Management of Pediatric Food Allergy

Janice M. Joneja, Ph.D., RD

2006

2

Symptoms Suggesting Allergy in the Infant: Digestive Tract

– Persistent colic– Diarrhea and/or constipation– Frequent “spitting up”– Vomiting– Feeding problems

Poor or no weight gain when all other causes have been investigated and ruled out

3

Symptoms Suggesting Allergy in the Infant: Skin

– Urticaria– Dry, itchy skin– Persistent diaper rash– Redness around anus– Redness on cheeks– Scratching and rubbing– Rash– Atopic dermatitis/Eczema

4

Symptoms Suggesting Allergy in the Infant:Respiratory Tract

– Rhinitis

– Persistent cough

– Nose rubbing

– Noisy breathing

– Wheezing

– Sneezing

– Itchy, runny, reddened eyes

– Atopic conjunctivitis

– Serous otitis media

5

Clinical Signs of Food Allergy According to Age in Infancy

• Less than 20 months of age:– Atopic dermatitis (eczema)– Gastrointestinal disturbances– Immediate food reactions

• Later childhood:– Wheezing

• All stages:– Rhinitis

6

Age Relationship Between Food Allergy and Atopy{Adapted from Holgate et al 2001}

1 2 32 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Age (in years)

0

Rel

ativ

e In

cide

nce

Asthma

Rhinitis

Eczema

Food Allergy

7

Perceived Risks Associated with Infant Food Allergy

• Anaphylaxis – may be life-threatening • Nutritional insufficiency and failure to thrive • Disruption of maternal/infant bonding and family

dynamics• Promotion of the “allergic march”:

Food allergy

Atopic dermatitis/eczema

Asthma

Preventable?

8

Approach to Infant Allergy

• Prediction– Identification of the atopic baby before

initial allergen exposure may allow prevention of allergy

• Prevention– Measures to prevent initial allergic

sensitization of potentially atopic infant• Identification

– Methods for identification of an established food allergy

• Management– Strategies for avoiding the allergenic food

and providing complete balanced nutrition from alternative sources to ensure optimum growth and development

9

Possible Confounding Variables in Studies and Subjects

• Variability in genetic predisposition of infant to allergy

• Mother’s allergic history• Role of in utero environment• Exposure to allergens

– Exclusivity of breast-feeding– Inclusion of infant’s allergens in mother’s diet– Dietary exposure not recognized in infant or

mother– Exposure to inhalant and contact allergens

10

Prevention of Food Allergy in Clinical Practice

Requirement:• Practice guidelines for:

– Prevention of sensitization to food allergens– Prevention of expression of allergy

• Consensus for practice guidelines using evidence-based research

Current status:• Lack of consensus

11

Immune Response in AllergyThe Hypersensitivity Reactions:

Antigen Recognition

• The first stage of an immune response is recognition of a “foreign antigen”

• T cell lymphocytes are the “controllers” of the immune response

• T helper cells (CD4+ subclass) identify the foreign protein as a “potential threat”

• Cytokines are released• The types of cytokines produced control the

resulting immune response

12

T-helper Cell Subclasses

• There are two subclasses of T-helper cells, differentiated according to the cytokines they release:

– Th1– Th2

• Each subclass produces a different set of cytokines– Th1 : characterized by INF- – Th2 : characterized by IL-4

13

T-helper cell subclasses

• Th1 triggers the protective response to a pathogen such as a virus or bacterium– IgM, IgG, IgA antibodies are produced

• Th2 is responsible for the Type I hypersensitivity reaction (allergy)– IgE antibodies are produced

14

TH1 TH2 InteractionsFactors promoting:

Th1- Bacterial and viral infections - Maturation of the immune system

Th2- Parasite infestations- Immature immune system

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TH1 TH2 InteractionsFactors promoting:

Th1- Bacterial and viral infections - Maturation of the immune system - Antigen tolerance

Th2- Parasite infestations- Immature immune system- Sensitization to antigen

Contributing factors:- Genetic inheritance- Early exposure to allergen- Increased antigen uptake “leaky gut”

16

Does Atopic Disease Start in Fetal Life?

[Jones et al 2000]

• Fetal cytokines are skewed to the Th2 type of response

• Suggested that this may guard against rejection of the “foreign” fetus by the mother’s immune system

• IgE occurs from as early as 11 weeks gestation and can be detected in cord blood

17

Does Atopic Disease Start in Fetal Life? (continued)

• At birth neonates have low INF- and tend to produce the cytokines associated with Th2 response, especially IL-4

• So why do all neonates not have allergy?

