Management and Leadership Abilities: An analysis of texts, testimony and practice

By Lew Perren and John Burgoyne

© Crown Copyright ISBN 1-903696-10-0 Published by: COUNCIL FOR EXCELLENCE IN MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP 211 Piccadilly LONDON W1J 9HF

Tel. + 44 (0) 207 830 9780 Fax + 44 (0) 207 830 9781 http://www.managementandleadershipcouncil.org

Management and Leadership Abilities: An analysis of texts, testimony and practice

Lew Perren and John Burgoyne (Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership)

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Introduction

The analysis of management and leadership abilities that is reported here provides a backdrop for much of the Council's work. So often it seems that discussions of management and leadership dissolve into definitional and philosophical battles leaving the perpetrators too tired to take useful action. The Council has been criticised by some of not providing precise definitions of management and leadership; indeed some have called for clear separation of these terms. While others have said that precise definitions and detailed lists of abilities are reductionist and unhelpful; indeed some want to forget such matters and get on with things1.

This report is unlikely to please the extremes of either the philosophical or pragmatic camps, but it is hoped that it will appeal to majority of people who recognise that some understanding of the abilities that constitute management and leadership is needed. For some this report will be an analysis of tangible measurable abilities that are needed by managers and leaders, for others it will be an analysis of the ethereal discussion of abilities. Nothing we are going to say in such a brief report is likely to transform a reader's ingrained belief about such matters, so we anticipate a broad range of interpretations being placed on this work2. Indeed, as this research has progressed we have found ourselves changing our view of the project; we console ourselves with the knowledge that the general approach adopted appears to provide a robust platform for different forms of interpretation34.

Now we have introduced the background to the research, we will move on to explain the approach taken and then to present the resulting management and leadership framework. At the end of the paper we will explore the implications of the framework.

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Approach

Figure 1 shows the stages taken to analyse the individual management and leadership abilities (labels) identified in texts and through interviews.

The first stage was to bring together a database of primary and secondary sources. There are literally thousands of articles, frameworks and books on management and leadership so it would be impossible to review all the published works. Instead a pragmatic approach was taken that reviewed 'well-known' texts from the past fifty years to which the authors had easy access and then a more recent set of texts and frameworks. Appendix A provides the list of fifty secondary sources that were added to the database. In some instances discussions of original work have been used where the source is deemed to be reliable by the authors. For example, Rosemary Stewart's discussion of Edwards and Townsend's (1958) work was used for the analysis. Given the nature of the data condensation and the aims of the investigation this was felt to be reasonable approach.

The primary data was gathered through ninety three interviews that were conducted (with the exception of the large company interviews) as part of other research projects undertaken by the Council (see Perren and Grant, 20015; Fox et al, 20016). This is an opportunistic sample, but it has resulted in a broad range of interviewees including entrepreneurs, SME managers, professionals, training providers, representatives of professional associations and managers from large organisations (see appendix B for a more detailed breakdown).

The second stage involved drawing-out the 1013 individual management and leadership abilities identified in the texts and interviews and feeding them into a computerised qualitative data-analysis system called NVivo. This allowed a transparent audit trail to be maintained from the source through to the individual management and leadership nodes7. This task was fairly straightforward, requiring few judgements from the researchers about what should be included. Admittedly with larger texts there was a need to summarise the content and some interpretation was required, but the researchers' aim at this stage was to be a conduit for the information in the texts and interviews.

The third stage resulted in the 1013 nodes being condensed to 83 management and leadership ability sets through content analysis8. This process required more judgement on the part of the researchers. In most cases the coding of individual management and leadership ability sets appeared straightforward. There were a few nodes that were so context specific or so general that they did not lend themselves to contributing to the framework.

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Figure 1 Approach to Analysis

The fourth stage involved further content analysis to condense the 83 sets into 8 meta-groups of abilities. Again this analysis required judgement calls by the researchers and therefore an audit trail of decisions is important. Figure 2 in the next section provides the trail from the 83 management and leadership ability sets through to the 8 meta-groups of abilities.

The fifth stage involved a range of checks on the analysis that had been undertaken. A concern that those with an objective view will have about this type of analysis is that it treats all sources as equal when some are, for example, based upon extensive research and others on a single person's opinion. Such concerns can be reduced if a range of different types of sources and methods triangulate to support a particular claim in the research9. In this case the audit trail of evidence allows the 83 sets of management and leadership abilities to be traced back to their sources to see if there is triangulation of different forms of evidence. A check on five arbitrarily selected example sets are provided in table 1 and suggest that there is considerable overlap between the range of sources and methods (see table 1).

2. 1013 individual management and leadership abilities identified and added to Nvivo database

3. Content analysis conducted to condense 1013 nodes into 83 management and leadership ability sets

4. Content analysis conducted to condense 83 sets into 8 meta-groups of abilities

1a.

50 Texts

1b.

30 SME Interviews

1c.

57 Prof. Interviews

1d.

6 Large Business Interviews

5. Checks of source triangulation, data saturation and face validity with informed individuals.

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Set Sources Methods including: Develop Networks 9 points of data, 8

nodes Literature review, interviews, consultation, practical example, mixed methods.

Display Assertiveness 5 points of data, 3 nodes

Practical example, interviews, psychological assessment.

Handle Risk and Ambiguity 15 points of data, 14 nodes

Literature review, practitioner thought piece, documentary evidence, surveys, interviews, and practical example.

Inspire people 19 points of data, 11 nodes

Interviews, analysis of executive strategies, practitioner thought piece, deduction, practical example, survey, literature review, case studies.

