Journal of The Pacific Society / October 1999 / No. 84 - 85 (Vo1. 22, No.3 4) (13) -80-

MARINE KNOWLEDGE AND SUBSISTENCE FISHING PRACTICES

FERAFALU VILLAGE, MAANA'OBA ISLAND,

AT

MALAITA PROVINCE, SOLOMON ISLANDS

Norman Quinnl

Patrick Daudau

Biology Department

School of Pure and Applied Sciences

University of the South Pacific

Suva, Fiji

ABSTRACT

The marine resources near Ferafalu village, Malaita

Island, Solomon lslands, support a subsistence fishery

fbr approximately 220 inhabitants. About 30-40 men and

l0-20 women fish regularly. Their fishing practices

commonly include the use of handlines (aoao la), diving

with iron rod (.susu'u la), spring loaded spear guns (stsaa

ana kwanga), spears with wrapped coconut bundle

(kwesu la), rope fishing (oko), baitfish fishing (ala'a),

and ilsh poisoning (afta). Less frequently used tradi-

tional fishing practices such as sago palm kite fishing

(drugo), fish poisoning (uka), and the use of wrapped

coconut meat (kwesu /a) are likely to cease within this

generation. The recent use of small mesh gill nets,

explosives, nontraditional fish poisons, underwater

torches and "lockline" fishing have resulted in the

extirpation or severe depletion of several fish stocks.

Villagers are concemed about the threats posed by these

technologies and have begun to limit their use. The

recent introduction of new religious beliefs has also

altered the villager's utilization of marine resources.

Kurumusi (Siganus spinus), szrz (Lethrinidae), bubu

sidai (Rhinecanthus rectangulus), and bubu fahato(Rhinecanthus verucosus) represent 90Vo of the finfish

caught. Ragotcti (Lambis truncata), binu kero

(Tripneustes gratilla - red morph), binu laungi (7.

gratilla - white morph) represent 957c of the shellfish

catch. The CPUE per trip increased as expected with

the number of fishermen from 3.3 kg per trip for solo

fishermen to 12.3 kg per trip for groups with more than

[i ve.

The marine resources of isolated communities have

become increasingly important as a food source for the

developing urban population in Honiara as well as tbr

export. This has resulted in pressure to increase har-

vests liom these resources. However, traditional marine

management groups, comprising local resource owners,

strongly believe that they should be consulted before

any decision is made to develop their resourcd:s.

INTRODUCTION

Fishing is the most important protein source for

coastal villagers on Malaita and most of the Solomon

Islands (Miller, 1978; Skewes, 1990). The IVlalaita

Province is known fbr its high population densiry,4,214/

km2 in 1986 (lnstitute of Pacific Studies, 1989). This

high population density is probably related to the

abundance of food from the sea and the local people's

skill and knowledge about its sustainable exploitation.

Fishing practices are an integral part of Malaitp soci-

eties social and cultural values as well as being essen-

tial for the survival of the community. For example,

marine products are an important element in the barter

rPresent Address: Biology Department,

University, Papua New Cuinea. Email:

University of Papua New Guinea, PO. Box 320

norman_q@hotmail.com

(r4) -79 - a+i++a;il leee f- 10 E ffi84 / B'E (H22&ffi3 / 4E)

cxchange relationship between coastal and "bush people"

who live in the interior without access to marine re-

sources.

Recognition of sea tenure and the value of local

fishing knowledge in ensuring sustainable flsheries has

only slowly gained acceptance. The early reports oftraditional fishing practices (e.9. Malinowski, 1918;

Landtman, 1927; Bell, 1947; Allen, 1957) were regarded

as curiosities (Cordell, 1988). Recently, descriptions

about the ways that Solomon lslands fishermen perceive,

define, delimit, utilize, and def-end their rights to in-

shore fishing grounds have emerged (Akimichi, 1978;

Ruddle and Akimichi, 1984; Hviding, l99l; 1992) and

the value of local marine knowledge and management

practices has gained more acceptance (Johannes, 1980;

Baines, 1985).

It is important to consider how the territorial con-

cepts of fishermen develop from culturally idiosyncratic

ways of appropriating, regulating and transmitting

marine property (Cordell, 1984). And it is necessary to

know who fishes, how to fish, and what customs and

ideas the ftishermen have. ln many societies the mul-

titude of customary restrictions surrounding traditional

fishing were primarily directed toward maintaining the

authority of the elders and the stability of the social

order rather than toward maintaining a stable balance

with nature.

Sea territories are not just vague areas, but areas

named, known, used, claimed and on occasion def'ended.

