management in the 20st century

8/6/2019 Management in the 20st Century

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Pter Koronvry (2004)

MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE

IN THE 20TH CENTURY

A Short Summary1890-1990


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OBJECTIVES

To show what developments have led to the presentstate of management.

To introduce major theories and mark their place inmanagement theory and practice.

To demonstrate what problems can be handled with

their help.


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World War 1

World War 2

1960

1970

1985

Heavyindustry

Engineer-managers:Pseudo-Taylorism

Behaviourist& industrial

psychology

Industrial psychology:Human RelationsK. Lewin, Ch. Barnard(General Mgmt.)

Import of TQMcomplexity, chaos, change

future studies

BPR, BIS, MIS ...

Ch. Handy Japanese mgmt.H. Mintzberg M. for excellence globalisation

crisis, responsibility, M.Ed.

Modernisation and exportof Taylorism: Qual. App.,TQM (Japan)

Betriebswirtschaft (Europe)

Export of Taylorism (USSR)

Neo-Human RelationsPsychologySystems

approach

Social psy.Systems

approach

ContingencyPsychologySociology

Systems & DM SchoolsGeneral & Strategic Mgmt.Leadership: Michigan, Ohio

Leadership: Texas, NY

Human Resources Sch. Systems SchoolsDMManagement Science

(Taylor, Fayol, Weber)

F. Fiedler, W. Reddin,R. House, J. Adair

KEY TRENDS OF 20TH CENTURY MANAGEMENT


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1911: T aylor, F.W., Principles of Scientific Management, Harper and Brothers, New York, NY, 1911.

1 91 7: Gilbr et h, F.B. an d Gilbr et h, L.M .,Applied Motion Study, Sturgis and Walton, New York, NY, 1917.

1916/1930/1947: Fayol, H., General and Industrial Management, Pitman an d Sons, London, 1949.

..../1947 : Weber, M., The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, trans. by A.M. Henderson and T. Parsons, Free Press, New York, NY, 1947.

. .. .: Bertalanffy , L. von, The h is tory and status of general systems theory,Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 15, December 1972, pp. 407-26 .

1937: Gulick, L., Notes on the theory of organization (1937), in Shafri tz, J.M. and Ott , J.S. (Eds), Classic s of Organization Theory,3rd ed., Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 1992.

1938: Barnard, C., The Functions of the Executive, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1938.1943: Urwick, L.F., The Elements of Administration, Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1943.

1 94 3: M aslo w, A., A t heo ry of m ot iv at io n, Psychological Review, Vol. 50, 1943, pp. 370-96 .

1 94 4: Vo n Neum an n, J. an d Mo rgen st er n, O., Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1944.

1947: Mooney, J.D., The Principles of Organization, rev. ed., Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1947.

1947: Follett , M.P. , Constructive conflict, in Metcalfe, H.C. and Urwick, L. (Eds), Dynamic Administrati on: The Collec ted Papers of M.P. Follett, Harper Brothers, New York, NY, 1941, pp. 30-4 9.

1954: Drucker, P., The Practice of Management, Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1954.

1959: Lindblom, C.E., The science of muddling through (1959), in Shafritz, J.M. and Hyde, A.C. (Eds), Classics of Public Administration, 3 rd ed., Pacific Grove, CA, 1992.

1960: McGregor, D., The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 19 60.

1961: McClelland, D., The Achieving Society, Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ, 1961 .

1 96 1: Ko on tz, H., T he man age men t t heo ry jun gle, Journal of the Academy of Management, December 1961, pp. 174 -88.

1962: Chandler, A.D., Strategy and Structure, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1962.

1965: Ansoff, H.I., Corporate Strategy: An Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 19 65.1966: Herzberg, F., Work and the Nature of Man,World Press, Cleveland, OH, 1966.

....: Argyris, C., Intervention Theory and Method: A Behavioral Science View, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 19 70.

....: Simon, H.A.,Administrative Behavior,3rd ed., Free Press, New York, NY, 1976.

19 69: Lawren ce, P.R. an d Lo rsch, J.W., Developing Organizations: Diagnosis and Action, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1969 .

1972: Schein, E., Organization Psychology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972.

1 97 3: Kast , F.E . an d Ro sen zweig, J.E ., Contingency Views of Organization and Management, Science Research Associates, Chicago, IL, 1973.

1976: Handy, Ch., Understanding Organisations

1979: Mintzberg, H., The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979.

1980: Porter, M.E., Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York, NY, 1980.

19 81: P ascale, R.T . an d At hos, A.G., The Art of Japanese Management, Warner Books, NewYork, NY, 1981.

1981: Ouchi, W.G., Theory Z, Addison-Wesley, New York, NY, 1981.

1 98 2: P et er s, T .J. an d W at er man , R.H. Jr , In Search of Excellence: Lessons from Americas Best Run Companies,Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1982.

KEY BOOKS


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CHANGES IN THE MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENT

IN THE BEGINNING AND AT THE END

OF THE 20TH CENTURY

Well-defined, easy-to-distinguish quite closed Os. Personal and paper-based formalised communication. Understood and predictable environments. (Cultural

crusades.)