Providing Feedback 2 points of data, 2 nodes

Interviews, practitioner thought publication.

Table 1: Check of evidence sources

For example, the meta-group Inspire people draws upon 19 points of data in sources including: interviews, analysis of executive strategies, practitioner thought piece, deduction, practical example, survey, literature review, case studies. In addition, as the analysis progressed there was less need to create new management and leadership ability sets suggesting that something approaching data saturation might be occurring, indeed only 1 set, spontaneity, has a single source10. On a related point, one colleague who reviewed an earlier version of the paper was concerned that "if the problem being addressed by the Council for Excellence is the poor performance of the UK economy - because of the poor performance of its managers and leaders - because of their poor understanding of leadership, why do we think that asking them what they think about leadership ability and then refining it into another railway bookstand volume will help?". This criticism can be addressed in part because the analysis drew upon a range of texts from outside the UK (most notably the US). Also, while all the interviewees were from the UK, surely with such a broad range not all could be without worthwhile opinion on management and leadership. This is not to suggest that further research could not improve the framework by extending it to interviewees from outside the UK or by having some performance criteria built into the interviewee sample selection.

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The face validity of the resulting framework was also checked with informed individuals through a consultation meeting11. Colleagues appeared supportive of the general framework, but a number were concerned about 'ability sets' that cover a wide range of potential abilities. Examples of the concerns raised include:

"I think it is an interesting approach, as you might expect, but I have some - 'concerns' I guess would be the word- in that what we have in place is our statement, which in a sense can hide lots of potential skills or abilities to deliver those. One of them is dealing with conflict; that does not tell me what qualities I am looking for in the leader to deal with conflict. It could be lots of different things, so I am not sure how helpful that label is or how meaningful it is." (Member of consultation meeting) "Yes, like networking. What does that mean?" (Member of consultation meeting) "I agree with you. I had some problems when I read the list. I quite liked the headings [general agreement]. I had more problems when I looked at the descriptors, and as I said I also had a language one because they were a mix of nouns and adjectives, and some of them were doing things and some of them were not. Your point is much more eloquently put, but I suspect that is what I was struggling with, and you have put it much better than I. But I believe there is an issue there, and it is worth pursuing." (Member of consultation meeting)

This feedback from the consultation group resulted in the ability-sets being checked to ensure they provided a clear description of the nodes and that they were in a uniform style. Some changes were made in light of this review; for example, the original term "Deal with Conflict" was changed to "Manage Conflict Situations" and the term "Networking" changed to "Develop Networks". The new labels encapsulate the meaning of the nodes as closely as the researchers could achieve. It is recognised that there is potential overlap between the ability-sets and that some could be broken down further. The challenge of the analysis has been to achieve a balance between providing enough information so that the reader appreciates the meaning behind the labels without being swamped by the amount of data.

Framework of Management and Leadership Abilities

Figure 2 summarises the resulting framework of management and leadership abilities (labels). This shows how the 83 sets have been brought together into 8 meta-groups of abilities, namely: think strategically, manage and lead people, lead direction & culture, manage self, manage relationships, manage information, manage resources and manage activities & quality. Drawing upon Katz's work these can be usefully be combined into three groups: People Abilities (shown as blue on figure 1), Thinking Abilities (shown as pink) and Task Abilities (shown as green)12.

It is recognised that depending on their experience and context individuals will potentially attach different meaning to the ability-sets. For example, the ability to handle risk and ambiguity will probably conjure issues of physical passenger risk for the manager of a railway, whereas an entrepreneur may think in terms of financial risk. Similarly individuals are likely to attach different levels of difficulty to particular ability-sets. For example, building teams is likely to be seen

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as easier in an organisation that already has a positive and supportive culture when compared to one where there has been long standing disputes and conflict. This makes prescribing levels to ability-sets (for example based upon proxy educational or hierarchical levels) challenging and potentially misleading. These issues with meaning are the classic bind of language relativism and can thus be seen as a limitation of this research, on a more positive note it could be argued that such relativism allows individuals to bring their own perspectives to adapt and ground the framework within their world13. Indeed, the search for greater and greater precision of definition or level may be a self-defeating mission that results in a sterile framework that is decoupled from and rejected by the world of practice. There are advantages in having sufficient flexibility for individual actors to interpret the labels into a living framework, to establish their own interpretation of level within their context and to nurture the intricacies of their tacit practice14.

In an associated piece of research we also looked at the potential overlap between leadership and entrepreneurship abilities15. It shows that entrepreneurship and leadership share the abilities: personal drive, innovation and vision, and risk acceptance. Entrepreneurship is more associated with the constructs: belief in control of events, ambiguity tolerance, need for independence and identification of market opportunities. Leadership, on the other hand, is more associated with the conceptual building blocks: communication and social skills, dependability, ability to motivate, honesty and integrity, inspiring trust, intelligence and cognitive ability, knowledge of the business, genuine interest in others and team orientation. Entrepreneurship and leadership are similar notions and there are conceptual overlaps, but there are clearly still differences. Leadership tends to be more associated abilities that relate to people (e.g. communication and social skills). Entrepreneurship on the other hand tends to be associated with the personal search for independence and identification of market opportunities. It is clear, however, that there is overlap and linkage between the concepts of management, leadership and entrepreneurship that needs to be understood as the Council's work progresses.

