management of transition cows in dairy practice · cow management. the uk dairy industry is...

229In Practice May 2016 | Volume 38 | 229-240

Farm AnimalsFarm Animals

Why is the transition period so important?The transition period usually refers to the three weeks before to the three weeks after calving. An alternative definition is 60 days before to 30 days after calving, to encompass the whole dry period. Cows are rarely sick before calving and so most ill health occurs postcalving. It can be tempting to leave dry cows somewhat to their own devices, while the higher maintenance milking group receives greater attention. However, feeding and management immediately before calving has a large influence on postpartum health.

There are three main reasons why the early lactation period is such high risk:

n Open cervix and open teats: this is when uterine and udder infections are most likely to occur, particularly when maintaining a hygienic calving environment is difficult (Fig 1);

n Reduced immunity: downgrading of inflammatory responses results in an inherent reduction in immunity around calving and a cow is less able to respond to new infections (O’Boyle [2008] provides a good overview of this);

n Negative energy balance: freshly calved cows suffer the double effects of having a sudden marked increased energy requirement (for milk production) but lower energy intake, due to appetite and intake depression that always occurs.

Other transition cow ‘stressors’ include changes to housing, social groups and nutrition, or simply discomfort after giving birth. Calving is therefore a very risky process.

‘Mind the gap’Cows have a reduction in dry matter intake (DMI) in the days surrounding calving, which exacerbates the negative energy balance (Fig 2). The extent of the DMI reduction may be at least as significant as the reduction in energy intake per se (Grummer and others 2004), and many management improvements that producers can make during the transition period revolve around reducing the DMI drop as much as possible.

Owen Atkinson qualified from the University of Liverpool in 1994. After 20 years in clinical farm practice, he established Dairy Veterinary Consultancy, where he provides strategic health advice and training to ruminant and dairy agribusinesses, as well as vets and primary producers. He also offers a second-opinion and referral service for vet practices. He holds the RCVS diploma and is an RCVS-recognised specialist in cattle health and production.

Management of transition cows in dairy practiceOwen Atkinson

doi:10.1136/inp.i1829

A DMI reduction inevitably results in a period of negative energy balance, which is greater if the cow is high yielding with a large energy requirement.

If the rumen has not been preconditioned to the postcalving diet (eg, by the inclusion of starch), the situation may be even worse. Preconditioning of the rumen is important for two reasons: the rumen microbiota must be adapted to a higher starch diet and the rumen surface area must be sufficiently large to absorb the volatile fatty acids that are produced in fermentation (Dirksen and others 1985). The surface area is largely governed by the length of the papillae, which, in turn, is controlled by gene expression patterns that are probably influenced by the presence of volatile fatty acids, particularly butyrates and propionates (Steele and others 2015). If volatile fatty acid production outstrips absorption, due to an insufficient papillae surface area, for example, the result is likely to be a period of rumen acidosis, reduced rumen efficiency and a more severe energy deficit.

Nutritional strategiesThere are many nutritional strategies used in transition cow management. The UK dairy industry is characterised by a very diverse farm type and when it comes to dry

The calving period is a high-risk time for dairy cows. Common disorders that can occur include milk fever, clinical ketosis, displaced abomasa, mastitis, metritis and endometritis, all of which reduce subsequent fertility. The higher the milk yield potential of the cow, the greater the challenge, and as many of the diseases are interlinked, cows often suffer multiple disorders. This article discusses a number of preventive strategies centred around transition cow management that have the potential to reduce the incidence of disease at this important time, and thus improve animal welfare.

Fig 1: ‘Close-to’ dry cow pens should be large enough that they are never overstocked, even at busy calving periods. The pericalving period carries an increased risk of mastitis in particular, which is exacerbated by dirty beds and high stocking density

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230 In Practice May 2016 | Volume 38 | 229-240


cow management there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach. However, whatever the system, effective milk fever control is paramount. There are several options available to farmers to control hypocalcaemia, including calcium-restriction diets, dietary cation–anion balance (DCAB), partial DCAB and targeted calcium supplementation at calving, either by bolus or drench. Husband (2005) reviews milk fever control in more depth.

High-fibre controlled energy feedingHigh-fibre controlled energy (HFCE) dry cow feeding is particularly common in large US dairies of high-yielding herds, and is gaining popularity in the UK. It is sometimes known colloquially as the ‘Goldilocks diet’, as it provides just enough energy to the cows – not too little, not too much. In essence, it is a controlled energy diet that is designed so that cows are not overfed precalving (a known risk for fatty liver disease), but maintain good rumen

fill. Large amounts of chopped straw are fed as part of a complete diet, usually also containing components of the milking cow diet, which are included to precondition the rumen.