Long time span.

Organisations can adapt to environmental change.

The world seemed relatively well-organised and

reasonable for mistakes either human incapabilities orGod's will could be made responsible.

Future seemed controllable risks seemed identifiable.

Realities frustrate those who have lost their belief incontrol.

CRISES HAPPEN JUST SO.

Internetted, boundariless organisations. Sophisticated, numerous technology interfaces.

Impersonality informalisation? Hardly understood and unpredictable environments.

(Cultural preventive strikes.) Very short time span high time constraint high

pressure. Environmental change is far too radical and fast for

organisations to adapt to it. Ever-growing turbulence due to diverse strategies

larger system suboptimised. The Age ofUnreason (Ch. Handy). Theories of the irrationaland the chaotic. Accepting responsibility withoutbeing blamed? OR: Looking for scapegoats orgoing bananas?

Control over future outcomes is impossible control is a myth.

Realities of change frustrate those who believe incontrol.

CRISES ARE MADE; WEMAKE THEM.


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TaylorTaylor

ADAIR

Vroom

MINTZBERG

HANDY

DRUCKERArgyris

McGregor

Herzberg

Maslow

McClelland

Simon

BARNARD

WeberFAYOL

Mayo

Management Gurus


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World War 1

World War 2

1960

1970

1985

How to beproductive?

How to organise for efficiency?

How to lead for effectiveness?

How to use leadership styles

effectively?

How to beproductive (US)?

How to manageand lead Os (Fr)?

How to organise& administer (G)?

How to decide?

How to kill?

How to lead?

Task orientation

Peopleorientation

How can they do that?MOTIVATION

How to build motivating Os?

How to match DM andleadership styles?

How to understand us, our teams, organisations, markets?How to better market positions, organisations, teams?How to train management?

How to improve management?How to help management develop?

CORE QUESTIONS OF MANAGEMENT THEORY


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F. W. Taylor

FrederickTaylor

Task Management

Identify motions

Optimise motions

Select motions

Create optimalprocesses

Train

TIME STUDY

Frank & Lillian

Gilbreth

7 56

121110

8 4

21

9 3

MOTION STUDY

17 therbligs =

motions with sign

Film process

Play film slow -

identify motions

Eliminate

unnecessarymotions, change

slow or tiring ones

Map optimal work

process

Train

PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MGMT

1. Use science instead of

thumb-rules in process optimisation.

2. Scientifically select & train

workers, provide them with optimised

tools (ergonomy).

3. Ensure cooperation and

motivation of the worker to help

processes run in the "scientifically

planned" way.

4. Accept share of responsibility btw

worker and manager - the worker is r.

for the execution, all the rest is the

manager's liability!

FUNCTIONAL WORK MANAGEMENT

Worker

Planning room Workshop

Production

routing

Methods

Time & costs

Discipline

Machine

speed

Labour speed

Quality

Maintenance

Managers

Carl Barth:

QUANTITATIVE

MANAGEMENT

Operations

research

Management

Science

TQM BPR

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Operations

management

Time analysis even 80%difference btw engineers!

Consulting firms incompetent ...Taylor has only 4 disciples!

Limited cooperation to fightraising standards/norms ...

How can the manager bear withso much responsibility? Will theworker be motivated with solittle responsibility/auntonomy?

Too many specialistsinterfering ...


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Management that builds on a wide range of knowledge and personal qualities is primarily the

art of handling people and can be learnt in the same way as other crafts: the smith is made

while forging.

(Henri Fayol's speech on the closing meeting of the International Mining and Metallurgy Congress, 23 June 1900)Henri Fayols

organisation"Gouvernement" = the coordination of organisational activities

Managemen

tlevels

Lowermgmt

Middlem

gmt

Seniormgmt

specialised professional knowledgegeneral

management

Commercial

functions, e.g.:

purchasing,

sales.

Security

functions, e.g.:

guarding

company

property.

Engineering

functions,

e.g.:

production

Organisation functions = organisational activities

Management

functions

planning and forecasting

commanding

controlling

organising

coordinating

Financial

functions, e.g.:

ensuring access

to financial

resources

Accountingfunctions, e.g.:

acquiring and

analysing

financial data.

To maintaincontinuity ofwork, to ensureoptimal utilisationof each worker..

To structureactivities andcontacts at work,to select, trainand monitorsubordinates.

To prepareaction plansbased onpredictions; toensure the unity,continuity

andflexibility ofplanning.

Com2andingOrganisingForecasting

and planning

To focus efforts,to harmonisetheir system.

Coordinating

To comply with atheoretical andpractical frame-work (businesspolicies andpractices, plans,

regulations,orders, etc..)