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Figure 2 Framework of management and leadership abilities

Excellence inManagement &

Leadership

Balance Agendas Challenge Status-quo & Opposition Develop Industry Knowledge Develop Networks Focus on Customer Set Goals Spot Opportunities Think Conceptually and Reflection Think Creatively Think Entrepreneurially Think Globally Think Markets Think Strategically Think Technologically

Acquire Information Analyse Information Make Plans Manage Accounts

and Finances Manage Budgets Take Decisions

Allocate Resources Marshall Resources Safeguard Assets

Attend to detail Audit Quality Control and Monitor Activities Develop Knowledge of Business Develop Systems and Procedures Establish Priorities Evaluate Progress Monitor Plan and Control Projects Provide Practical and Technical Competence Solve Problems

Accept Responsibility Demonstrate Dependability Exude Enthusiasm Handle Stress & Health Issues Manage Time Possess Adaptability and Flexibility Possess Drive, Passion & Hard-work Possess Personal Ethics & Values Possess Self Confidence Possess Spontaneity Possess Stamina and Perseverance Possess Tough-mindedness Provide Good Instincts & Common-sense Strive for Consistency of Approach Strive for Emotional Stability

Emotionally Stable Strive for Self Awareness & Development

Create Good Organisational Communication Create Shared Vision Encourage Creativity &Flexibility Handle Change Handle Risk and Ambiguity Inspire People Lead by Example Manage Public Relations Plan small wins and reinforce

Acknowledge & Reward Others Assess & Recognise People's Potential Build Teams Consult and Collaborate Deal with Politics Delegate Work and Responsibility Develop People Facilitate and Chair Meetings Handle Diverse Workforce Know Employment Rules Manage Conflict Situations Manage Level Above Motivate People Possess Patience & Tolerate mistakes Provide feedback Recruit Competent People Support People Trust People

Bargain, Sell and Negotiate Build Empathy, Relationships & Trust Create Bearing and Presence Display Assertiveness Display Humour Listen to People Present Self and Ideas

Thinking Abilities

People Abilities

Task Abilities

Man

age

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Excellence inManagement &

Leadership

Balance Agendas Challenge Status-quo & Opposition Develop Industry Knowledge Develop Networks Focus on Customer Set Goals Spot Opportunities Think Conceptually and Reflection Think Creatively Think Entrepreneurially Think Globally Think Markets Think Strategically Think Technologically

Acquire Information Analyse Information Make Plans Manage Accounts

and Finances Manage Budgets Take Decisions

Allocate Resources Marshall Resources Safeguard Assets

Attend to detail Audit Quality Control and Monitor Activities Develop Knowledge of Business Develop Systems and Procedures Establish Priorities Evaluate Progress Monitor Plan and Control Projects Provide Practical and Technical Competence Solve Problems

Accept Responsibility Demonstrate Dependability Exude Enthusiasm Handle Stress & Health Issues Manage Time Possess Adaptability and Flexibility Possess Drive, Passion & Hard-work Possess Personal Ethics & Values Possess Self Confidence Possess Spontaneity Possess Stamina and Perseverance Possess Tough-mindedness Provide Good Instincts & Common-sense Strive for Consistency of Approach Strive for Emotional Stability

Emotionally Stable Strive for Self Awareness & Development

Create Good Organisational Communication Create Shared Vision Encourage Creativity &Flexibility Handle Change Handle Risk and Ambiguity Inspire People Lead by Example Manage Public Relations Plan small wins and reinforce

Acknowledge & Reward Others Assess & Recognise People's Potential Build Teams Consult and Collaborate Deal with Politics Delegate Work and Responsibility Develop People Facilitate and Chair Meetings Handle Diverse Workforce Know Employment Rules Manage Conflict Situations Manage Level Above Motivate People Possess Patience & Tolerate mistakes Provide feedback Recruit Competent People Support People Trust People

Bargain, Sell and Negotiate Build Empathy, Relationships & Trust Create Bearing and Presence Display Assertiveness Display Humour Listen to People Present Self and Ideas

Thinking Abilities

People Abilities

Task Abilities

Man

age

activ

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and

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Man

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Conclusion and Discussion

This research provides a framework of management and leadership abilities that draws upon a wide range of primary and secondary sources. This has been an extensive project, but it is important to recognise that the framework will not be without controversy. As stated at the outset the interpretation of the project will vary depending on the perspective of the reader. Some will view the framework as an analysis of the discourse on management and leadership, others will see it as a summary of tangible measurable abilities that are needed by managers and leaders. We continue to console ourselves with the knowledge that the general approach adopted appears to provide a robust platform for different forms of interpretation. From the consultation meeting it seems that many will take a pragmatic view of the framework and view it as a starting list of 'tangible' abilities from which to build their own context specific framework; this was summarised well by one of the members:

"Something like this [the framework] would probably just be useful as a starting point. We would probably look at this and say 'This is the research that you have done, this is what are supposed to be the generic abilities that people should have' and we would go through it and decide what applied to us. We may say 'This one here is a given' and we would probably go through it and pick and choose what would be applicable to us. I do not think we would necessarily take this away and use it as a Bible. It would just be a starting point." (Member of consultation meeting)

The framework cannot be comprehensive as a further trawl of the literature or more interviews may undercover further nodes to add to the 1013. All that can be claimed is that framework was based on the process outlined in the five stages and that the researchers appeared to experience some form of diminishing return towards the end of the analysis and something that appeared to be approaching data saturation. This is not saying that other management and leadership abilities should not be included, indeed the consultation group suggested a few, rather it is saying that we have tried to employ a robust process to provide a foundation for discussion.