Dann and others (2006) demonstrated that overfeeding (in terms of energy) during the far-off period had a greater negative impact on peripartum metabolism than did differences in close-to period nutrition. The HFCE strategy is probably most successful when fed as a single dry cow ration (as opposed to a far-off and a close-to group). This ensures that rather than relying on the ‘benign neglect’ of far-off dry cows (which, in my experience is commonplace on UK dairy farms), the animals’ intakes in terms of energy and dry matter are more closely optimised.

Beever (2006) reported that a restricted energy diet containing high levels of chopped straw (ie, low energy, high-fibre ration) fed ad lib as a total mixed ration for the entire dry period was associated with positive health and fertility performance postcalving in French and UK dairy herds.

A single-diet dry cow strategy often suits herds with six-week dry periods rather than the standard eight weeks. Potential drawbacks occur (as with any dry cow feeding) if there is insufficient attention to detail, particularly if adequate intakes are not met at the crucial period when cows’ appetites are low in the days around calving. The five success factors for a dry-cow strategy that are described in Box 1 are critical in my experience. In addition, diet sorting should be reduced as much as possible. Practically, this is achieved frequently by prechopping straw so it is consistently 2 to 5 cm long, adding water to the diet so it has an overall dry matter of around 40 to 50 per cent, using only good-quality forages and feeding fresh feed more frequently: twice a day is better than once a day. Feeding less than once a day should always be avoided for dry cows, due to the likelihood of spoiling and reduced palatability of the feed, particularly in the summer months.

A typical HFCE dry cow diet has an overall energy density of 9 MJ/kg dry matter (DM), with target intakes of around 12 to 13 kg DM/day (Holstein cows), thereby providing around 115 MJ/cow/day. Around 4.5 to 7 kg (DM) of the diet will be straw.

High-bulk diets (ie, those containing large amounts of chopped straw) should be avoided if only fed to a ‘close-to’ dry group; cows will require five to 10 days to adjust to the new diet and there would be a danger of suppressing DMI at a critical time.

Importance of the correct body condition scoreFor Holsteins, the optimum body condition score (BCS) at drying off is 2.5 to 3.5 (Roche and others 2009). This score should be maintained throughout the dry period to calving. It is risky trying to get cows to lose weight during the dry period, although it can be done if cows are dried off very early (ie, in a far-off group). Attempting to get cows to put on weight precalving by feeding a high-energy diet is also likely to lead to metabolic and health disorders postcalving (Janovick and others 2011); this is particularly likely to apply to high-yielding cows.

There are well-recognised dangers of being too fat (BCS above 3.5) at calving:

Fig 2: Dry matter intake (DMI) of Holstein cows around the calving period (data from Bertics and others 1992)

Management and nutrition for dry cows must fit the farm’s system and production levels. Lower-producing herds generally have much more ‘forgiving’ cows and, consequently, it will be possible to have a lower level of input. Conversely, as herds become more productive, the energy and metabolic tightrope becomes increasingly difficult to manage, and dry-cow feeding strategies must be precise.

Whatever the system, there are five success factors that form the basic rules for a dry-cow strategy, as follows (adapted from Nordlund 2009):

n Plenty of feed space for precalvers: 75 cm minimum per cow (Holsteins) and 24 hours/day stress-free access to fresh, palatable feed;

n Constant availability of fresh, clean water, with 10 cm water trough space

per cow or one fast drinker per 10 cows;

n No overcrowding of the precalving group. If housed indoors, the shed should be built for 30 per cent greater capacity than the average requirement, so it is sometimes understocked, but never overstocked;

n Avoidance of unnecessary group changes - this includes avoiding moving cows close to calving wherever possible (unless already in second-stage labour). Moving causes stress, delays calving and reduces feed intakes even further. If cows are moved between groups, move in at least pairs;

n Provision of at least 1 m² lying space per 1000 litres milk production (per cow per year) for loose-housed (indoor) precalvers, plus a third as much again loafing/ feeding area. Cows housed in cubicles need extra-large and comfortable beds.

Box 1: Rules for dry cows

Dry

mat

ter

inta

ke (D

MI)

(kg/

day)

Days in relation to calving (day 0)

DMI falls 30 per cent to 40 per cent

Period of negative energy balance.

Nadir usually at two weeks

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n More calving difficulties;n Greater risk of vaginal tear at calving and haemorrhage;n Greater risk of milk fever;n Greater risk of ketosis and left displacement of the

abomasum;n Greater immune suppression postcalving;n Greater risk of weight loss and poorer fertility in the

next lactation;n Greater risk of retained fetal membranes (possibly due

to immunosuppression).

The main risks of being too thin (BCS below 2.5) at calving are:

n Greater risk of lameness (claw horn lesions such as sole bruising, ulcers and white line disease);

n Greater risk of retained fetal membranes;n Greater risk of poorer fertility and lower production.

