms which areused in the study. A belief that Land,for example, Is Wealth does not accordwith these definitions any more thandoes the myth that Money is Consu¬mable Wealth.

Since economic knowledge givessupport to economic ethics so ne¬cessary to peace I think that Unescoought to print and publicize a Primerfor juveniles and grade-school childrenon the subject.

D. MolonySanta Barbara, California, U.S.A.

SIBERIA CALLING SVAMIT

Sir,In your May 1969 number we read

a letter from a 12-year-old English girl,Anne Souter of London, who has start¬

ed a club called SVAMIT (Save Veniceand Medieval Italian Tradition). We tooare lovers of medieval traditions and

would like to be members of Anne's

club, so please give us her address.

Natasha Ivanova

Katya VimsElvira Vims

Omsk, Siberia, U.S.S.R.

Anne's address is 2 Baronsmead

Road, Barnes, London, S.W.I 3.

THE ARTS AND MAN

Sir,

Congratulations and many thanks for"The Arts and Man" (May 1969). ThoughI have studied numerous artistic and

technological aspects of modern civili¬zation while preparing for examinations,I never fully realized to what extentthe arts contribute to every part ofdaily life. Your remarkable numbershowed me the Innumerable ways inwhich the arts "embody the universalqualities of mankind as well as theendless individual and cultural differen¬

ces which exist within the family ofman".

Denis Dutertre

Trainel, France

NO MORE UNWANTED CHILDREN (Continued from page 27)

dependence on the family as the solesource of security can have secondpriority in development strategy.Wherever possible all aid agencies,bilateral and multilateral, should

encourage and support social policieswith fertility-reducing implications.

The developed countries also havea great opportunity to make acontribution in the development of abetter contraceptive technology. Herethe situation in the less developedcountries only dramatizes a generaldemand for a genuinely effective andacceptable contraceptive. The intra¬uterine device (IUD) and the pillrepresent great advances but are farfrom perfect in acceptability, con¬venience, or effectiveness in use.

Research in reproductive biologywas enormously stimulated by theresearch for new methods of fertilitycontrol in the 1960s. This was

particularly true of the study of thehormonal aspects of the female repro¬duction system which is where thepills Intervene.

But many potentially interestingmethods of fertility control centre onrelatively unexplored aspects of thereproduction process. There is noshortage of suggestions and hypo¬theses but there is a lack of funds,of co-ordination, and of systematiccontact between researchers.

An international programme ofresearch in human reproduction,enlisting existing institutions and lab

oratories in high priority work on fer¬tility control might accelerate progressin this field by years or decades.

The World Health Organization, whichwould be the natural focus, has longbeen constrained to take a limited view

of problems of family planning,confining itself to family-planningactivities within the framework of

public health organizations. Moreover,research on human reproduction canabsorb fairly sizable funds. Wetherefore recommend that the World

Bank, in consultation with WHO,launch Immediately a wide-ranginginternational programme for the direc¬tion, co-ordination, and financing ofresearch in the field of human repro¬duction and fertility control.

33

G3 Pib H rn

il

34

World weather watch

Mariners, aircrews and volunteer obser¬

vers in all parts of the world recentlyhelped meteorologists to assemble the mostextensive collection of data on weather

conditions yet compiled. The informationwill be used in preliminary studies forthe Global Atmospheric Research Pro¬gramme (GARP), a joint internationalventure of the World MeteorologicalOrganization and the International Councilof Scientific Unions. The global GARPexperiment, due to take place later inthe 1970s, is aimed at a fuller under¬

standing of the structure and behaviourof the atmosphere.

'What's What'

in Academia

Academic titles and grades vary sowidely in meaning and status from countryto country that they are difficult to com¬pare on an international level. Unescohas now produced an international glossary

the first of a series on the inter¬

national equivalence of diplomas. Editedin French by Professor Marcel de Grandpréof the University of Montreal, it enablesthe reader to judge the relative value oftitles awarded in the 45 countries covered

in the glossary. (Glossaire international.Termes d'usage courant en matière decertificats d'études secondaires et de

diplômes et grades de l'enseignementsupérieur dans 45 pays. Unesco, Paris.($5, 30/-).

Mid-point appraisalof Hydrological Decade

A mid-point appraisal of the Unesco-sponsored International HydrologicalDecade was made recently by specialistsfrom over 80 countries, at Unesco's H.Q.in Paris. After discussing the results ofthe Decade since it began in 1964, theyexamined proposals for the 1970-74 pro¬gramme and for further international co¬operation in hydrology. These suggest thatspecial emphasis will be given to thehydrological aspects of man's impact onhis environment, including the effects ofdesalination and the growing problem ofwater pollution. More use is foreseen ofremote-sensing devices such as instru¬ments mounted on aircraft or space satel¬lites to collect data on the hydrology ofvast and relatively inaccessible regions.