Controlling


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Fayols Principles of Management

1) Division of work

2) Authority

3) Discipline

4) Unity of command

5) Unity of direction

6) Subordination of individual interests to the general interest

7) Remuneration

14) Esprit de corps

13) Initiative

12) Stability of tenure of personnel

11) Equity

10) Order

9) Scalar chain

8) Centralisation

Division of work

Authority

Discipline

Unity of command

Unity of direction

Subordination ofindividual interests to

the general interest

Remuneration

Esprit de corps

Initiative

Stability of tenure ofpersonnel

Equity

Order

Scalar chain

Centralisation


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Fayol on Communication and

the Managers Personality

Nature

Personality features:

Mental capabilities:

Physical abilities:

Nurture and education

Experience:

Professionalism:

General education:

Avail

energy

determination

responsibility

initiative

loyalty

tact

dignity

health

vigour

decisive appearance

apprehension

capacity to learn

judgement

mental freshness adaptability, flexibility

literacy, general knowledge,

learnedness

professional knowledge and

experience of the organisational

activities headed

experence collected in practice

C

N

O

J

D

M

I

BA F

K

E H

L

G

reports and orders

A the "owner" of a need (e.g. request for pencils)

the "satisfier" of the need (e.g. storekeeper)

distorters of the message

"Fayol's bridge"

H

...

( )


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The Hawthorne Studies (1924-1936)Elton Mayo

the behavioural framework within which Taylorism operates:

The worker has to be treated as a member of a group, not in isolation.

Group membership and status is stronger a motivation than money or the workingenvironment.

Informal groups influence even determine worker behaviour. If foremen/managers want workers show loyalty to company objectives, they have to

manipulate them through their social needs.

The behaviour of the foreman/manager has a direct impact on the productivityof the group.

The informal group regulates production standards (at a much lower level thanpossible ...).

Different cliques have different prestige. Individual prestige comes from the clique.

Workers maintain status quo in prestige differences and productivity with sarcasm,derision, mockery, nicknames, ostrachism, laughter, ... physical punishment.

Group behaviour expressed in shared slang: rate buster (buzgmcsing), chiseler(lazsl), squealer (besg).

General rule: do not show up!

Pt K (2004)


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Perspectives on Leadership

[One has to be born to be a manager/leader. genetic heritage,

evolutional selection, inborn traits, charisma ...: BIRTH?

CHARACTER? ...]

[One has to be appointed to be a manager/leader. positional

power, bureaucratic authority ...: NEPOTISM? CONTACTS?

CAREER? MERITS?]

[One has to be the best to be a manager/leader. functional

power, professionalism, ...: SPECIALIST KNOWLEDGE]

One has to be trained to be a manager/leader. managementeducation and training: what and how to teach one to make

him/her a good manager/leader? ...: BEHAVIOUR

One has to develop into a manager/leader. experience,

lifelong learning, learning by doing, personality development

cycles of managers ...: PERSONAL MATURITY



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Leadership or Management?

Phase 0: Leading non-existant (!?)

Phase 1: Leading as a management function

Phase 2: Managing and leading in peer

distinct, different, but parallel functions

Phase 3: Managing is but one function of

leadership

ControllingDirect

& LeadOrganisePlan Staff

Koontz and O'Donnell, 1976

Controlling MotivationPlanning Coordination

E. F. L. Brech, 1957

Forecast & Plan CoordinateOrganise Command Control

H. Fayol, 1916

Organise

Coordinate

Control

Plan

Develop &

Mentor

Motivate

Challenge

Select

Establish concept

base for

information systems

Engineer

information systems

Generate/apply

informationInformation

Articulate cultural

imperatives &

values

Set command

climate

Model & reinforce

valuesValues

Integrate

structure/purpose

Design

interdependenciesForge teamworkTeamwork

Create visionCreate plansExecute plansVision

STRATEGIC

LEADERSHIP

ORGANISATIONALLEADERSHIP

DIRECT

LEADERSHIPFUNCTION

based on: SLDM , p. 2/10

Recruit, train,

supply with tools

Accept

responsility

Analyse & optimise

work process

Cooperate &

motivate

F. W. Taylor, 1911



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The Leader-Centred Model(OR: our organisation is spinning ...)

M

LDTheory

Organisation

Theory

Management

Philosophy

EpistemologyandSystemsThe

ory

Ethics

Ontology

Logic

Worldview

Organisation

Individu

al

Team

Cultu

re

LEADER

Managing

D

eciding

Leadin

g



16/42


1D Models of Leadership

System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4

Rensis Likert, Michigan, 195 5

THEORY X THEORY Y

Douglas McGregor, 1960

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1957

AI AII CI CII GII

Vroom and Yetton, 1973; Vroom & Jago , 1988

Laissez-faireAutrocratic Democratic

Kurt Lewin et a l., 1929

Safety needs

Physical needs

Self-actualisation needs

Esteem needs

Love needs

Abraham Maslow, 1943



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1D Models of Leadership 1:

Rensis Likert (Michigan Studies, 1950)

System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4

Exploitative-authoritative:

power & direction fromtop downwards

threats & punishmentemployed communication poor teamwork non-existent productivity mediocre authoritative style

Benevolent-authoritative:

similar to E-A, but: some upward opportunity

for consultation &delegation rewards available as well

as threats productivity fair to good considerable absenteeism

& turnover paternalistic style

Consultative:

goals set, orders issuedafter discussion withsubordinates

communication is bothupwards & downwards

teamwork at leastpartially encouraged

some involvement ofemployees as motivator

productivity good moderate absenteeism consultative style

Participative-group:

the ideal system participation leading

to commitment tothe O's goals in afully cooperativeway

communication goodboth upwards, down-wards & laterally

motivation obtainedby a variation ofmeams

productivity excellent absenteeism & turn-over low

democratic style

Managers as linking pins

Low productivity High productivity



18/42

y ( )

Social Psychology behind 1D Thinking:

Douglas McGregor, Chris Argyris

IMMATURE MATURE

THEORY X THEORY Y

The Human Side of Enterprise, 1960

Employees inherently lazy, requiring coercion

and control, avoiding responsibility and only

seeking security. The Theory X manager is tough,

autocratic, supports tight controls with punishment-

reward systems.