Comparing the framework management and leadership abilities derived here with other skills frameworks' currently being used provides an opportunity to identify gaps (see appendices C, D and E). The Management Standards maintained by the Management Education Training Organisation (METO) provides what would be expected to be the closest match (see appendix C)16. The analysis shows overlap in the people and task abilities areas, with a gap in the thinking area. The METO standards tend to emphasise task abilities more, especially in the area of managing energy, whereas our framework tends to emphasise the people abilities more, especially in the area of lead direction and culture. The report by the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (often called the "Dearing Committee) only provides the opportunity to compare skills at the meta-level17. The "key-skills" they identified that students should develop in Higher Education overlap with the areas of manage self and information, but leave gaps in all the other areas (see appendix D). This is not suggesting that other areas are not sometimes covered within a Higher Education experience, rather that this influential report did not make specific recommendations in these areas. Finally, a comparison with the National Curriculum for Schools finds specific areas overlapping with all the meta-ability areas in our framework, although, as would be expected, not covering anywhere near the detail of the 83 management and leadership sets18.

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It is important to note that even if the abilities are seen as being 'tangible' that the link between their presence and performance is only implied. Research, tends to rely upon peoples' opinions of the important management and leadership abilities. Some research like, Kouzes and Posner (1987), was extensive and thorough, yet at its foundation was still the opinion of individuals and so definitive causality cannot be claimed19. If a realistic interpretation is put on the framework the best that can be said is that it represents a wide range of opinion on the management and leadership abilities that will improve performance.

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Anthony Cleaver, Chair of the Council, for identifying the need for "a framework of management and leadership abilities" and for supporting this research as it progressed. The empirical aspect of our analysis calls upon a range of research interviews that have been conducted by the following colleagues: David Vickers, Frances Dewhurst, Jacky Eyres, Iraj Tavakoli, Paul Grant, Sandra Holmes, Peter McCullen, Stephen Fox. We would also like to thank the entrepreneurs, professionals, practitioners and managers for their time and spirit that they engaged with interviews. We are also grateful to Liz Amos and David Watson for their helpful feedback on this report and to members of the Council, Working Groups and Dorothy Robb for their support as the research progressed.

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Appendix A

Documentary sources analysed for the qualitative database of management and leadership abilities

Adair, J. (1993) Effective Leadership, Pan, London

Argyris, C. (1953) The personnel journal, Vol. 32, No 2, pp 50-55, cited in Stewart, R. (1979) The Reality of Management, Pan, Reading (page 111).

Barlett, C.A. and Goshall, S. (1997) The Myth of the Generic Manager, California Management Review, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp 92-116 Bennis, W. (1999) www.drucker.org/leaderbooks/L2L/spring99/bennis.html

Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders The strategies for taking charge, Harper Row, New York.

Boyatzis, R.E. (1982) The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance, Wiley, summarised in Evan, L. and Kerrison, S.(edited by Fowler, B) (1994) MCI Personal Competence Model: Uses and Implementation, Employment Department, Report No 24, October.

Burgoyne, J.G. and Stuart, R. (1976) The nature, use and acquisition of managerial skills and other attributes, Personnel Review, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 19-29 from John Burgoyne's lecture summary.

Cacioppe, R. (1997) 'Leadership moment by moment!', Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 335 to 345. Based on views of six groups of managers and professionals (about 200) were asked to list leaders and then to say why they held them in high regard. Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change In Organizations, Prentice Hall, New York Cattell, R. (1954) http://www.onlinewbc.org/docs/manage/traits.html

CEO Magazine (1993) The GE Leadership Effectiveness Survey, July August reprinted in Ulrich, D., Zenger, J. and Smallwood, N. (1999) results- based leadership, Harvard Business School, Boston (page 24-26)

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Darling, J.R. (1999) Organizational excellence and leadership strategies: principles followed by top multinational executives, Leadership and organization Development Journal, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 309-321

Drouillard, S.E. and Kleiner, B.H. (1996) ''Good' leadership', Management Development Review, Vol. 9, No. 5, pp. 30 to 33.

Edwards, R. and Townsend, H. (1958) Business Enterprise: its growth and organisation, Macmillan, London, cited in Stewart, R. (1979), The Reality of Management, Pan, Reading. (page 111) DfEE (2000) Employers Skill Survey: Case Study Health and Social Care, DfEE, Nottingham

Galbreath, J. and Rogers, T. (1999) Customer relationship leadership, The TQM Magazine, Vol. 11, No 3, pp 161-171 Glencoe (2001) http://web.idirect.com/~icm/

Goleman, D. (2000) Leadership that gets results, Harvard Business Review, March-April, pp. 78 to 90

Gregersen, H.B., Morrison, A.J. and Black, J.S. (1998) 'Developing leaders for the global frontier', Sloan Management Review, Fall, pp. 21 to 32.

Katz, R.L. (1955) "Skills of an effective administrator', Harvard Business Review, Jan-Feb, pp. 33-41. Cited in for example, Certo, S.C. (1997) Modern Management, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River.

Kirkpatrick, S.A. and Locke, E.A. (1996) 'Direct and indirect effects of 2 core charismatic leadership components on performance attitudes', Journal of Applied Psychology summarised and cited by Simpson, J. and Calman, K. (2000) 'Making and preparing leaders', Medical Education, Vol. 34, pp. 211-215.

Klagge, J. (1997) 'Leadership development needs of today's organizational managers', Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 355-362. Kouzes, J.M. and Posner, B. (1987) The Leadership Challenge, Josses Bass, San Francisco

Mabey, C. and Thomson, A. (2000) Achieving Management Excellence, Institute of Management, London.