18

Does Atopic Disease Start in Fetal Life? (continued)

• New research indicates that the immune system of the mother may play a very important role in expression of allergy in the neonate and infant

• IgG crosses the placenta; IgE does not

• Certain sub-types of IgG (IgG1; IgG3) can inhibit IgE response

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Does Atopic Disease Start in Fetal Life? (continued)

• IgG1 and IgG3 are the more “protective” subtypes of IgG

• IgG1 and IgG3 tend to be lower than normal in allergic mothers

• In allergic mothers, IgE and IgG4 are abundant• In mothers with allergy and asthma, IgE is high at

the fetal/maternal interface• Fetus of allergic mother may thus be primed to

respond to antigen with IgE production

20

Significance in Practice

• Food proteins demonstrated to cross the placenta and can be detected in amniotic fluid

• Allergen-specific T cells in fetal blood demonstrated to:– Ovalbumin– Alpha-lactalbumin– Beta-lactoglobulin

• Exposure to small quantities of food antigens from mother’s diet thought to tolerize the fetus, by means of IgG1 and IgG3, within a “protected environment”

21

Significance in Practice continued

• Atopic mother’s immune system may dictate the response of the fetus to antigens in utero

• The allergic mother may be incapable of providing sufficient IgG1 and IgG3 to downregulate fetal IgE

• However – there is no convincing evidence that sensitization to specific food allergens is initiated prenatally

• Current directive: the atopic mother should strictly avoid her own allergens

22

The Neonate: Conditions That Predispose to Th2 Response

• Inherited allergic potential (maternal and paternal)• Intrauterine environment• Immaturity of the infant’s immune system

– Major elements of the immune system are in place, but do not function at a level to provide adequate protection against infection

– The level of immunoglobulins (except maternal IgG) is a fraction of that of the adult

– Secretory IgA (sIgA) absent at birth: provided by maternal colostrum and breast milk throughout lactation

23

The Neonate: Conditions That Predispose to Th2 Response

• Increased uptake of antigens:– Hyperpermeablilty of the immature digestive

mucosa – Immaturity of the gut-associated lymphoid

tissue (GALT) means reduced effectiveness of antigen processing at the luminal interface

– Inflammatory conditions in the infant gut (infection or allergy) that interfere with the normal antigen processing pathway

24

Breast-feeding and Allergy

Studies indicating that breast-feeding is protective against allergy report:– A definite improvement in infant eczema and

associated gastrointestinal complaints when:• Baby is exclusively breast-fed• Mother eliminates highly allergenic foods

from her diet– Reduced risk of asthma in the first 24 months

of life

25

Breast-feeding and Allergy

• Other studies are in conflict with these conclusions: – Some report no improvement in symptoms– Some suggest symptoms get worse with breast-

feeding and improve with feeding of hydrolysate formulae

– Japanese study suggests that breast-feeding increases the risk of asthma at adolescence [Miyake et al 2003]

• Why the conflicting results?

26

Immunological Factors in Human Milk that may be Associated with Allergy:

Cytokines and Chemokines• Atopic mothers tend to have a higher level of the

cytokines and chemokines associated with allergy in their breast milk

• Those identified include:IL-4 IL-5IL-8 IL-13Some chemokines (e.g. RANTES)

• Atopic infants do not seem to be protected from allergy by the breast milk of atopic mothers

27

Immunological Factors in Human Milk that

may be Associated with Allergy: TGF-1 • Cytokine, transforming growth factor-1 (TGF-

1) promotes tolerance to food components in the intestinal immune response

• TGF-1 in mother’s colostrum may influence the type and intensity of the infant’s response to food allergens

• A normal level of TGF-1 is likely to facilitate tolerance to food encountered by the infant in mother’s breast milk and later to formulae and solids

28

Immunological Factors in Human Milk that may be Associated with Allergy: TGF-1 (continued)

[Saarinen et al 1999]

TGF-1 in mothers of infants who developed IgE-mediated CMA

(+challenge; + SPT) lower than in:– Mothers of infants with non-IgE mediated

CMA (+ challenge; - SPT)

– Mothers of infants without CMA (- challenge; - SPT)