Causes of heart

disease queriedHigh blood pressure, diabetes, over¬

weight and a sedentary occupation, com¬monly considered as causes of coronaryheart disease in affluent countries, do notseem to bring on this condition in develop¬ing countries, reports the WHO review,"World Health". Recent studies in the

developing countries suggest that thismight be due to something in African andAsian diets and ways of life. Researchersare scrutinizing food habits in a numberof countries. In Singapore, for instance,there are three ethnic communities: Malay,Chinese and Indian. The Indian community.

whose eating habits differ from those ofthe other groups, is particularly prone toheart disease. Research may show what itis the Malayans and Chinese are eating, ornot eating, which acts as a barrier toheart disease.

Food aids forest

developmentFood aid given by the World Food

Programme has helped to grow trees on84,000 hectares of land and to build or

maintain 4,300 kilometres of forest roads.

Food aid is supplied to sixteen forestryprojects in 15 countries employing nearly88,000 workers. Nearly 450,000 persons(workers and families) benefit from thefood which pays part of their wages andimproves general nutrition. The WorldFood Programme is sponsored jointly bythe U.N. and FAO.

Traditional music

of Viet-Nam

The music of Hué, central Viet-Nam,is featured on the first LP record of Viet¬

namese music in the Unesco Collection,Musical Anthology of the Orient and inclu¬des court dances, songs of the traditionaJtheatre, Buddhist chants and poeticsongs (1). Twenty-one records in theUnesco Collection present music fromAfghanistan, Cambodia, India, Iran, Japan,Tibet, Tunisia and Turkey.

(I) Edited for the International Music Counciland published by Bärenreiter-Muslcaphon of Kassel,Basel, Paris and New York.

Modern problemsin biology

An international training course inmodern problems in biology organized bythe Institute of Microbiology, Prague, andsponsored by Unesco and WHO, will beheld at the Institute from October 1, 1970to September 15, 1971.' Combining pract¬ical training and research, the course isopen to young scientists who havegraduated with a Master of Science orequivalent degree. Applications should besent to: The Director, Institute of Micro¬biology, Budejovicka street 1083, Prague4-Krc, Czechoslovakia, by May 31, 1970.

Critical doctor shortagein Middle East

Though Middle East medical schoolshave increased from 12 to 38 since 1950,the region remains critically short ofdoctors, reports WHO. Doctor-populationratios vary from one doctor per 400 personsto one per 10,000 in most of the region.About 3,200 doctors graduate annually, but60 more schools would be requiredto meet present health needs, and 160additional schools will be needed in the

next 30 years to keep ahead of thepopulation explosion. Another seriousproblem is the "brain drain" of foreign-trained doctors who fail to return to theirown countries.

BOOKSHELF

RECENT UNESCO BOOKS

International Year Book

of Education

Vol. XXX-1968

1969 ($13; 78/-).Out of School Activities

for Young PeopleBy RA. Stevens1969 ($2; 12/-).

Study Abroad: InternationalScholarships and CoursesVol. XVIII, 1970-71, 1971-72

Trilingual: English-French-Spanish1969 ($6; 36/-).

Teachers for the Schools

of Tomorrow

By Jean Thomas(Unesco and its programme)2nd imp. 1969 ($1; 6/-).

Perspectives in Oceanography(Intergovernmental OcéanographieCommission series, No. 6)1969 ($3; 18/-).

industrialization and SocietyEdited by Bert F. Hoselitz andWilbert E. More

3rd imp. 1968Co-edition Unesco-Mouton,

The Hague(Cloth bound: $11; 66/-).

Apartheid: Its Effects onEducation, Science, Culture andInformation

3rd imp. 1969 ($2; 12/-).

Educational and

vocational guidanceThe Fourth International Round Table of

Educational Counselling and Vocational Gui¬dance will meet at the Hague, Netherlandsfrom March 31 to April 4. It will givea chance to those in administration,practice, research or training in educa¬tional, medical, social or vocational coun¬selling to share their experience and ideas.Further details from Mr. H.Z. Höxter,6 High Street South, East Ham, London.

Flashes..,

Fifty per cent of the world's annualpotential food production Is lost throughwastage, reports FAO. If these losseswere reduced by even 10 per cent therewould be enough food and protein to giveeveryone in the world an adequate diet.

Total circulation of Indian newspagershas almost doubled in the last decade.