MCI Senior Management Model reported in Evan, L. and Kerrison, S.(edited by Fowler, B) (1994) MCI Personal Competence Model: Uses and Implementation, Employment Department, Report No 24, October.

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METO (2000) Leadership and Management in the Changing Economy, METO, March. METO standards from web (www.management.standards.org)

Mintzberg, H. (1975) The Manager's Job: Folklore and Fact, Harvard Business Review, July-August, pp. 49-61 reproduced in Pugh, D.S. (1997) Organization Theory Selected Readings, Penguin, London

Morden, T. (1997) 'Leadership as competence', Management Decision, Vol. 35, No. 7, pp. 519 to 526.

Morgan, G. (1988) Riding the waves of change, developing managerial competencies for a turbulent world, Jossey Bass, San Fransisco from summary in John Burgoyne's notes.

National Assembly for Wales (undated) The National Standards for Head Teachers in Wales, NAW. New Zealand Schools (2001) http://www.ero.govt.nz/Publications/eers1995/95no6hl.htm

Page's model summary provided in Evan, L. and Kerrison, S. (edited by Fowler, B) (1994) MCI Personal Competence Model: Uses and Implementation, Employment Department, Report No 24, October.

Pedler, M, Burgoyne, J. and Boydell, T. (1986) A Manager's Guide to Self Development, McGraw Hill, summarised in Evan, L. and Kerrison, S.(edited by Fowler, B) (1994) MCI Personal Competence Model: Uses and Implementation, Employment Department, Report No 24, October.

Peters, J. and Smith, P.A.C. (1998) Action learning and the leadership development challenge, Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol 10, No 6/7. Public Service Commission (2001) http://www.psc-cfp.gc.ca/admpqp/overview_e.htm

Reid, A. (1995) 'Results of KPMG survey on British business leadership', KPMG Seminar, IMPACT CEO Conference, November reported in Hawley (1996).

Schoder, H. (1989) High Performance Managerial Competencies as summarised in Evan, L. and Kerrison, S.(edited by Fowler, B) (1994) MCI Personal Competence Model: Uses and Implementation, Employment Department, Report No 24, October. Schoder, H.M. (1989). Original reference believed to be Schroder, H.M. (1989) Managerial Competence: The Key to Excellence, Jossey Bass, San Fransisco.

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Skillgate (2001) Model answer from Skillgate http://146.101.163.11/newsite/subjects/iframe2.cfm?indexl=YTG

Stodgill, R.M. (1974) Handbook of leadership: a survey of the literature, Prentice Hall, New York, analysed from direct quote in Khaleelee, O. and Woolf, R. (1996) 'Personality, life experience and leadership capability, Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 5-11.

Stodgdill, R.M. (1948) 'personal factors associated with leadership: a survey of the literature', Journal of Psychology, Vol. 25, January, pp. 35 to 64 cited in Cerco (1997). Swamy, R. (1990) The making of a social entrepreneur: the case of Baba Amte,

Vikalpa, Vil. 15, No. 4, pp. 29-39 - cited in Prabhu, G.N. (1999) Social entrepreneurial leadership, Career Development International, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp 140-145

Tait, R. (1996) 'The attributes of leadership', Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 27-31. Based on interviews with chief executives. Tarragon (2001) Course outline at web address http://web.idirect.com/~icm/

Townsend, P.L. and Gebhardt J.E. (1997) Five star leadership: the art and strategy of creating leaders at every level, Wiley, New York

Ulrich, D., Zenger, J. and Smallwood, N. (1999) Results- based leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

US Navy School of Health (2001) Joint Medical Executive Skills Development Programme Core Curriculum, US Naval School of Health Sciences.

US Army Civilian Personnel Regulations and Pamphlets, http://www.usapa.army.mil/cpol/ar690-400-413/c3appb.html

Winston, M.G. (1996) 'Leadership of renewal: leadership for the twenty-first century', Management Development Review, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 15 to 19. Based on a case-study. Winterton, J., Parker, M., Dodd, M., McCracken, M. and Henderson, I. (2000) Future Skill Needs of Managers, DFEE, Research Report RR182. (Distilled from page 85 onwards (they cite Cheetham and Chivers, 1996) for framework and others for content)

Zairi (1999) Managing Excellence: Leadership, The TQM Magazine, Vol. 11, No 4, pp. 215-220 (Motorola's leadership practice is reported as a list) Zaleznik, A. (1974) Managers and leaders are different?, Harvard Business Review, May-June

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Appendix B

Interview sources analysed for the qualitative database of

management and leadership abilities

Profile of 30 SME Interviews

Extract from Perren and Grant (2001) 20 "Twenty-one entrepreneurial testimonies have been taken and nine SME managers also gave witness. While, there was no intention of trying to achieve any form of statistical significance in sampling, it was felt to be important to receive evidence from a broad range of entrepreneurs and SME managers. Table [2] shows that evidence has been taken from entrepreneurs and SME managers who have experience of businesses with a range of size bands and sectors. An 'M' in brackets after the case letter denotes the nine cases where a manager in the business was interviewed in addition to the entrepreneur21.