29

Implications of Research Data

• Exclusive breast-feeding with exclusion of infant’s known allergens will protect the child against allergy if it is inherited from the father

• Exclusive breast-feeding with exclusion of mother’s and baby’s allergens will reduce signs of allergy in the first 1-2 years

• Reduction or prevention of early food allergy by breast-feeding does not seem to have long-term effects on the development of asthma and allergic rhinitis

• Other benefits of breast-feeding far outweigh any possible negative effects on allergy: exclusive breast-feeding for 4-6 months is strongly encouraged

30

Current Recommendations for Practice Preventive Measures

Mother is atopic:– Mother eliminates all sources of her own

allergens prior to and during pregnancy to reduce IgE and IgG4 in the uterine environment

– Continues to avoid her own allergens during lactation

– Exclusive breast-feeding without exposure of infant to external sources of food allergens for 6 months

31

Current Recommendations for Practice(continued)

Father and or siblings atopic; mother is non-atopic:– No recommendations for mother to restrict her

diet during pregnancy– No recommendations for mother to restrict her

diet during lactation unless the baby shows signs of allergy

– Exclusive breast-feeding for 4-6 months

32

Current Recommendations for Practice (continued)

• Some studies suggest that maternal avoidance of the most highly allergenic foods during lactation may reduce sensitization of infant with family history of allergy

• Foods to be avoided:– Peanuts - Shellfish - Eggs– Tree nuts - Fish - Milk

• Benefits of this remain to be proven; the strategy is recommended by some authorities

• Hypoallergenic infant formulae if breast-feeding not possible

33

Current Recommendations for Practice

(continued) • No family history of allergy:

– Good nutrition practices for mother from preconception onwards

– Good nutrition practices for early infant feeding– Breast-feeding is the best possible source of

nutrition and protection– Allergen avoidance is unnecessary unless the

infant demonstrates signs of allergy

34

Current Recommendations for Practice (continued)

• If infant demonstrates overt signs of allergy (eczema; gastrointestinal complaints; rhinitis; wheeze)– Identify specific food trigger by elimination and challenge– Exclusive breast-feeding with mother excluding her own

and baby’s food allergens– If breast-feeding is not possible, extensively hydrolyzed

casein formula

• Careful monitoring of mother’s diet during lactation for nutritional adequacy, especially of vitamins and trace elements

35

Foods Most Frequently Causing Allergyin Babies and Children

1. Egg

» white

»yolk

2. Cow’s milk

3. Peanut

4. Nuts

5. Shellfish

6. Fin fish

7. Wheat

8. Soy

9. Beef

10. Chicken

11. Citrus fruits

12. Tomato

36

Suggested Sources of Sensitizing Food Allergens

• Present thinking is that sensitization occurs predominantly from external sources

• The antigens in mother’s milk then elicit symptoms in the previously sensitized infant

• Exposure to food antigens in breast milk normally tolerizes infant to foods

• However, recent research suggests that sensitization via breast milk may occur in the atopic mother and baby pair: this remains to be proven

37

Suggested Sources of Sensitizing Allergens (continued)

• Food sources of allergens– Via placenta prenatally (unproven)

– Mother’s diet via breast milk during lactation

– Infant formulae, especially in the new-born nursery before first feeding of colostrum

– Solid foods

– Covertly by caretakers

– Accidentally

38

Suggested Non-Fed Sources of Sensitizing Food Allergens

• Contact and Inhalation of allergens– Dust and dust mites– Pollens– Mold spores– Animal dander

• Through the skin (especially when eczema is present)– In eczema creams and ointments (especially peanut protein)– Milk proteins in non-food articles

• diaper rash ointment;• paper coating• cosmetics• pet foods

– Kissing on cheek after consumption of food e.g. milk; peanut butter

39

Measures to Reduce Food Allergy in Infants with Symptoms of Allergy or at High Risk

Because of Genetic Background

1. Exclusive breast-feeding for the first 6 months2. Total maternal avoidance of:

– any food inducing allergy symptoms in the infant– any food inducing allergy symptoms in mother

– Eggs– Cow’s milk and milk products– Peanuts– Nuts– Shellfish

As a preventive measure initially if not avoided in above categories{clinicians disagree about this}

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Measures to Reduce Food Allergy in Infants (continued)