Employees like work it is as natural as

rest or play; if committed to the O's

objectives, they do not have to e coerced

or controlled; more rather than less people

are able to exercise imagination andingenuity in work. The Theory Y manager

is benevolent, participative, believes in self-

control a humanist and democrat.

passivitydependence

behave in few ways

erratic, shallow interests

short time perspectives

subordinate position

lack of awareness of self

activityrelative independence

behave in many ways

deeper interests

long time perspectives

equal or superior position

awareness and control of self

Chris Argyris



19/42

y

Contingency Theories behind 1D Thinking:

Burns & Stalker, Lawrence & Lorsch

MECHANISTIC SYSTEMS:

stability

ORGANIC SYSTEMS:

change

Burns & Stalker, The Management of Innovation (1961)

a specialised differentiation of tasks pursued m/l in

their own right a precise definition of rights, obligations & technical

methods of each fuctional role

a hierarchy of control, authority & communication, mostlyorders, instructions, decisions downwards, information

upwards tendency forvertical interaction btw members of the O a tendency for operations and working behaviour to be

dominated by superiors an insistence on loyalty to the O and obedience

to superiors

individual tasks relevant to the total situation of the O,

adjusted & redefined through interaction with others a networkstructure of control, authority &

communication, where knowledge of technical or

commercial aspects of tasks may be located anywherein the network a lateral rather than vertical direction of communication

through the O, communications consist ofinformation & advice rather

than instructions and decisions, commitment to the O's tasks seen to be more important

than loyalty and obedience

Stable, structured, friendlyenvironment

Dynamic, diverse, uncertainenvironment

Lawrence and Lorsch on con flict resolution and organisationa l success, 1967

a lesser degree of differentiation + a high degree of

integration required integration tends to be achieved at the top end of the

management hierarchy

higher degree of differentiation and integration required the more differentiated the O, the more difficult to resolve

conflict integrating functons carried out by middle and low-level

managersN.B.:Differentiation: division of labour/specialisation, differences in attitudes an d behaviou r of the managers concerned (orientation to wards

particular goals, time orientation (short o r long term?), interpersonal orientation, relative formality of the structure of their functional units).

Integration: the quality of the state of collaboration amo ng departments, both the rational-mechanical processes & oth er types of

interrelationships.

The key to success is to have more effective conflict resolution

than that of the competitors. Improved ways of CR lead to statesof diffenentiation & integration that are appropriate for the Env.



20/42

Tannenbaum & Schmidt, HBR, 1957

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

AUTHORITARIAN DEMOCRATIC

Use of authority by the manager

Area of freedom for subordinates

The manager

makes decision

& announces it

The manager

sells Ds

The M presents

D & invites

questions

The M presents

tentative D

subject to

changes

The M presents

the problem,

gets suggestions,

makes D

The M defines

limits, asks

group to make

decision

The M permits

subordinates

to function

within limits

defined by

superior



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1D Models of Leadership 4a: Vroom and Yetton, 1973

AI You solve the problem or make the decision yourself using the information available toyou at the present time.

AII You obtain any necessary information for subordinates, then decide on a solution to theproblem yourself. You may or may not tell subordinates the purpose subordinates the purposeof your questions or give information about the problem or decision on which you are working.

The input provided by them is clearly in response to your request for specific information.They do not play a role in the definition of the problem or in generating or evaluating alternativesolutions.

CI You share the problem with the relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas andsuggestions without bringing them together as a group. Then you make the decision. Thisdecision may or may not reflect your subordinates' influence.

CII You share the problem with your subordinates in a group meeting. In this meeting youobtain their ideas and sugestions. Then you make the decision, which may or may not reflect

your subordinates' influence.

GII You share the problem with your subordinates as a group. Together you generate andevaluate alternatives and attempt to reach agreement (consensus) on a solution. Your role ismuch like that of chairperson, coordinating the discussion, keeping it focused on the problem,and making sure that the critical issues are discussed. You can provide the group withinformation or ideas that you have, but you do not try to 'press' them to adopt 'your' solution,and you are willing to accept and implement any solution that has the support of the entiregroup.

A = autocratic, C = consultative, G = group



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1D Models of Leadership 4b: Vroom and Jago

QR

CR

CR

LI

LI

CP

CP

ST

ST

CP

CP GC

GC

GC

GC

CO

CO

SI

SI

high

low

high

low

yes

no

no

AI

GII

AI

CII

CI

AII

CII

GII

CII

GII

yes

no yes

yes

no

no

highlow

yes

no

yes

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

no

yes

yes

no

yesno

yesno

yes

no

no

yes

yes

no

QR Quality requirement

How important is the technical quality of this decision?