Size Band22 Sector

Micro (approx. 1 to 10 employees)

Small 11 to 50 employees

Medium to larger scale 50 plus employees

Trading (Retail/ Business to Business)

Case A (M) Gift Shop

Case E (M) Furniture Sales

Case F Nappy Wholesale

Case L (M) Phone Retail and Mail Order Outlets

Case M (M) Retail Chemist Outlets

Case N Mail-order Clothing

Service (Retail/ Business to Business)

Case B (M) Printing

Case C Publishing Consultancy

Case G Graphic Design

Case H Consulting and Communication

Case I Market Research

Case O (M) Civil Engineering Consulting

Case P Recruitment Agency

Case Q Childcare

Case R Specialist Wiring

Manufacturing Case D (M) Design and Manufacture of Water Quality Instruments

Case J (M) Serial investor in small manufacturers

Case K Photographic Equipment

Case S (M) Automotive Machine Components and Sheet Metal Fabrication

Case T Food Manufacturer

Case U Pottery Manufacture

Table 2 Entrepreneurial Witness[es]"

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Profile of 57 Professions Interviews

Extract from Fox et al (2001)23 "We were commissioned to examine the nature and quality of management and leadership development in the professions. We did this by taking each of the six types of profession identified by Cheetham (1999) and looking at several cases within each type. In each of the eighteen cases, we interviewed three different kinds of stakeholder: a professional practitioner, a representative of the relevant professional body and a trainer/developer/educator who provided management and leadership training to the profession in question. Table [3] contains a list of the eighteen professions studied and the interviews conducted. Table 2 specifies the professional bodies interviewed in each case, since some professions are in fact served by several professional associations. For example, in Nursing we could have gone for the Royal College of Nursing but in fact we went for the UK Council for Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (the UKCC), which is arguably more inclusive. Table 2 also provides a code for each case which may be used as a key to some of the tables provided in the analysis.

Within 4 out of 6 of Cheetham's categories we collected data on 3 example professions. However, in Teaching/Training we looked at only 2 professions while in Policy, Administration and Business Support we looked at 4. We looked at 18 cases in all (see Table [3]).

Types of Interviews Professional

Practitioners Representation of Professional Body / Association

Trainer, Developer and / or Educators of Professionals

Types of Professions

1. Technical & Scientific

? Chemical Engineering

? Architecture

? Surveying

II

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

2. Medicine & Healthcare

? Medicine

? Nursing

? Speech & Language Therapy

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

3. Policy, Administration & Business Support

? Personnel & Development

? Purchasing & Suppliers

? Civil Service

? Local Government

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

4. Legal & Financial

? Law

? Accounting

? Banking

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

17

5. Pastoral/Spiritual Care

? Church of England

? Probation Service

? Social Work

I

III

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

6. Teaching / Training

? Higher Education

? Youth & Community Work

I

I

I

I

I

I

Sub Total 21 18 18

TOTAL 57

[Table 3: Profile of Interviews]"

Profile of 6 Large Organisation Interviews

Case Description

A Head of Public Sector Organisation offering mental health care.

B Manager of Business to Business section of a manufacturer.

C Senior Manager in large organisation in the financial services sector.

D Group finance director for large private sector organisation

F Head of operations and product for a large private sector manufacturer and retailer

G Manager of Rehabilitation Team supporting people in the community

Table 4: Profile of large organisation interviews

18

Appendix C

Comparing Management and Leadership Framework with

Previous Management Standards Table 5 summarises the Council's management and leadership abilities framework and maps on to it the areas identified in the Management Education Training Organisation standards from from the web (www.management.standards.org).