Table 1 lists some of the important aspects of BCS and fat metabolism during the transition period.

Table 1: Important aspects of fat metabolism and body condition score (BCS) during the transition periodAspects of BCS and fat metabolism around calving

Brief summary of current understanding Relevance Key references

Cows seem to converge on a preprogrammed BCS

Irrespective of BCS at calving, cows within a breed converge on a preset BCS by around 15 weeks postcalving. Different breeds have a different ‘preset’ BCS

Uncertain Garnsworthy and Topps (1982)

Different types of fat Visceral fat surrounds the internal organs, while subcutaneous fat is largely under the skin and within muscle tissue. BCS is governed by subcutaneous fat, whereas visceral fat is hidden and, to some extent, independent of BCS. Different fat types are metabolised at different rates and have different hormonal properties. Visceral fat is probably ‘more risky’ from a fatty liver perspective, possibly due to its proximity to the liver, so metabolites accumulate there very quickly when it is broken down. Visceral fat also appears to have a stronger correlation to metabolic dysfunction than other types of fat

There is presently no easy way to measure visceral fat in a live animal, but certain genetics or nutrition may predispose to the more ‘dangerous’ visceral fat. There is a huge potential for applications in the future. It might also explain why different breeds have different susceptibilities to problems from a high BCS

Drackley and others (2006)

Adipocytes have an endocrine function

Adipocytes don’t just store fat, they also have an endocrine function. Leptin, the ‘satiety hormone’, is secreted by adipocytes (probably with other hormones) and is known to be involved in regulating fat metabolism as well as appetite. It is suspected it also has other functions

Uncertain as yet. There might be future pharmacological applications

Leury and others (2003)

Immunity and fat metabolism are linked

Adipocytes have a similar evolutionary derivation to hepatocytes and leucocytes. Visceral fat secretes proinflammatory chemicals (eg, interleukins), which block insulin and can have direct inflammatory effects. It is suspected that fat tissue has other influences on physiological function and cell health and this is an important area of research in human obesity (eg, cancer risk)

Partially explains why fat cows and high yielders are more likely to suffer more severe disease, for example, toxic mastitis

Hotamisligil (2006)

Oxidative stress caused by fat metabolism causes cell damage

Rapid fat metabolism releases ‘reactive oxidant species’ (ROS). These are small molecules with unpaired electrons – a normal by-product of metabolism, usually ‘mopped up’ by antioxidants such as vitamin E. Rapid production of ROSs during fat metabolism can overcome a body’s normal antioxidant defences, causing cellular damage and reduced immunity

Helps to explain some of the immunosuppressive elements of rapid fat metabolism at calving, and why overconditioned calvers are more at risk of other diseases

Miller and others (1993)O’Boyle and others (2006)

Fat metabolites affect oocyte quality and reduce embryo viability

High blood levels of non-esterified fatty acids from fat metabolism interfere with normal ovarian function, reducing egg maturation, oocyte quality, and even subsequent embryo viability. Hyperlipidaemia alters gene expression of embryos and reduces their viability

Increases understanding of how weight loss and nutrition affects fertility

Aardema and others (2011)Leroy and others (2010)

Digital cushion fat pad in the foot is an important shock absorber

The digital cushion is a pad of adipose tissue mainly in the heel of cows’ hooves, but which also extends under the pedal bone. The pad cushions the corium, which is responsible for producing sole horn from the pressure exerted by the pedal bone above, and acts like air-cushioned soles in trainers. Research has demonstrated that fatter cows have thicker fat pads and thinner cows have less cushioning. Other research suggests that cows that calve with a lower BCS have a greater risk of lameness in early lactation, specifically sole bruising, sole ulcers and white line disease. This is an important area of new research and possibly one of the most significant recent discoveries in the field of cattle lameness

BCS at calving probably affects lameness more than has been realised to date and might explain why certain breeds and individuals are more prone to lameness. There is a future rapid genetic potential to reduce lameness. It explains why thin cows go lame (as well as lame cows going thin). Weight loss postcalving must be avoided

Bicalho and others (2009)Machado and others (2010)

High body fat suppresses dry matter intake

The ‘hepatic oxidation theory’ is used to explain ‘hunger’ and ‘satiety’ in many animals. A liver that has a plentiful energy supply – for example, in people, in the form of glucose after a meal – directly suppresses appetite via vagal afferents to the satiety centre of the brain. In cows, a ‘fatty liver’ is thought to act in a similar way, directly suppressing dry matter intake

Useful to understand for reducing negative energy balance in early lactation. There are already some practical applications in dairy nutrition

Allen and others (2009)