CR Commitment requirement

How important is the subordinate commitment to the decision?

LI Leaders information

Do y ou have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

ST Problem structure

Is the problem well-structured?

CP Commitment probability

If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain

that your subordinate(s) would be committed to the decision?

GC Goal congruence

Do subordinates share the organisational goals to be at tained

in solving this p roblem?

CO Subordinate conflict

Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?

SI Subordinate information

Do subordinates have sufficient information to make

a high-quality decision?

[TC Time constraint

Does a critically severe time constraint

limit your ability to involve

subordinates? GD Geographical dispersion

Are the costs involved in

bringing together

geographically

dispersed

subordinates prohibitive?

MT Motivation-Time

How important is it to you to

minimise the t ime it takes t o make the decision?

MD Motivation-Development

How important is it to you to maximise the opportunities

for subordinate development?]

Time-Driven Model: Time critically important,Developmentis unimportant



23/42

2D Models of Leadership

0

9

Production orientation

Blake and Mouton, Texas University, 1964: The Managerial Grid

9

COUNTRYCLUB

MIDDLE-OF-THE-ROAD

TEAM

TASK-ORIENTATION

POORPe

opleorientation

Cons

ideration

Initiating Structure

Harpin and Winer, Ohio State University, 1957

high

high

low

low

Cons

ideration

Initiating Structure

Harpin and Winer, Ohio State University, 1957

high

high

low

low

high

high

low

low

Henry Mintzberg, 1973: the roles of the manager reinterpreted in 2D

management

organisation

INTERPERSONAL INFORMATIONAL DECISIONAL

FIGUREHEAD

LEADER

LIAISON

SPOKESMAN

NEGOTIATOR

RESOURCE

ALLOCATOR

DISTURBANCE

HANDLER

ENTREPRENEURMONITOR

DISSEMINATOR

people

R

elationshipBehaviour

(SupportiveBehaviour)

Task Be haviour

(Guidance)

Hersey and Blanchard: coaching and leadership style, 1988

high

lowlow

high

TELLING

SELLINGPARTICIPATING

DELEGATING

Follower readinessR4 R3 R2 R1

unable and

unwilling or

insecure

able but

unwilling

or

insecure

unable but

willing or

insecure

able and

willing or

confident

Follower-directed Leader-directed



24/42

Frederick Fiedler

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Effectiveness

high

low

SITUATIONALCONTROL

LEADER-MEMBERRELATIONS

POSITIONALPOWER

TASKSTRUCTURE

strong

good

structured

strong

strong

good

structured

weak

strong

good

unstructured

strong

weak

bad

unstructured

weak

weak

bad

unstructured

strong

medium

bad

structured

weak

medium

bad

structured

strong

medium

good

unstructured

weak

LPC = least preferred co-workertest

low LPC

high LPC



25/42

William Reddin (New Hampshire University)

Related Integrated

Separated Dedicated

Missionary Compromiser

Deserter Autocrat

Developer Executive

Bureaucrat BenevolentAutocrat

RO

TO

Appro

priate

situatio

ns

Inapp

ropriate

situation

sMo

reeff

ective

Lesseffec

tive

RO = relationship orientationTO = task orientation



26/42

Robert House: Path-Goal Theory

ManagementStyles: directive supportive participative achievement-oriented

Employee Attitudes

and Behaviour: job satisfaction acceptance of leader motivation

EnvironmentFactors: employee's task authority system work group

Employeecharacteristics : locus of control task ability need for achievement experience need for clarity



27/42

Myers and Briggs: Personality Types of Leaders 1

Relating to other people

Setting priorities

Generating information

Making decisionsThinking(T)

Introvert

(I)Perceptual

(P)

Intuitive

(N)Emotional

(F)Sensing

(S)

Judgmental

(J)

Thinking(T)

Conceptual types

Modifying factors



28/42

Myers and Briggs: Personality Types of Leaders 2

SJs TRADITIONALISTS (ISTJ, ISFJ, ESTJ, ESFJ): running the system + stabilityfactual, systems managers, good decision-makers; practical, assess consequences and risks before acting; place a high valueon order and punctuality; dependable and tend to rely more on facts than on people; their managerial style is often formaland impersonal; loyal to the status-quo, may be late to perceive the need for change, may even be suspicious and afraid ofchange to existing systems; very good at handling large qualities of data, excellent in coordination and integration, managetime well

SPs TROUBLE-SHOOTERS (ISTP, ESTP) and NEGOTIATORS (ISFP, ESFP):sensing problems +

dealing with themproblem solvers; very flexible and aware of their situations and their implications; they use the system to effect changerather than trying to change the system; stimulus-response managers, live in the reality of current needs may shift positionsto cope with these, thus sometimes appear unpredictable to colleagues, may appear disorganised and disorderly totraditionalists; good at sniffing out and dealing with trouble before a largeproblem develops