CEML Management and Leadership Abilities

METO Management Standards

Thinking Abilities Think Strategically

ØBalance Agendas

ØChallenge Status-quo and Opposition

ØDevelop Industry Knowledge

ØDevelop Networks

ØFocus on Customer

ØSet Goals

ØSpot Opportunities

ØThink Conceptually and Reflect

ØThink Creatively

ØThink Entrepreneurially

ØThink Globally

ØThink Markets

ØThink Strategically

ØThink Technologically

People Abilities

Manage self

ØAccept Responsibility

ØDemonstrate Dependability

ØExude Enthusiasm

ØHandle Stress and Health Issues

ØManage Time

ØPossess Adaptability and Flexibility

ØPossess Drive, Passion and Hard-work

ØPossess Personal Ethics and Values

ØPossess Self Confidence

ØPossess Spontaneity

Key Role C: Manage People

ØManage Yourself

ØDevelop your own resources

ØEnhance your own performance

19

ØPossess Stamina and Perseverance

ØPossess Tough-mindedness

ØProvide Good Instincts and Common-sense

ØStrive for Consistency of Approach

ØStrive for Emotional Stability

Manage and lead people

ØAcknowledge & Reward Others

ØAssess and Recognise People's Potent

ØBuild Teams

ØConsult and Collaborate

ØDeal with Politics

ØDelegate Work and Responsibility

ØDevelop People

ØFacilitate and Chair Meetings

ØHandle Diverse Workforce

ØKnow Employment Rules

ØManage Conflict Situations

ØManage Level Above

ØMotivate People

ØPossess Patience and Tolerate mistakes

ØProvide feedback

ØRecruit Competent People

ØSupport People

ØTrust People

Lead direction and culture

ØCreate Good Org Communication

ØCreate Shared Vision

ØEncourage Creativity and Flexibility

ØHandle Change

ØHandle Risk and Ambiguity

ØInspire People

ØLead by Example

ØManage Public Relations

ØPlan small wins and reinforce

Manage relationships

ØBargain, Sell and Negotiate

ØBuild Empathy, Relationships and Trust

ØCreate Bearing and Presence

ØContribute to the selection of personnel for activities

ØSelect personnel for activities

ØContribute to the development of teams and individuals

ØDevelop teams and individuals to enhance performance

ØDevelop management teams

ØLead the work of teams and individuals to achieve their objectives

ØManage the performance of teams and individuals

ØDelegate work to others

ØRespond to poor performance in your team

ØDeal with poor performance in your team

ØRedeploy personnel and make redundancies

ØCreate effective working relationships

ØDevelop productive working relationships

ØEnhance productive working relationships

20

ØDisplay Assertiveness

ØDisplay Humour

ØListen to People

ØPresent Self and Ideas

Task Abilities

Manage information

ØAcquire Information

ØAnalyse Information

ØMake Plans

ØManage Accounts and Finances

ØManage Budgets

ØTake Decisions

Key Role D: Manage Information

ØManage information for action

ØFacilitate meetings

ØChair and participate in meetings

ØProvide information to support decision making

ØEstablish information management and communication systems

ØUse information to take critical decisions

Manage resources

ØAllocate Resources

ØMarshall Resources

ØSafeguard Assets

Key Role B: Manage Resources

ØSupport the efficient use of resources

ØManage the use of physical resources

ØManage the use of financial resources

ØDetermine the effective use of resources

ØSecure financial resources for your organisation's plans

Key Role E: Manage Energy

ØIdentify the scope for improvements in the way the organisation managers energy

ØProvide advice on the development and implementation of energy policies

ØPromote energy efficiency

ØMonitor and evaluate energy efficiency

ØIdentify improvements to energy efficiency

ØProvide advice and support for the development of energy efficient practices

ØProvide advice and support for the development and implementation of systems to measure energy usage

ØProvide advice and support for improving energy efficiency

Manage activities and quality

ØAttend to detail

ØAudit Quality

ØControl and Monitor Activities

ØDevelop Knowledge of Business

ØDevelop Systems and Procedures

Key Role A: Manage Activities

ØMaintain activities to meet requirements

ØManage activities to meet requirements

ØManage activities to meet customer requirements

ØContribute to improvements at work

ØManage the change in organisational activities

21

ØEstablish Priorities

ØEvaluate Progress

ØMonitor Plan and Control Projects

ØProvide Practical and Technical Competence

ØSolve Problems

ØReview external and internal operating environments

ØEstablish strategies to guide the work of your organisation

ØEvaluate and improve organisational performance

Key Role F: Manage Quality

ØPromote the importance and benefits of quality

ØProvide advice and support for the development and implementation of quality policies

ØManage continuous quality assurance systems

ØProvide advice and support for the development and implementation of quality systems

ØMonitor compliance with quality systems

ØCarry out quality audits

Key Role G: Manage projects

ØContribute to project planning and preparation

ØCo-ordinate the running of projects

ØContribute to project closure

ØPlan and prepare projects

ØManage the running of projects

ØComplete projects

Table 5. Mapping across from Council's Management and Leadership Abilities to the areas identified in the Management Education Training Organisation standards

22

Appendix D

The Platform for Management and Leadership Abilities in Higher Education

Table 6 summarises the Council's management and leadership abilities framework and maps on to it the areas identified in the "Dearing Report" (Higher Education in the Learning Society, The National Committee of inquiry into Higher Education, HMSO, Crown Copyright, 1997) (http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ncihe/index.htm). The committee's consultations identified a range of skills, but "no consensus about a definitive list". After discussion they highlighted four key skill areas that should be woven into the Higher Education curriculum: communication skills; numeracy ; the use of information technology and learning how to learn.

Management and Leadership Abilities

Cross Curricula Areas in Schools

Thinking Abilities ? Think strategically

People Abilities

? Manage and lead people

? Lead direction and culture

? Manage relationships

? Manage Self ? Communication skills

? Learning how to learn

Task Abilities

? Manage activities and quality

? Manage resources

? Manage information ? Numeracy

? The use of information technology

Table 6. Mapping across from Council's Management and Leadership Abilities Framework to the skills identified in the Dearing report

23

Appendix E

The Platform for Management and Leadership Abilities in the School Curriculum

Table 7 summarises the Council's management and leadership abilities framework and maps on to it the 'across the curriculum areas' identified in the National Curriculum online system for schools (http://www.nc.uk.net/learn.html).

Management and Leadership Abilities Cross Curricula Areas in Schools

Thinking Abilities ? Think strategically ? Enterprise and entrepreneurial skill

? Creativity (e.g. Generating ideas, Developing ideas, Hypothesising, Applying imagination, Seeking innovative alternatives)

People Abilities ? Manage and lead people ? Lead direction and culture ? Manage relationships

? Working with others (e.g. Planning work, Working towards objectives, Identifying objectives, Reviewing work, Working in groups, Working in pairs)

? Manage Self ? Spiritual, moral, social and cultural ? Communication (e.g. Discussions, Presenting, Reading & synthesising information, Writing documents in general, Using images, Using a range of sources of information, Using different forms/styles to suit audience, Using different forms/styles to suit situation, Using specialist vocabulary/language/notation) ? Improving own learning & performance (e.g. Setting targets, Using a plan, Reviewing progress & achievements)

Task Abilities ? Manage activities and quality ? Manage resources

? Evaluation (e.g. Developing evaluation criteria, Applying evaluation criteria, Judging the value of information and ideas) ? Problem solving (e.g. Confirming/identifying problems & options, Planning & trying out options, Checking if problems have been solved)

? Manage information ?Information processing (e.g. Finding relevant information, Organising information, Comparing/contrasting information, Identifying and analysing relationships) ? Financial capability ? Enquiry (e.g. Asking questions, Defining questions for enquiry, Planning research, Predicting outcomes, Anticipating consequences, Drawing conclusions) ? Reasoning (e.g. Giving reasons for opinions/actions, Inferring, Making deductions, Making informed judgements/decisions, Using precise language to reason) ? Application of number ? Information technology

Table 7. Mapping across from Council's Management and Leadership Abilities Framework to the 'across the curriculum areas' identified in the National Curriculum.