Overfeeding prepartum might be more significant than high BCS

Overfeeding energy before calving decreases the ability of insulin to suppress fat metabolism postcalving. Providing too much energy precalving not only promotes fat synthesis, but also prepares the cow to mobilise fat faster postcalving. Overfeeding precalving probably promotes visceral fat (which is not immediately obvious)

Already has significant practical applications in feeding dry cows, for example, high-fibre controlled energy diets

Janovick and others (2011)

Low BCS is associated with poorer milk yield and milk fat production in the subsequent lactation

Increased milk production has been associated with increased lipolytic activity in adipose tissue. Lipolysis provides some long-chain fatty acids for milk fat production. The relationship between BCS and yield is not consistent, probably due to fatter cows having a lower dry matter intake

There is a risk of having too many cows with a low BCS (<2.5) if the focus is entirely on avoiding fat cows

Roche and others (2009)Sumner and McNamara (2007)

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Up to 60 per cent of BCS variation within a cohort of similarly managed cows may be due to differences in genetic make-up (Roche and others 2009). Therefore, target BCSs may be breed specific: Friesians, for example, may be less prone to problems than Holsteins at a slightly higher BCS, so an alternative target may be appropriate for them. There is little published work on BCS targets for non-Holstein breeds.

It is worth spending time gaining confidence in a reliable scoring method so that assessing the BCS of cows can

become an established part of a farm routine. Good online resources are available (AHDB Dairy 2015) to help with this. Cows should be scored at drying off, midway through the dry period, at calving and during early lactation. Specific actions can be taken for outliers, that is, those cows that fall outside the target range. Possible actions that can be taken three to four weeks before calving are given in Table 2.

I would suggest a target of having no more than 10 to 20 per cent of dry cows outside the ideal BCS range (2.5 to 3.5). Farms should be assessed for a tendency for over- or underconditioned dry cows, and appropriate actions taken (eg, appraise the farm’s fertility, feeding and culling policies).

Length of the dry periodThe standard dry period of 60 days (eight weeks) has largely been used for the past 70 years, but its optimum length has been debated since the 1800s. There is much published research on dry period lengths, but the findings can be conflicting.

The dry period should last for 35 to 70 days. Shorter and longer periods result in lower milk production in subsequent lactations (Watters and others 2008). Very short dry periods (less than 30 days) or no dry period may give a lower chance of somatic cell count (SCC) reduction due to self-cure or a cure achieved with dry cow antibiotics. However, Steeneveld and others (2013) found no effects on postpartum SCC of different dry period lengths (including less than 30 days) in 404 cows in 11 Dutch commercial herds.

While most UK producers use a standard eight-week dry period, there is a growing number that adopt a shorter dry period (40 to 50 days) for at least some cows. There is evidence that this can lead to greater lifetime yields, as more of the cows’ time is spent in production, and can also lead to better subsequent fertility in some instances, with no detriment to udder health (Grummer 2008). Steeneveld and others (2014) proposed that shortened dry periods should be targeted towards certain cows based on yield, BCS, calving index and SCC criteria assessed around 12 weeks precalving. For example, cows reaching the end of their first lactation might still benefit from a conventional (50 to 60 day) dry period in most cases, to allow some continued body growth and udder parenchyma development. Their model also showed that there were less likely to be production or metabolic benefits of short dry periods for lower yielding cows.

While there is some evidence that colostrum quality (immunoglobulin concentration) is poorer with no dry period, short dry periods above 30 days are unlikely to adversely affect colostrum quality (Annen and others 2004).

Some of the potential benefits of short dry periods are listed in Box 3.

Strategies involving grouping dry cows and movement at calvingAn area receiving more attention presently, but yet having very little published research, are practices involving moving cows at calving and reducing social disruption during the transition period. Regrouping dairy cows has been shown to reduce time spent eating and to result in lower milk yields (von Keyserlingk and others 2008). Moving cows before calving is likely to reduce DMI at a critical time (Schirmann and others 2011) and could delay

Table 2: Possible actions for dry cows that are too thin or too fat (outliers)Body condition score three to four weeks before calving

Possible actions

Too low (<2.5) n Check records: is the cow carrying twins?n Check health: is the cow lame, for example? Losing weight or stable?n Monitor rumen fill scoresn Move earlier into the ‘close-to’ groupn Keep on loose housing (straw) for longer after calving (to protect

feet)n Possibly target for monensin bolus treatment (see Box 2)

Too high (>3.5) n Target for monensin bolus treatment (see Box 2)n Target for postcalving propylene glycol or glycerol plus water

drenchesn Give additional attention to ensure a good dry matter intake is

maintainedn Monitor rumen fill scoresn Do NOT try and get the cow to lose weight at this stage

The monensin bolus recently became licensed in the EU for reducing the incidence of ketosis in dairy cows and heifers. It is available under veterinary prescription in a slow-release bolus presentation for use in precalving cows and heifers that are considered at particular risk of ketosis.