NFs CATALYSTS (INFJ, INFP, ENFP, ENFJ): maintain communication + use people to best effectcommunicators, charismatic, committed managers; work well and intuitively with people, care for them; their DM may beinfluenced more by their own personal values than by the facts of the situation; if not nurtured, they become ineffective and

discouraged; very useful in areas like PR, but prefer to work with few constraints; may spend more time in interpersonalinteractions than on task related activities

NTs VISIONARIES (INTJ, INTP, ENTP, ENTJ): look to the future + sense need for change + stimulate itsimplementation

planners, innovators, creative force in organisations, able to see the whole picture and relate it to the present situation lookat the possibilities and analyse them objectively; like to put new new ideas into operation but quickly loose interest andsearch new ideas of challenge within their competence expect competence in others as well; may be insensitive to othersproblems need to be reminded to expect less than perfection; good decision makers expect everybody to read situationsas well as they can often feel it unnecessary to explain their reasons; ideas-men, quickly conceptualise outcomes mayequally quickly leave the organisation where they feel their talents are not beinng used.



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Personality Development of Managers 1: Rational Phases

Pre-morality phase: focus on the physical needs and reactions to them, without considering ethics, morale, values, aspects of good orbad. No knowledge of others views or needs childish egoism. Mental passivity, avoidance of stress caused by environmental stimuli not

in direct contact with individual physical needs. If the parents are also in the re-morality phase (i.e. they are brutal, rude and blasphemious,

the child will not grow out of this phase (s)he will stay furious, jealous, insecure and fearful. It is normal that adults from time to time flee

back from stress into this phase it is part of t he regeneration process after a physical a/or mental shock (LEAVE ME ALONE). T hose wholive their whole life in this phase are usually considered to be psychopaths or sociopaths.

Egocentric phase: individual personality, unique and independent character developed, the middle of the universe, everybody else isthere t o serve him. Reached at th e 2nd year of life. Its features are a stron g desire for possessing, attent ion, havig the cont rol. No interest

in other s views or needs childish egoism: t he little monst er. Star ting to speak No and Mine. Learn to exp ress themselves, where

their limits are, and how to handle boundaries and hindrances. Focus on material goods my mum, my book, my toy! o to the extremes to

see where their limits are. They can be rude, loud, fierce, even malavolent. In this phase one learns not to accept what exists but to do forchanging it to the better, to question accepted rules, customs and habits, to find new ways to solve problems, to get away from old patterns.

Children spoilt by their parents will basically stay in this phase bullying, domination, egotism, selfishness. Hypercritical about others

they are the best. (30-40% of the population are basically egocentric!). Concerned with themselves, their results, their ideas, their achieve-

ment. Mad about status symbols: my house, my car, my yacht, my office... Quarrel in order to kiss and be friends live in cycles of war

and peace. In negotiations, they bite on gimmie-gimmie-gimmie tricks: You deserve ..., You are worth it ... make them feel your power,

keep cont rol and never retreat. Be polite, categorical, make them feel you are the best so y ou can represent th e best of the best offerings

only.

The phase of pleasing:we are not alone t here are oth ers around us too. We are not t he centre o f the universe our survivaldepends on others. The new tactic: to please others make concessions, be helpful, be generous. Children say I love you mum 100x a day,

do the washing up on t heir own and give their favo urite t oy t o t heir little brother/sister (from year 7-8). Learning cooperation, mutuality, team-

work, just division of work, sensibility to others needs ... Psychological needs in centre desire for acceptance and reassurance are the main

triggers. Voluntary acts of grace, favours, uneasiness, apologising ... Need for acceptance, wishing to be liked, manipulating through emotional

racketeering, euphoric monkey-love. Difficulty t o say no, to set limits to others. Agree to t hings they cannot keep yes-men. Hiding problems

from others I can solve it. 30%: stereotypes like faithful secretary, consciencious mother, self-sacrificing mother ... Handle them friendly,

show true intere st, but be definte and cat egorical because they are indecisive.

Authoritarian phase: one cannot please to everybody the task is to find rules that govern individual, group and inter-group relationshipsand help one simplify the comp lexity of realit y. With t he help of laws, books, specialists advice, the example of famo us peop le, etc., one sets up

rules for appropriate behaviour (how to be a good controller, a good husband, a good father, etc.) and, following them, does ones tasks. There

is one best way of doing anything too rigid to see there may be other ways. Defines ones own identity by labelling: gender, religion, race,

nationality, intellectual and physical qualities stated or negated. Central needs are social, trying to socialise with people with the same labels.

Secondary school age group we (= the good) against they (= the bad). About 10% of the population: doctors, lawyers, military or industrial

leaders, show-biz personalities, authors of How to ... books, opinion leaders. They form public taste, preachers of culture and values, advisors

in radio programmes. Authoritarianism helps us live in an organised society, makes us accept patterns. It beomes dangerous, however, when it

makes our thinking inflexible. Task oriented, perfectionist, prescriptive, even arrogant, hindering it cannot be done that way style experts.

When negotiating with them, be rational and systematic, use facts, logic.