Over 600 dailies are published, 40 per centof them in Delhi and six other majorIndian cities.

The current world fish catch is only5 per cent of the 1,800 million tons ofmarine life that could be harvested from

the oceans, according to scientists at Ja¬pan's Marine Research Bureau.

Ninety per cent of the world's initialsupply of recoverable petroleum liquidsand natural gas will be used up withinthe next 65 years, according to studiesby a special committee of the Nal'.onalResearch Council of the U.S. Academyof Sciences.

<cc

O2<_!

COUJ

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Just published

The Pearson Report

400 pages

Report of the Commission

on International Development

7 am convinced that it will become one of the

most important documents of the twentieth century.'

U.K. Prime Minister Harold Wilson

Analyzes and evaluates frankly and fully the results of20 years of development aid.

Examines the problems, policies and potential ofdevelopment in the coming decades.

Outlines a new basis for international co-operation,spelling out the responsibilities of both donor andbeneficiary countries, and proposes a new globalstrategy for development in the 1970s and beyond.

Pall Mall Press, London. (Cloth 50/-, paperback 18/-).

Prager Publishers, New York, Washington. London. (Cloth $7.95, paperback $2.95).Order from your bookseller

Please do not send orders to Unesco

Where to renew your subscriptionand order other Unesco publications

Order from any bookseller, or write direct tothe National Distributor in your country. (See listbelow ; names of distributors in countries notlisted will be supplied on request.) Payment ismade in the national currency ; the rates quotedare for an annual subscription to THE UNESCOCOURIER in any one language.

AFGHANISTAN. Panuzai, Press Department, RoyalAfghan Ministry of Education, Kabul. AUSTRALIA.Publications : Educational Supplies Pty. Ltd., P.O.Box 33, Brookvale, 2 100 NSW ; Periodicals :Dominie Pty. Limited, Box 33, Post Office, Brook¬vale 2100 NSW. Sub-agent. United Nations As¬sociation of Australia, Victorian Division, 4thFloor, Askew Housa, 364 Lonsdale St., Melbourne(Victoria), 3000. ($ 2.75). AUSTRIA. Verlag GeorgFromme & C*., Spengergasse 39, Vienna V (AS 82)BELGIUM. All publications: Editions "Labor", 342, rueRoyale, Brussels, 3. Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles,42, av. Paul Héger, Brussels 5. NV Standaard-We-tenschappeli|ke Uitgeverij Belgiëlei 147, Antwerp, I. Forthe Unesco Courier (1 70 FB) and art slides (488 FB) only:Jean de Lannoy, 112, rue du Trône, Brussels 5. CCP3380.00. BURMA. Trade Corporation N- (9), 550-552 Merchant Street, Rangoon. CANADA. Queen'sPrinter. Ottawa. Ont. ($ 4.00). CEYLON. Lake HouseBookshop, Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawata.P.O.B. 244,Colombo, 2. (Rs 12.50) CHINA. World Book Co.Ltd., 99 Chungking South Rd., Section 1, Taipeh,Taiwan (Formosa). CYPRUS. "MAM", ArchbishopMakarios 3rd Avenue. P.O. Box 1722, Nicosia.CZECHOSLOVAKIA. S.N.T.L., Spalena 51, Prague 1(permanent display); Zahranjcm literatura 11 SoukenickaPrague 1. DENMARK. Ejnar Munksgaard, Ltd.,6, Norregade, 1165, Copenhagen K. (Dan. Kr. 19.00).

ETHIOPIA. National Commission for Unesco, P.O.Box 2996, Addis Ababa. FINLAND. AkateeminenKirjakauppa, 2 Keskuskatu, Helsinki. (Fmk. 11.90).FRANCE. Librairie de I'Unesco, Place de Fontenoy,Paris-7«. CCP. 12598-48. (12 F). GERMANY. Allpublications: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Rosenheimerstrasse145,8 Munich, 80. For the Unesco Kurier (German ed only)Bahrenfelder-Chaussee 1 60, Hamburg-Bahrenfeld, CCP.276650 (DM 12). GHANA. Methodist Book DepotLtd., Atlantic House, Commercial Street, POB 100, CapeCoast. GREAT BRITAIN. See United Kingdom.GREECE. Librairie H. Kauffmann, 28, rue du Stade,

Athens; Librairie Eleftheroudakis, Nikkis 4, Athens.HONG-KONG. Swindon Book Co.. 13-15 Lock Road,Kowloon. HUNGARY. Akadémiai Könyvesbolt,Vici u. 22, Budapest V; A.K.V. Kónyvtirosok Boltia,Népkoztirsasig utja 16, Budapest VI. ICELAND.Snaebjorn Jonsson & Co., H.F., Hafnarstraeti 9, Reykjavik.