Monensin is a non-specific ionophore antimicrobial in a class not used in human medicine. It works by promoting the production of propionate in the rumen, which is an important glucose precursor. It can therefore reduce the risk of rapid fat mobilisation and ketosis in freshly calved cows that

are likely to be in negative energy balance.

The strategic use of monensin boluses in overconditioned dairy cows precalving is a valuable aid in reducing ketosis and other postcalving disorders (Duffield and others 2008). It may also have value at the other end of the scale – in underconditioned cows – to reduce the risk of additional fat loss. Its targeted use, therefore, on ‘outlier’ cows based on body condition scoring during the dry period, is likely to bring about the best return on investment. For best effect, it must be administered precalving.

Box 2: Monensin boluses

n Dry matter intake (DMI) may improve and extremes in metabolic and physiological changes throughout late gestation and early lactation may be minimised.

n Diet changes during the last 60 days of gestation can be minimised to one (one dry group).

n Mammary engorgement and involution at dry-off are reduced with short dry periods (and eliminated with no dry period). This

is particularly important for high-yielding cows with good lactation persistency that are still giving large volumes of milk 60 days before the next calving. It may be beneficial to udder health as well as cow comfort.

n Body condition can remain more stable after calving. Days to first service and days to conception can be reduced; this is possibly linked to a smaller reduction in DMI and a single dry-cow diet.

Box 3: Potential benefits of shorter dry periods

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the calving process, which, in turn, could reduce calf viability and increase the risk of a retained placenta. The movement of cows during any part of the dry period could disturb social stability and reduce DMI; Nordlund and others (2006) describe the potential detrimental effects of this social turmoil.

There are four different strategies for dry-cow arrangements (which are not mutually exclusive), as described below.

Conventional two-group systemMany herds in the UK operate a two-group dry-cow system: ‘far-offs’ for around five weeks and a ‘close-to’ group, usually for around the last three weeks of pregnancy. The following movements will necessarily occur:

n Newly dried-off cows moving from the milking herd to the far-off dry cow group;

n Cows moving from the far-off group to the close-to group, around three weeks before the expected calving date;

n Cows moving from the close-to group to the milking herd, once they have calved.

If calving cows are moved to a calving pen, there is an additional movement from the close-to group to the pen.

A two-group system does allow some flexibility that is often useful, as two different diets can be fed and cows can be moved from one group to the next depending not only on expected calving date, but other factors too. Cows known to be carrying twins, or with a low BCS, can be moved sooner into the close-to group. However, the inherent additional movements associated with a two-group system and the provision of two separate diets can be drawbacks. In my opinion, a two-group system is often adopted by default due to a lack of dry-cow accommodation and far-off dry cows can become neglected.

Nordlund (2009) suggests it is always preferable to move cows in at least pairs if possible (except to the calving pen). This should reduce bullying and social stress.

‘Just-in-time’ calvingA ‘just-in-time’ calving policy means moving cows to a calving pen when second-stage labour is underway: that is, when the cervix is fully open and the feet or head of the

calf are showing. Although adopted by some large dairies, it is impractical where precalvers cannot be supervised continuously for 24 hours. The advantage of the just-in-time strategy is that the cow is not disturbed until the last minute (meaning DMI will be maintained) and calving will not be delayed, while the calf can be delivered in a clean pen in a controlled environment (Fig 3). Usually, the calf is removed immediately and the cow milked to harvest the colostrum. This can lead to excellent results for both calf and cow health.

Given that a just-in-time calving policy is impractical on most UK dairy farms, it is worth being wary of intending to operate a just-in-time system, but in reality moving cows into a calving box too prematurely, around 12 to 24 hours before calving. The dangers of this are that the cow can have a delayed calving and reduced DMI in the 24 hours around calving. Carrier and others (2006) reported that cows that were moved when in labour but with only mucus showing had 2.5 times as many stillbirths as cows that were moved when the calf’s feet or head were showing. Nevertheless, for housed dry cows that are in cubicles, a real dilemma occurs about moving them to the calving area, as calving in the cubicles is not ideal either from a hygiene or a cow-comfort perspective (Fig 4).