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Personality Development of Managers 2: Intuitive Phases

Principle-centred phase : from ones 30s, recognising fundamental universals behind the rules. Main characteristics: correctness, caringfor others, participating. Accept others as they are, differences are seen as positive rather than negative. Avoid airing opinions, judging others.

self-acceptance. Principles followed intuitively, no need for external reassurance, no exceptions. Improving memory, concentration, creativity,

intuition, interpersional relationships we become more effective. There are no problems but opportunities. Direct yourself, influe nce others .

Getting to the to p of o nes potentials. Be correct, helpful, participate in th e tasks for a mont h t hen youll see the difference.

Responsibility phase:who and what we are, what we know, what we have don e are all th e results of our own cho ices and decisions.Becoming aware of ones responsibility we are the sources of our fates. Accepting oneself as the cause of actions and their consequences.

Luck, fate, birth, genetic heritage, the parental house, education, etc. are but excuses we are what we make out of ourselves. Responsibility

for others not because I caused their pains but because I sympathise and I can help them!!! When you leave the picnic place, it should be

cleaner than when you got there you should invest more into th ings than actually you have to.

Universality phase: the individual on the peak. Integrating logic and intuition, order and creativity in a relaxed, self-evident, easygoingway. Living according to their principles continnuously, in peace and harmony with themselves, keepinng their potentials intact even in case of

outside turmoil freedom of the soul, harmony with the universe. Freedom, superhuman achievements, intensive vigour, liveliness, pleasure in

life. Giving example, teaching others to govern their own lives, accept responsbility, showing the way helping others reach the phase of freedom.

Hyperclear objectives and targets of life, sober happiness. Life and work is happiness. Hormony oof the physical and the spiritual. Catharctic,

unversal personalit ies Jesus, Sister T heresa, M. L. King Junior, Einstein , Gandhi, Buddha, bodhissatvas, ...

Confucianism:

If you want to govern a country,

make order in your family first.If you want to keep your family

in order, you should develop your

personality. The ruler is the moral

example for his people moral

education is important to become

a good ruler.

Taoism:

The more laws and regulations, the more

who break them. The less the ruler rules,the better his country will be. Prescriptions

show that what they are about is lost instead

of preaching morale, live accordingly, giving

an example and setting standards.

Bhagavad-gita:

The self-actualised do not have any target

with doing their duty; nevertheless, theyhave no reason not to do it either. Such

people do not depend on anybody else.

Whatever should a great personality do,

the common will follow him; whatever

standards should he set by his example,

the whole world will follow him.



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John Adair: A Functional Model of Leadership

TOTAL

SITUATION

INDIVIDUAL

NEEDS

T ASK

NEEDS

GROUP

NEEDS

Thecircumstances of each situation affect thepriority which attaches to each area of needs.E.g.: urgency may make task needs dominateover the others.

Task functions: setting objectives, planning tasks,allocating responsibilities, settling appropriatestandards of performance.

Group maintenance functions: team-building,

motivation, communication, discipline, acting asgroup representative outside the boundaries ofthe team.

Individual maintenance functions: coaching,counselling, motivation, development.

Task characeristics:structure: to be programmedor can be left open?type: DM? realisation/execution?initiation or obedience needed?Routine administrative or creativeproblem-solving, pioneering?time: available or not?complexity: technologically orconteptually complex? difficult toorganise?error: dangerous? costly? any inherentrisk of mistakes?importance: if not important, it

should be programmed!!!

The leader's personal characeristics :

values: how important is it for him to involvesubordinates? what does he consider to bethe task of a manager in general? howimportant is for him organisationaleffectiveness,employee satisfaction and personal success?

trust in subordinates: does he hold them forprofessionally competent and reliable?

habits: captive of them?

assessing hi s own personal role: essential?or only facilitating?

safety needs : prefers foreseeability?lacks tolerance for instability/risk?

tolerating stress: tensions?

Age.

Group characeristics:

treatment: how do they prefer to be treated?

self-evaluation: intelligence? Competence?

psychological contract: with the group orwith the leader? does it involve active

participation? are they content with it?

their view of the problem: important ornegligable?

insecurity: can they tolerate it? or they needinnstruction, order, structure?

past: experience with participation, teamwork?experience with the others' competence?

culture: education? schooling? age?

professional culture?



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Teams

Factors of group cohesion:

similarity of workphysical proximity in the workplacethe work-flow systemstructure of tasksgroup size (smaller rather than larger)threats from outside

the prospect of rewardsleadership style of the managercommon social factors (age, race, social status, etc.)

Effective groups:

informal, relaxed atmospheremuch relevant discussion with highdegree of participation

group task or objective clearly understood,and commitment to it obtainedmembers listen to each otherconflict is not avoided but brought intothe open and dealt with constructivelymost decisions are reached by generalconsensus with a minimum of formal votingideas are expressed freely and openlyleadership is not always with the chairman but tendsto be shared as appropriate

the group examines its own progress and behaviour

Ineffective groups:

bored or tense atmospherediscussion dominated by one or two people, andoften irrelevant

no clear common objectivemembers tend not to listen to each otherconflict either avoided or allowed to develop intoopen warfaresimple majorities are seen as sufficient basis forgroup decisions which the minority has to accept

personal feelings kept hidden and criticism isembarrassingleadership provided by chairmanthe group avoids any discussion about its own

behaviour

Key factors of Group Behaviour

LEADERSHIP

COHESIVENESS

NATURE &

MOTIVATION OF

MEMBERS

GROUP

NORMSINDIVIDUAL

ROLES

ENVIRONMENT

NATURE OF TASK

SIZE



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B. Tuckman (1965) and Woodcock (1979):

Developing Effective Teams

B. Tuckman, 1965:

Stage 1 FORMING: finding out the task,rules and methods; acquiring information

and resources; relying on the leader.