INDIA. Orient Longmans Ltd., Nicol Road, Ballard.Estate, Bombay 1 ; 17 Chittaranian Avenue, Calcutta 13;36a, Mount Road, Madras 2; 3/5 Asaf Ali Road, NewDelhi 1 ; Sub-Depots: Oxford Book & Stationery Co.17 Park Street, Calcutta 16 and Scindia House, New Del¬hi ; Indian National Commission for Unesco, att. The Libra¬rian, Ministry of Education, "C" Wing, Room N' 214,Shastri Bhawan, New Delhi 1.(Rs. 13.50). INDONE¬SIA. Indira P. T., Djl. Dr. Sam Ratulangie 37, Djakarta.. IRAN. Iranian National Commission for Unesco, 1/154Avenue Roosevelt, B.P. 1 533, Teheran. IRAQ. McKen-

lie's Bookshop, AI- Rashid Street, Baghdad; UniversityBookstore, University of Baghdad, P.O. Box 75, Baghdad.

IRELAND. The National Press, 2,Wellington Road, Balls-bridge, Dublin, 4. ISRAEL. Emanuel Brown, formerlyBlumstein's Bookstores, 35 Allenby Road and 48 NahlatBenjamin Street, Tel-Aviv IL. (1 2.50.)JAMAICA. Sang-ster's Book Stores Ltd., P.O.Box 366, 101 Water Lane,Kingston. JAPAN. Maruzen Co. Ltd., P.O. Box 5050,Tokyo International 1 00-31. JORDAN. Joseph I. Bahous& Co., Dar-ul-Kutub, Salt Road. P.O.B. 66, Amman.KENYA. E.S.A. Bookshop, P.O. Box 30167, Nairobi.

KOREA. Korean National Commission for Unesco,P.O. Box Central 64, Seoul. KUWAIT. The KuwaitBookshop Co., Ltd., P.O. Box 2942, Kuwait. LIBERIA.Cole and Yancy Bookshops Ltd., P.O. Box 286.Monrovia. LIBYA. Agency for Development ofPublication & Distribution, P.O. Box 261, Tripoli.LUXEMBURG. Librairie Paul Brück, 22, Grand-Rue,Luxemburg (F.L. 1 70). -MALAYSIA. Federal Publica¬tions Sdn Bhd., Balai Berita, 31 Jalan Riong, Kuala Lum¬pur. MALTA. Sapienza's Library, 26 Kmgsway, Valletta.

MAURITIUS. Nalanda Company Ltd., 30, BourbonStreet, Port Louis. MONACO. Britisn Library, 30,Bid. des Moulins, Monte Carlo. NETHERLANDS.N. V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout, 9, The Hague,(fl. 10). NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. G. C.T. Van Dorp & Co. (Ned Ant.) N.V., Willemstad. Cura¬çao. N.A. (NA fl 5.25). NEW ZEALAND. Govern¬ment Printing Office, Government Bookshops at: RutlandStreet, P.O. Box 5344. Auckland ; 130 Oxford Terrace,P.O. Box 1721,Chnstchurch; Alma Street, P.O. Box 857Hamilton ; Princes Street, P. O. Box 1104, Dunedin ; Mul-grave Street, Private Bag, Wellington. ($ 2.15) NOR

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UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC (EGYPT). LibrairieKasr El Nil, 38, rue Kasr El Nil, Cairo. Sub-agent:La Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Sh. Adly-Pasha, Cairo.UNITED KINGDOM. H.M. Stationery Office, P.O.Box 569, London, S.E.I., and Government Bookshopsin London, Edinburgh, Cardiff, Belfast, Manchester,Birmingham and Bristol. (20/-). UNITED STATES.Unesco Publications Center, P.O. Box 433, New York,N.Y. 10016 ($ 5). U.S.S.R. Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga,Moscow. G-200. - YUGOSLAVIA. JugoslovenskaKnjiga ,Terazije, 27, Belgrade ; Drzavna Zaluzba Slovemje,Mestni Trg. 26, Ljubljana.

NESC

1970

INTERNATIONAL

EDUCATION YEAR

Messagefrom Mr. René Maheu

Director-General of Unesco

At the beginning of the New Year, I should like to remind all the

countries of the world that, at the suggestion of Unesco, the General

Assembly of the United Nations has designated 1970 as INTERNA¬TIONAL EDUCATION YEAR; and I would ask them to do everythingin their power from now on to make this a year of significant achieve¬ment, both qualitative and quantitative, in the field of education.