For precalvers kept in a group in a straw yard, it is frequently best, in my opinion, to leave the cow to calve where it is. This avoids an unnecessary move but does carry two particular risks:

Fig 3: A ‘just-in-time’ calving policy can be very successful, but cows are moved to calve in a separate area only once second-stage labour has started, and this normally means 24-hour supervision is required. Calves are delivered into a very clean area, removed immediately and the cow is milked to harvest the colostrum

Fig 4: A ‘just-in-time’ calving policy is difficult to implement without 24-hour supervision. In this case, the calf was delivered in a cubicle, which is risky for the calf, but the risk of problems for the cow can be greater if the cow is moved to a calving pen too early

Fig 5: Individual calving pens can be difficult to manage and are often sources of infection to both the calf and cow

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n Mismothering, and perhaps a higher risk of a trodden calf;

n Poor hygiene: it will not be possible to clean the calving area between every calving.

It does not always follow that using an individual calving pen is more hygienic: they can become hotbeds of infection if not cleaned after every calving (Fig 5).

Stable dry-cow groupsIn larger herds, stable dry-cow social groups (comprising, say, 10 to 12 cows) can be created to avoid unnecessary movements. Cows with a similar expected calving date are all dried off at the same time and kept as a group, right up to calving (Fig 6).

The example in Fig 6 would be for a herd operating a six-week dry period and drying off cows once a week. One of the practical difficulties can be to maintain even group sizes, particularly if the calving pattern is not evenly spread. Each pen must never be overcrowded. A frequent, necessary compromise is that not all cows will have calved (in pen 6) by the time the next group is moved along, so some mixing inevitably occurs.

Stable dry-cow groups are difficult to achieve in even very large herds and become nigh impossible in smaller herds.

Stress-free calving linesA ‘stress-free calving line’ is a concept that aims to reduce social conflict in freshly calved cows and minimise the changes in environment that calving cows must endure. Usually, it involves housing a precalving group (at least three weeks precalving) on a straw yard that is directly adjacent to a freshly calved cow group, housing cows typically for the first three weeks of lactation, often also on straw. The special needs of freshly calved cows are taken into account to maximise the animals’ comfort and reduce competition for feed, and the changes experienced by a cow between pre- and postcalving are minimised to a diet change and movement into a small group with which it has already had direct contact. Fig 7 shows a typical example of this strategy.

A stress-free calving line can be organised on any size of farm. It can be an excellent addition to transition cow management in my opinion. Close monitoring of freshly calved cows is one of the key success factors for transition cow management (Nordlund 2009) and a small freshly calved cow group can make this easier.

A small freshly calved cow group can also be milked in a very short time, with the animals returned back to their pen and feed much sooner than if they were part of the larger milking herd. The pen should always be stocked according to the shed capacity, not the number of fresh calvers. In essence, this means that some cows will stay longer than others in the group and this should be tailored to an individual’s requirements.

For herds with herringbone parlours, a sensible option is to build a freshly calved cow group that has the same number of cows as one or two sides of the parlour: this makes milking this group first very practical and straightforward. The group can contain other cows with special needs, such as lame cows, but cows with mastitis or other infectious diseases should not be housed with the freshly calved cows; in any case, they would disturb social stability. Box 4 outlines the particular features of a stress-free calving line.

SummaryVets in dairy practice inevitably spend much of their time dealing with individual sick animals, many of which are cows within the first 30 days of lactation, as well as

Fig 6: Diagram showing a stable dry-cow group strategy

Fig 7: Example of a stress-free calving line

Each pen contains, say, 10 cows. They are moved as a group each week towards pen 6, the closer they get to calving

Pen 1 Pen 2 Pen 3 Pen 4 Pen 5 Pen 6

Feed barrier

Swing gate and headlock, for assisting calving, for example

Straw-bedded area (could be cubicles)

Concrete scrape passage

Cows are dried off weekly as a single group into Pen 1

Milking parlour

Freshly calved cows

Calving area(only used if necessary)

Precalvers

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n Precalvers and freshly calved cows should be able to see and touch each other over a gate.

n Provide at least 75 cm feed space per cow.

n Provide maximum comfort – such as loose housing or deep-bedded, extra-wide cubicles.

n For loose housing: provide 1 m² lying space per 1000 litres milk capacity plus a third as much again in loafing area.

n Never overstock.n Provide access to palatable feed

and water for at least 22 hours per day.

n Have short milking turnaround times.n Cows should be moved from the

freshly calved group to the main herd in at least pairs (to reduce fighting) – ideally only one move per week.

n The calving line should be centrally located on farm with good visibility for farm staff to regularly inspect the cows and detect those requiring extra attention.

n Head yokes or an easy-handling facility should be provided.

n The calving line should have a big enough capacity for at least 10 to 14 days worth of calvings in both pre- and postcalving groups.

Box 4: Features of a successful stress free calving line

those with reduced fertility later into lactation. Recent research points to around 30 to 50 per cent of calving dairy cows suffering from at least one case of milk fever, clinical ketosis, displaced abomasum, mastitis, metritis and endometritis around this time, with additional cows suffering from subclinical ketosis, fatty liver disease and excessive BCS loss (LeBlanc 2010). There is an increasing recognition that a focus on preventive strategies, centred around transition cow management, has the potential to reduce disease incidence and improve animal welfare in a more constructive manner than expending time on already affected animals.