Places used are places named. A social group's famil-

iarity with an area creates a territory. A territory is a

social and cultural space as much as it is a resource

or subsistence space (Nietschmann, 1988). While the

harvesters cannot control the common property resources

themselves, they occasionally can control certain pro-

duction-related infbrmation that governs access to these

resources. Thus production-related knowledge, such as

the specific location of fish and the most ef-fective tactics

for catching them, becomes a scarce capital good. The

harvester cannot control the resource. but can control

knowledge about it. Given the intensive competition

among boats and the efTorts to guard one's own infor-

mation while trying to discover the information ofothers, a social climate of secretiveness, lying, avoid-

ance and general suspicion is generated among many

western European tlshermen (Johnson, 1979). This is

not the case of the fishermen of Feralalu Village where

the common good of the community is more important

than the success of a single individual and information

is generally shared among the fishing fraternity.

To maintain a harmonious fishing ecosystem, fish-

ing activities and the fishing grounds themselves must

be managed prudently. Consequently, island people de-

veloped a system of knowledge about the marine en-

vironment and fishing practices. Many conceptualized

local terms about marine environments (e.9. depth, tidal

current speed, tidal conditions, seasonal wind,) have

traditionally been used.

Detailed local marine knowledge studies are uncom-

mon in the Solomon lslands. However, work has been

done on customary resource management practices of

Marovo Lagoon people (Hviding, l99l ; 1992), the por-

poise fishery of Malaita (Takekawa, 1996a, b), the

lagoon lif'e ol the Langalanga (Goto, 1992, 1996), the

southern villages of the Lau lagoon marine usage

(Akimichi, 1978), and fishing practices of the resettled

Tikopian people in the Russell lslands (Quinn and

Mataki, 1999).

This study details aspects of the subsistence fishery,

its resources, fishing methods, equipment, knowledge

of marine resources, management, and conservation

practices, and the cultural fiamework of the fishery in

Ferafalu Village, Maana'oba lsland in Malaita Province

of Solomon lslands. Baines (1985) stated that inshore

fisheries development couldn't proceed effectively in the

absence of a more detailed knowledge and understand-

ing of traditional uses ol' marine resources.

METHODS

This paper is based on a field survey by both authors

on the island during January 1997. The second author

grew up in Ferafalu Village and his local knowledge

and associations with the village community have greatly

contributed to this study.

The village was subdivided into fbur main groups

of 8 - t households of people who fish frequently. Upon

the return from a fishing trip the lishermen were

questioned about their fishing techniques, fishing loca-

tion, vemacular names of fish, and the catch was counted

and weights estimated. lt is customary fbr a fisherman

to count the number of individuals of the diff'erent

species of fish that were caught. This made quantifi-

Journal of The Pacific Society / October 1999 / N0.84 85 (Vol.22, No.3 4) (15) -cation of the catch relatively easy. The catch weight

was estimated to the nearest kilogram. At other times,

more detailed discussions were held with fishermen

regarding their specific knowledge of marine resources,

fishing methods and equipment used, strategies fbr

resource management, and the implications of commer-

cial lishing.

Women were not included in aspects of the study

because of cultural considerations. It was not consid-

ered proper for males to be seen talking with unrelated

women. Ferafalu women are engaged mainly in glean-

ing for shellfish and other small animals on the inter-

tidal flats. They venture out less frequently on boats

than men and usually remain close to shore. Their

marine knowledge and fishing patterns require a sepa-

rate study.

Ruddle (1994) observed without explanation that

there were conceptual and semantic problems associ-

ated with the use of the terms "local knowledge,""indigenous knowledge," "traditional (ecological) knowl-

edge," "indigenous skill," and "ethnoscience." We willuse local knowledge throughout this paper, as it is broad

enough to include both traditional practices and their

technological evolutionary forms.

MAANA'OBA ISLAND GEOGRAPHY

Ferafalu Village

Feraf'alu village is located on the eastern, windward

side of Maana'oba Island, about three km off Malaita

Island in Solomon Islands (Lat. 8"10' S., Long. l6l"02' E.) in the Lau Lagoon. There are two other major

lagoons around Malaita, the Are'are Lagoon (southwest-

ern coast) and the Langalanga Lagoon (westem central

coast). The village has a population of approximately

220 people (ll2 women; 86 men; 22 children >12 years

old) and is about one third of the population ofMaana'oba lsland.

The climate is equatorial with heavy rainfalls and

high humidity. Two seasons are recognized according

to prevailing wind direction. From April to October (ara)

the winds blow fiom thc southeast. During tabzra, No-

vember to March, the winds are unsettled, but north-

west winds are common in January and February.