In many countries, at the present time, both the forms and the

content of education are being seriously challenged. Instead of indulg¬ing the illusion that controversies and passions will eventually die down,we shall do better to make a bold attempt to understand and grapplewith the crisis a crisis in which we should, moreover, discern not somuch the threat of some unthinkable collapse as the promise of a neces¬sary renaissance.

We live in a world that is changing before our very eyes a world

in which the population explosion, decolonization and the profound eco¬nomic and social transformations resulting from technological develop¬ment are so many forces making for the democratization of education.

At the same time the acceleration of scientific progress is resulting in the

more and more rapid obsolescence of knowledge, while the developmentof mass communication techniques and audio-visual methods is revolu¬

tionizing the traditional bases of communication. With all this it is out

of the question for education to be confined, as in the past, to trainingthe leaders of tomorrow's society in accordance with some predetermin¬ed scheme of structures, needs and ideas, or to preparing the young, onceand for all, for a given type of existence. Education is no longer the pri¬vilege of an elite or the task of a particular age; to an increasing extent,it is reaching out to embrace the whole of society and the entire life-spanof the individual. This means that it must be continuous and omnipre¬sent. It must no longer be thought of as preparation for life, but as adimension of life, characterized by continual acquisition of knowledgeand ceaseless re-examination of ideas.

**

But how is education to broaden its bounds in this way if it remainsdivided in its internal organization and isolated as a whole from life and

society? Not only are the various elements involved in the educational

process often poorly integrated, but education as such is still all too often

cut off from the rest of human activity. In too many cases, the school,the college and the university, far from living at one with the community,constitute worlds of their own.

That an electronic engineer for example should have no properlyorganized means of sharing his knowledge with those of his colleagues,friends and neighbours who would like to bring their information up todate; that an educational establishment should be used for a maximum

of only two hundred days in the year, and then for eight hours a day atthe very most; that young people who have studied for several years at

school or university should be unable to turn the skills they have acquiredto account on the labour market because they have failed in some com¬petitive or other examination: all this is waste waste of material resour¬

ces, waste of human potential which must no longer be tolerated any¬where, and least of all in the developing countries.

And since I have referred to those countries, how can I pass over insilence the most scandalous of all the many instances of wasted humanpotential: namely, illiteracy, which still, at the present time, keeps morethan one-third of the human race in a state of helplessness, below the levelof modern civilization? When shall we make up our minds to eliminatethis scourge from the face of the earth?

***

These are the sort of problems to which the world community isinvited to address itself on the occasion of INTERNATIONAL EDU¬

CATION YEAR, in order that bold and inventive solutions may be foundand applied. And it is towards the universal and life-long education Ihave referred to that Unesco asks governments, institutions and individuals

to direct the necessary effort of reflection and promotion.

No one can be blind to the immense difficulties of the structural and

intellectual conversion that this idea of life-long education implies if it isnot to be allowed to sink in a bog of empty verbiage. For what is neededis nothing less than the organic integration of school and university edu¬cation with out-of-school education and adult education two branches

which, even today, are all too often regarded as peripheral when it isobvious, if we take an overall view, that they are bound to play an essen¬tial part in the continuing and many-sided moulding of the human mind.Naturally, no one supposes that all this can be achieved, anywhere, in thecourse of a single year. But the time has come for all of us to advance

boldly together along this path, which is the path of the future of mankind.

The great crises of education have always coincided with profoundchanges in society and in civilization. I believe that we are approaching

one of those moments in history. The need for new human models, both

for society and for the individual, is making itself felt almost everywhere.And while inventions of such complexity are beyond the power of edu¬

cation alone, we all realize that without education they would be quiteimpossible. For, when all is said and done, no progress has reality ormeaning for man except in so far as it is projected and reflected in hiseducation.

It is therefore in the name of the right of every human being to edu¬cation, as a right to progress and renewal, that I declare INTERNA¬

TIONAL EDUCATION YEAR open and appeal to peoples for that

generous emulation and to States for that beneficent co-operation onwhich its success depends.

ho

1 I i

PARTNERS IN DEVELOPMENT

The widening gap between the developed and the developing countries has becomea central issue of our time. An entirely new approach to the whole problem of aidand development, seen not in terms of one nation or group of nations, but as a globalco-operative effort of the rich and poor nations, the highly-industrialized and thedeveloping nations, has now been put forward in the Pearson Report entitled "Part¬ners in Development." Photo shows a development project in the Sudan carried outwith the help of the World Bank and the International Development Association whomade available loans and credits totalling 32.5 million dollars. Photo United Nation*