There are great opportunities for practitioners to become more involved in transition cow management and this work is very rewarding, but, as with all areas of health management, a strategic approach is recommended.

ReferencesAARDEMA, H., VOS, P. L., LOLICATO, F., ROELEN, B. A., KNIJN, H. M., VAANDRAGER, A. B. & OTHERS (2011) Oleic acid prevents detrimental effects of saturated fatty acids on bovine oocyte developmental competence. Biology of Reproduction 85, 62-69AHDB DAIRy (2015) Body condition scoring. dairy.ahdb.org.uk/resources-library/technical-information/health-welfare/body-condition-scoring/#.VfwGz7SWvOE. Accessed April 5, 2016ALLEN, M. S., BRADFORD, B. J. & OBA, M. (2009) Board invited review: the hepatic oxidation theory of the control of feed intake and its application to ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 87, 3317-3334ANNEN, E. L., COLLIER, R. J., MCGUIRE, M. A., VICINI, J. L., BALLAM, J. M. & LORMORE, M. J. (2004) Effect of modified dry period lengths and bovine somatotropin on yield and composition of milk from dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 3746-3761BEEVER, D. E. (2006) The impact of controlled nutrition during the dry period on dairy cow health, fertility and performance. Animal Reproduction Science 96, 212-226BERTICS, S. J., GRUMMER, R. R., CADORNIGA-VALINO, C. & STODDARD, E. E. (1992) Effect of prepartum dry matter intake on liver triglyceride concentration and early lactation. Journal of Dairy Science 75, 1914-1922BICALHO, R. C., MACHADO, V. S. & CAIXETA, L. S. (2009) Lameness in dairy cattle: a debilitating disease or a disease of debilitated cattle? A cross-sectional study of lameness prevalence and thickness of the digital cushion. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 3175-3184CARRIER, J. S., GODDEN, J., FETROW, J., STEWART, S. & RAPNICKI, P. (2006) Predictors of stillbirth for cows moved to calving pens when calving is imminent. In Proceedings of the

39th Annual Conference of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners. Saint Paul, USA, September 21 to 23, 2006. pp 158-159DANN, H. M., LITHERLAND, N. B., UNDERWOOD, J. P., BIONAZ, M., D’ANGELO, A., MCFADDEN, J. W. & DRACKLEy, J. K. (2006) Diets during far-off and close-up dry periods affect periparturient metabolism and lactation in multiparous cows. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 3563-3577DIRKSEN, G. U., LIEBICH, H. G. AND MAyER, E. (1985) Adaptive changes of the ruminal mucosa and their functional and clinical significance. Bovine Practice 20, 116-120DRACKLEy, J. K., DONKIN, S. S. & REyNOLDS, C. K. (2006) Major advances in fundamental dairy cattle nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 1324-1336DUFFIELD, T. F., RABIEE, A. R. & LEAN, I. J. (2008) A meta-analysis of the impact of monensin in lactating dairy cattle. Part 3: health and reproduction. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 2328-2341GARNSWORTHy, P. C. & TOPPS, J. H. (1982) The effect of body condition of dairy cows at calving on their food intake and performance when given complete diets. Animal Production 35, 113-119GRUMMER, R. R. (2008) Nutritional and management strategies for the prevention of fatty liver in dairy cattle. Veterinary Journal 176, 10-20GRUMMER, R. R., MASHEK, D. G. & HAyIRLI, A. (2004) Dry matter intake and energy balance in the transition period. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 20, 447-470HOTAMISLIGIL, G. S. (2006) Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature 444, 860-867HUSBAND, J. (2005) Strategies for the control of milk fever. In Practice 27, 88-92JANOVICK, N. A., BOISCLAIR, y. R. & DRACKLEy, J. K. (2011) Prepartum dietary energy intake affects metabolism and health during the periparturient period in primiparous and multiparous Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science 94, 1385-1400LEBLANC, S. J. (2010) Metabolic challenges in peripartum dairy cows and their associations with reproduction. In Western Canadian Dairy Seminar: Advances in Dairy Technology. Vol 22. pp 97-110LEROy, J. L., VAN HOECK, V., CLEMENTE, M., RIZOS, D., GUTIERREZ-ADAN, A., VAN SOOM, A. & OTHERS (2010) The effect of nutritionally induced hyperlipidaemia on in vitro bovine embryo quality. Human Reproduction 25, 768-778LEURy, B. J., BAUMGARD, L. H., BLOCK, S. S., SEGOALE, N., EHRHARDT, R. A., RHOADS, R. P. & OTHERS (2003) Effect of insulin and growth hormone on plasma leptin in periparturient dairy cows. American Journal of Physiology – Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 285, R1107-R1115MACHADO, V. S., CAIXETA, L. S., MCART, J. A. & BICALHO, R. C. (2010) The effect of claw horn disruption lesions and body condition score at dry-off on survivability, reproductive performance and milk production in the subsequent lactation. Journal of Dairy Science 93, 4071-4078MILLER, J. K., BRZEZINSKA-SLEBODZINSKA, E. & MADSEN, F. C. (1993) Oxidative stress, antioxidants, and animal function. Journal of Dairy Science 76, 2812-2823NORDLAND, K. (2009) The five key factors in transition cow management of freestall dairy herds. In Proceedings of the 46th Florida Dairy Production Conference. Gainesville, USA, April 28, 2009. pp 27-32NORDLUND, K. V., COOK, N. & OETZEL, G. (2006) Commingling dairy cows: pen moves, stocking density and health. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners. Saint Paul, USA, September 21 to 23, 2006. pp 139-143O’BOyLE, N. (2008) Nutrition of the periparturient dairy cow. In Practice 30, 495-500O’BOyLE, N., CORL, C. M., GANDy, J. C. & SORDILLO, L. M. (2006) Relationship of body condition score and oxidant stress to tumor necrosis factor expression in dairy cattle. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 113, 297-304ROCHE, J. R., FRIGGENS, N. C., KAy, J. K., FISHER, M. W.,