There are twelve languages spoken on Malaita, in-

cluding Lau (Keesing, 1982). People in Ferafalu speak

the Lau language. Lau speakers live primarily in coastal

villages around the Lau Lagoon along the

of Malaita and on artificial islands built in the s

lagoon by piling up coral stones (suka).The r were

constructed to escape the malaria of the m(Parsonson, 1966). Linguistically, Lau speakers

tute a dialect of Cristobal-Malaitan. which with

Guadalcanal - Nggelic, fbrms a Southeast So lc

and

result

man,

fish.

iden-

, how

and

used

sher-

re-

and

I-

a-

ls

subgroup among Eastern Oceanic languages (Paw

Green, 1973).

The people of Ferafalu are primarily aquatic

and call themselves wane i asi. "salt water ", and

"bushdifTerentiate themselves from wane i tolo. or

people", who reside in the interior of Malaita y are

Melanesians with curly brown hair. Reddish and

hair commonly occur naturally and are not the

of a dietary deficiency as occasionally thought (

pers. comm.).

Marine Organism Identification

Fish names were obtained by asking village

men for the vernacular names of recentlv

Fishermen were shown photos in marine anima

tification books and asked for the vemacular na

they were caught and where. The books used re for

fish identification were Munro (1967) and

Myers (1994), while Colin and Ameson (1995)

to identify invertebrates. This process would occ

ally result in lengthy conversations where the

men either tried to recall a seldom-used name

solve conflicts in the usage of the vernacular

The Lau language divides objects into movi

ganisms (doe gelo) like fish, birds and pigs, a

jects that are immobile (doe to'ongado) like trees,

algae, and sand. Within the Lau language fish (

an important place and are divided into several

The term 1a does not conform to scientific no

ture as it can also refer to varieties of marine

hold

including porpoise (kirio), whale (gwahasu), a dug-

caf-ong (iatekwa) (Akimichi, 1978). The Lau

egorize porpoises as a kind of fish, so the la

sometimes means dolphin. For example, nfo la ts

Iiterally "the teeth of fish", but to Lau speakers it

dolphin teeth (Fox, 1974).

Another set of terms relates to large groups, fi ex-

fishample, rays fall), sharks (baekwa), and butterfl

(bebe).These groups are the Lau taxonomic equi alent

(16) -77 - t+-t++e# leee tr 10 E ffi84/BsE @22&ffi3/ 4tr)

of the scientific unit of family. ln the next vernacular

language taxonomic group an additional word is added

to apply to a specific species of fish. For example, bebe

fakatekwa refers to the long-snouted butterflyfish,

Forcipiger flavissimus Jordan & McGregor, bebe

goumatanga to the hunchbacked butterflyfish, Heniochus

varius (Cuvier), and so on.

Present language usage does not necessarily recog-

nize scientific species distinctions in morphologically

similar groups. For example, akwasimai refers to four

species of snapper: Lutjanus russelli (Bleeker), L.

fiilviflamma (Forskil), L. monostigma (Cuvier), and L.

rufolineatus (Valenciennes). This lack of linguistic

diff'erentiation between species may be indicative of the

loss of traditional knowledge or perhaps there was

insufficient behavioral and morphological dif'ferences,

or dift'erences in usage, between the species to separate

them by name (Akimichi, 1978).

As previously stated, vernacular names do not nec-

essarily relate to scientific classification. The shovel nose

ray, Rht,nchobatus djiddensis (Forskil) (taifasoro) is a

bottom-f'eeding ray in its own Family Rhinobatidae

which is distinct from the sting rays in Family

Dasyatidae and from typical sharks in Family

Carcharhinidae. However, in the Lau language it is

classified as a baekwa (shark).

Where scientific taxonomy does not recognize the

diff'erent morphological features and behaviour of ju-

veniles, the Lau taxonomic systems occasionally does

(Table l). The large eyed bream Monotaxis grandoculis

(Forskfll) is known as maasulua as an adult and as

aalauo as a juvenile. Similarly, the emperor, Lethrinus

xanthochilus Kulunzinger, is known as lnre ia and gufu

as an adult and juvenile, respectively. The prized bump

head parrotfish, Bolbometopon muricatus (Cuvier &Valenciennes), is known as rarasi fou and gwaila in

its respective juvenile and adult stages. Similarly, the

prized emperor snapper, Lutjanus sebae (Cuvier), has

three names pertaining to progressive stages of devel-

opment, kokohale, malifu, and raualite. The color ofthe fish is distinctively different in these stages. Juve-

niles are commonly pale pink with three dusky reddish

brown bands. Adults are a unitbrm salmon pink. The

classiflcarion system is phenetic and does not consider

reproductive possibilities.