3. Colostrum as soon after birth as possible: provides sIgA which is absent in newborn

4. Avoid infant formulae in the newborn nursery: NO exposure to formulae in the hospital

5. Avoid small supplemental feedings of infant formulae at widely spaced intervals

6. If formula is unavoidable introduce in incremental doses over a 3-4 week period

41

Measures to Reduce Food Allergy in Infants (continued)

7. Introduce solid foods after 6 months starting with the least allergenic. Use incremental dose introduction to promote oral tolerance

8. Delay the most allergenic foods until after 12 months:– Cow’s milk - Beef– Eggs - Chicken– Soy - Wheat– Shellfish - Citrus Fruits– Fish - Tomatoes

9. Delay peanuts and nuts until after 2-3 years

42

Infant Formulae for the Allergic BabyCurrent Recommendations

• Cow’s milk based formula if there are no signs of milk allergy

• Partially hydrolysed (phf) whey-based formula if there are no signs of milk allergy

• Extensively hydrolysed (ehf) casein based formula if milk allergy is proven

43

The Allergic Baby: Adding Solid Foods

• Aim: To induce tolerance and avoid sensitization

• Method:Incremental dose introduction of foods

Day 1: Morning (breakfast):

½ teaspoon of foodWait four hours. If no reaction:

Noon (lunch):1 teaspoon of food

Wait four hours. If no reaction:Evening (dinner):

2teaspoons of food

44

Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby (continued)

Day 2:Monitor for delayed reactions. Give none of the new food.

Day 3:Morning (breakfast):

2 tablespoons of food

Wait four hours. If no reaction:Noon (lunch): ¼ cup of food

Wait four hours. If no reaction:

Evening (dinner):As much of the food as baby wants

45

Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby (continued)

Day 4:

– Monitor for delayed reactions. Give none of the new food

No adverse reactions experienced during the four day introduction period:– the food can be considered safe and included in the diet

Adverse reaction occurs at any time during the test period:– STOP– do not give any more of the test food

• Wait at least two months before testing that food again• Wait 48 hours after all symptoms have subsided before starting to

introduce another new food

46

Sequence of Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby

• Cereals:– At 6 months:

• Rice Arrowroot Quinoa

• Tapioca Millet Amaranth

– After 9 months:• Barley

• Oats

– After 12 months:• Corn

• Wheat

47

Sequence of Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby

• Fruit and Juices:– At 6 months (cooked at first):

• Pear Plum Banana

• Apricot Grape

• Peach Apple

– after 12 months:• Citrus fruits Tomato

• Berries

48

Sequence of Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby

• Vegetables– At 6 months (cooked at first):

• Sweet potato Yam

• Squashes Turnip

• Parsnip Carrot

• Broccoli Cauliflower

– After 12 months:• Legumes (peas, beans, lentils)

• Spinach

49

Sequence of Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby (continued)

• Meat:– At six months:

• lamb turkey

– after 9 months:• veal

– after 12 months:• chicken beef pork

• Eggs:– after 12 months:

• test yolk first• white later

50

Sequence of Adding Solid Foods for the Allergic Baby (continued)

• Milk and Milk Products– At or after 12 months:

• Start with full cream milk, full cream yogurt, or equivalent

• After 12 months:– Fin fish (not shellfish)

• After 2 years– Shellfish– Chocolate– Seeds– Tree nuts– Peanuts** Some authorities recommend delaying until after 3 years

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Most Common Allergens Relative to Peak Age of Food Sensitivity

[Hannuksela, 1983]

Years Foods

0-2 milk, soy, egg, fish, pea, banana,

2-7 egg, fish, nuts, apple, pear, plum,

carrot, celery, tomato, spices

Over 7 fish, nuts, apple, pear, plum,

carrot, celery, tomato, spices

52

Development of Tolerance

• 25% of infants lost all food allergy symptoms after 1 year of age

• Most infants will outgrow milk allergy by 3 years of age, but may become intolerant to other foods

• Tolerance of specific foods :After 1 year:– 26% decrease in allergy to:

• Milk Soy Peanut• Egg Wheat

– 2% decrease in allergy to other foods

53

Prognosis

[Study: Bishop et al 1990]

• Age at which milk was tolerated by milk-allergic children:– 28% by 2 years of age– 56% by 4 years of age– 78% by 6 years of age

• About 25% of allergic children develop respiratory allergies

• Allergy to some foods more often than others persists into adulthood:– Peanut - Tree nuts– Shellfish - Fish– Soy