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Farm Animals

STAFFORD, K. J. & BERRy, D. P. (2009) Body condition score and its association with dairy cow productivity, health and welfare. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 5769-5801SCHIRMANN, K., CHAPINAL, N., WEARy, D. M., HEUWIESER, W. & VON KEySERLINGK, M. A. (2011) Short-term effects of regrouping on behaviour of prepartum dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 94, 2312-2319STEELE, M. A., SCHIESTEL, C., ALZAHAL, O., DIONISSOPOLOUS, L., LAARMAN, A. H., MATTHEWS, J. C. & MCBRIDE, B. W. (2015) The periparturient period is associated with structural and transcriptomic adaptations of rumen papillae in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 98, 2583-2595STEENEVELD, W., SCHUKKEN, y. H., VAN KNEGSEL, A. T. & HOGEVEEN, H. (2013) Effect of different dry period lengths on milk production and somatic cell count in subsequent lactations in commercial Dutch dairy herds. Journal of Dairy Science 96, 2988-3001STEENEVELD, W., VAN KNEGSEL, A. T. M., REMMELINK,

Quiz: Management of transition cows in dairy practice

Overconditioned dry cows are a known risk for postcalving disorders. Regarding the cow in Fig a:

(1) What is your estimate of body condition score (BCS) for this cow?

(2) What should the target BCS range for individual Holsteins be at calving?

(3) What is a suitable herd target for the percentage of cows to be within this range?

(4) What would be a sensible first step to take if you find a herd exceeds this target?

Answers: (1) At least 4 (rounded hook bones with clear fat deposits over pin bones, neither sacral or tail-head ligaments are

visible, bony prominences are rounded).(2) 2.5 to 3.5(3) At least 80 per cent(4) In the first instance, further investigation is required to find answers to the following questions:

– What is the BCS of early dry and late lactation cows? Is the BCS being maintained throughout the dry period, or are cows gaining or losing condition?

– Is there a herd tendency for overfat or overthin cows? What is the range of BCSs?– Which cows are affected? Is it a certain cohort or parity number? Is there a correlation with long lactations (eg,

poor fertility), or lameness?The answers will help you decide whether this is likely to be a dry period problem or a lactation period problem (or, for heifers, the rearing period and age of calving).

G. J., KEMP, B., VERNOOIJ, J. C. & HOGEVEEN, H. (2014) Cow characteristics and their association with production performance with different dry period lengths. Journal of Dairy Science 97, 4922-4931SUMNER, J. M. & MCNAMARA, J. P. (2007) Expression of lipolytic genes in the adipose tissue of pregnant and lactating Holstein dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 90, 5237-5246VON KEySERLINGK, M. A., OLENICK, D. & WEARy, D. M. (2008) Acute behavioral effects of regrouping dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 1011-1016WATTERS, R. D., GUENTHER, J. N., BRICKNER, A. E., RASTANI, R. R., CRUMP, P. M., CLARK, P. W. & GRUMMER, R. R. (2008) Effects of dry period length on milk production and health of dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 91, 2595-2603

Further readingHULSEN, J. (2013) Dry Period, Special Needs Cows and Treatments. Roodbont

(a)

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