Stage 2 STORMING: internal conflictdevelops; members resist the task at theemotional level.

Stage 3 NORMING: conflict settled,cooperation develops; views are exchangedand new standards (norms) developed.

Stage 4 PERFORMING: teamwork achieved,roles flexible; solutions found & implemented.

Woodcock, 1979:

Stage 1 UNDEVELOPED TEAM:feelings avoided, objectives uncertain,

the leader takes most of the decisions.

Stage 2 EXPERIMENTING TEAM:issues faced more openly, active listening,temporal group introspection possible.

Stage 3 CONSOLIDATING TEAM:personal interaction on a cooperativebasis, task clarified, objectives agreed,tentative procedures implemented.

Stage 4 MATURE TEAM:feelings open, a wide range of optionsconsidered, working methods methodical,leadership style contributory, individualsflexible, the group recognises itsresponsibility to the rest of the O



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Belbin: Roles in an Effective Management Team

ROLES IN ANEFFECTIVE

MANAGEMENTTEAM

SHAPERCHAIRMAN

RESOURCE

INVESTIGATOR

COMPANY

WORKER

MONITOR/

EVALUATOR

TEAM

WORKER

INNOVATORCOMPLETER



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Charles Handy

ROLE CULTUREAPOLLO

GREEK TEMPLE

EXISTENTIAL CULTUREDIONYSUS

(STAR) SET

CLUB CULTUREZEUS

SPIDERS WEB

TASK CULTUREATHENA

FISHERMENS NET



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Charles Handy

EXISTENTIAL CULTURE(DIONYSUS, SET)

CLUB CULTURE(ZEUS, WEB)

TASK CULTURE(ATHENA, NET)

ROLE CULTURE(APOLLO, GREEK TEMPLE)

source of power: POSITION/POSTcontrolled by a handful managers on topstrong, bureaucratic, functional hierarchystrict and detailed regulations and policiesstrict reporting system and scalar chain



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Charles Handy




source of power: PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGEtop specialist managers (middle management) dominantproduct-based organisational structureteam-workoften matrix structure



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Charles Handy




CLUB CULTURE

(ZEUS, WEB)

source of power: OWNERSHIP OF RESOURCEScontrolled by one (or a few) central character(s)hierarchies are of relatively little importance though existantthe network of relationships is crucial meet, talk, get info,find opportunities and learn about threatsstress of effectivenessindividual success is vital for survival: if one finds out whatthe owner of resources expects from him/her and can bringresults one will be rewarded, if not, ...



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Charles Handy





source of power: CREATIVITYmanagers facilitate the work of creativesorganisation structure minimalteamwork difficult to maintain creatives are individualiststhe organisation is for the people, not the people for the organisation



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Career Development & Types of Leadership

Establish concept

base for

information systems

Engineer

information systems

Generate/apply

informationInformation

Articulate culturalimperatives &

values

Set command

climate

Model & reinforce

valuesValues

Integrate

structure/purpose

Design

interdependencies

Forge teamworkTeamwork

Create visionCreate plansExecute plansVision

STRATEGIC

LEADERSHIP

ORGANISATIONAL

LEADERSHIP

DIRECTLEADERSHIPFUNCTION

based on: SLDM , p. 2/10



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Aspects of Organisational Analysis (H. Mintzberg)

Processes and flows: BASIC PARTS strategic apex, middle line, operating core, technostructure, support staff, ideology COORDINATING MECHANISMS mutual adjustment, direct supervision, standardisation (of work processes, of outputs, of skills, of norms) FLOW/PROCESS SYSTEMS transformation, information, decision-making, authority, ...

Parameters of ordganisation design: JOB SPECIFICATION BEHAVIOUR FORMALISATION TRAINING INDOCTRINATION UNIT GROUPING UNIT SIZE PLANNING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS LIAISON DEVICES DECENTRALISATION horizontal, vertical; selective, parallel; limited, unnlimited. Types: I centralisation, II LHSD, III LVPD, IV UHPD,

V UH&VSD, VI decentralisation Situational factors:

AGE & SIZE TECHNICAL SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT POWER

Six pulls on the organisation:(1) strategic apex pull to centralise (2) middle line pull to balkanise (3) operating core pull to professionalise(4) technostructure pull to standardise (5) support staff pull to collaborate (6) ideology pull to evangelise.

Six types: SIMPLE STRUCTURE MACHINE BUREAUCRACY PROFESSIONAL BUREAUCRACY DIVISIONALISED FORM ADHOCRACY MISSIONARY



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Conclusions

management in the 20st century

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