24

Notes 1 A helpful summary of the debates in the area is provided on pages 79 to 85 of Winterton, J. Parker, M., Dodd, M., McCracken, M. and Henderson, I. (2000) Future Skill Needs of Managers, Department for Education and Employment, Research Report RR182. 2 See for example, Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979) Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis, Heinemann Educational Books, London. 3 Our epistemological position could perhaps be aligned with the pragmatism suggested by Rorty, where the researcher accepts that there is no absolute 'truth' and that truth can only operate within boundaries created by the researcher (see Rorty, R., 1998, Truth and Progress, introductory section, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). We hope that this report has transcended the naïve realism where the researcher is caged within artificial boundaries that have been set by others, in this case the functional discourse of 'competence' in the wider society. In this case, it would probably be helpful to conduct the sort of analysis in this report, whether the boundary created around the knowledge was objective or subjective. The knowledge claims are not determined by the analysis so much as the predetermined paradigmatic position brought by the researcher or the reader (see endnote 2). 4 At the moment of writing we find ourselves leaning towards the position that the management and leadership abilities identified are socially constructed artefacts shared through language that reduce some underlying complex reality into manageable labels that social -actors view (or at least portray) as 'facts' . These 'factual' labels (abilities) are powerful as they represent a shared (or what appears to be shared) interpretation of an underlying (but untouchable) reality; social actors use them to interpret past events and also to predict/plan future actions. (see for example, Berger, P.L. and Luckmann, T. (1967) The Social Construction of Reality, Penguin, Harmondsworth). 5 Perren, L.J. and Grant, P. (2001) Management and Leadership in UK SMEs, Witness Testimonies from the World of Entrepreneurs and SME Managers, Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership, London. 6 Fox, S., Dewhurst, F., Eyres, J. and Vickers, D. (2001) The Nature and Quality of Management and Leadership in the Professions: A Qualitative Study, Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership, London. 7 As recommended as good practice in Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis, An expanded sourcebook, Sage, Thousand Oaks. 8 For example, the set Accountability is made up of the following nodes:

Accept responsibility

Accepts responsibility for failures

Accountability-Commitment

Application Responsibility

Being visible, Accountable

Decisiveness, Takes responsibility

Take responsibility for actions 9 This is the notion of triangulation of sources to support a specific item of data or claim. A succinct explanation of this approach is provided on pages 133-134 of Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1991) Management Research: An Introduction, Sage, London. 10 The authors cannot locate the original source of the notion of data saturation, but they believe it was written by Gummesson. 11 The following individuals participated in the consultation meeting: John Lockett (Director of Leadership Development for the Barclays Group), Maxine Warwick (The Law Society); Philip O'Brien (London Excellence), Tim Grant (New College, Nottingham), Helen Rogers (Leeds

25

Business School), Martin Sloman (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development), Diana Pinkney (Institute of Management); Jeff Gold (Leeds Business School) and Denise Skinner (Oxford Brooks). 12 Katz, R.L. (1955) "Skills of an effective administrator', Harvard Business Review, Jan-Feb, pp. 33-41. Cited in for example, Certo, S.C. (1997) Modern Management, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. 13 See for example, discussion in Stubbs, M. (1997) "Language and the Mediation of Experience: Linguistic Representation and Cognitive Orientation", in F. Coulmas (ed) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, Blackwell, Oxford. 14 The framework captures what Giddens (1984) calls the discursive consciousness (that is those components of practice that actors can explain), but it is less likely to capture Practical consciousness (that is those components of practice that are tacitly known but actors have difficulty in explaining). If the framework is too tightly constructed then it might crowd-out the opportunity for actors to bring their practical consciousness to their interpretation of action. (see Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society, Polity, Cambridge. 15 Perren., L., 'Comparing Entrepreneurship and Leadership', CEML Working Paper, 2000. 16 Management Education Training Organisation standards from the web (www.management-charter-initiative.org.uk/standards). 17 Higher Education in the Learning Society, The National Committee of inquiry into Higher Education, HMSO, Crown Copyright, 1997) (http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ncihe/index.htm) 18 'Across the curriculum areas' identified in the National Curriculum online system for schools (http://www.nc.uk.net/learn.html). 19 Kouzes, J.M. and Posner, B. (1987) The Leadership Challenge, Josses Bass, San Francisco. This was based upon 550 full personal best experience of leadership surveys, 780 short form surveys and 42 in-depth interviews. 20 See Perren, L.J. and Grant, P. (2001) Management and Leadership in UK SMEs, Wintess Testimonies from the World of Entrepreneurs and SME Managers, Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership, London. 21 Case L was originally considered to be a small service company mainly offering advice on telecommunications systems until the interviews when it was shown to be a medium size business more involved with the trading of telecommunications equipment. This led to the small service manager interview box not being populated and the medium trading box being duplicated. 22 Defined from DTI (1999). 23 See Fox, S., Dewhurst, F., Eyres, J. and Vickers, D. (2001) The Nature and Quality of Management and Leadership in the Professions: A Qualitative Study, Council for Excellence in Management and Leadership, London.