We suspect that the Langalanga people of the

Soloman Islands also had different names for various

life stages of certain fish, but that Goto (1996) either

did not know the names or did not recognize juvenile

flsh. For example, Coto (1996) lists ala'alauoa (similar

to the Lauan aalauo) for Monotaxis spp., but does not

indicate if the Langalanga people consider that a name

fbr the juveniles. There are differences in the marine

terms between speakers in the Lau Lagoon and

Langalanga Lagoon. In some cases the words are very

similar, e.g. bobola, for Lethrinus nebulosus(Langalanga) and fotobala (Lau). In other cases they

are very different e.g. Lethrinus harak is asiasi-ole in

the Langalanga Lagoon while it is hate mela in the Lau

Lagoon. And in other cases the word is exactly the same

e.g. ume for the popular eating fish Naso unicornis.

While in some cases the same word has different

meanings e.g. moro is a Leiognathidae in Lau while

it is a Mugiloididae in the Langalanga Lagoon.

In addition to the hierarchical classification there are

terms which relate the behaviour of the fish. Deep-sea

fish that are rarely caught are known as ia na matakwa

liu. Pelagic fish such as tuna (gela), skipjack (hau

ittitoo), barracudas (ntamalito), and marlin (diadia,

filufilu) are called ia i matakwa. Ia i narno are gen-

erally lagoonal tish, but includes dugong (iatekwa) and

sharks (baekwa), and rays (/a/i). Estuarine frsh such as

ponyfish (moro) (F. Leiognathidae), trumpeter perch

(uulumuu) fPelates quadrilineatus (Bloch)1, and the

archerfi sh ( ng is uniko re) fTbxotes jac ula,or (Pallas)l are

known as ia la kafo. These distinctions represent the

major ecological classifications around the Lau lagoon:

river, lagoon, and open sea.

There are other classification systems that we did

not explore but have been brief'ly reported by Miller(1978). For example, there are five categories of feed-

ing behaviour such as fish feeding otT sea algae in grassy

habitats. They are divided into daytime feeders as

opposed to night time feeders and whether they shelter

in deep or shallow water (Miller, 1978). And then there

is classification based on their rest areas, escape re-

sponses, spawning behaviour, and depths which they

swim in the sea (Miller, I978).

Invertebrates are also classitjed hierarchically. Bi-

valve and gastropod shells are known collectively as

karongo. The term kiki'i is a collective term for Tridacna

clams. Dolo ref'ers to Tridacna glgas is the largest clam

Journal of The Pacific Society /October 1999/N0.84-85 (Yo1.22, No.3-4) (17) - 6

and Abisifuu refers to the small clam shell T. maxima

which is firmly attached to coral outcrops. Kwalangi

baekwa (literally means swears at sharks) is the general

term fer lobster, whlle urafou refers to Panulirus ver-

sicolor.

Fishing Grounds

The area around Ferafalu village is divided into

several categories. The simplest distinction is asi 'sea'

versus tolo'land' that distinctively brings out the habi-

tat segregation between 'salt water people' and the 'bush

people' such as the Baegu, Baelela, and Fataleka (Ross,

1973). The lagoon is known as asi namo or sa'a i hrtra

(literally'sea land'). In fact, the lagoon is so shallow

that people can walk out very far on the intertidal flats

at low tide. The micro topographical features of the la-

goon are distinguished by depth, nature of the substrate,

and presence of organisms. The shallow water is called

nni or fafomai, intermediate depths, fafobu.sa, and deep

waters, lobo. The deeper part of the lagoon is termed

mae matakwa. The barrier reef is called fafo ile and

beyond the reef is the open ocean, asl matakwa. Beyond

asi matakwa is the matakwa liu or deep sea. Grooves

in the reei are known as fakali and the passes to the

open ocean are dari. Within the lagoon, canoes travel

through a channel termed tafa'a. Shallow passes in the

lagoon are referred to as fakana aba, while deeper passes

between the ocean and lagoon are called rarabala.

The fishing area owned by the Feratalu villagers is

approximately 2 x 5 km and includes sand, sea grass

meadows, and coral reef habitats. This is an area that

can be paddled in a canoe in approximately 2 hrs. The

fishing areas are divided into seven habitats named:

kusuu, oleasi, fafobusu, fakana nata, nata barafou, and

fafoile based on their different physical features and

marine communities.

Habitat l: Kusuu - This habitat starts from the

exposed sandy beach and is characterized by a muddy

/ silty substrate where the seagrass Thalassia sp. (.afuu)

grows. Afuu is a food source for many fish and a shel-

ter and refuge for fish known as ntu'u ni furai (Siganus

argenteus and S. sutor [collectively known as muu sio])

and S. spinus (kurumusi). Fish such as Rhinecanthus

verrucosus (bubuu fahato) and R. rectangulus (bubuu

sidai), and Gerres cinereus (tereua) are always seen,

even during low tides in this habitat (Table 2). Kusuu

is partially exposed during low tide and does notirequire

the use of a canoe. Other fish such as Ulaema lefroyi

(raemae), and M ulloidicht ht,s flavol i neat us ( ra laraga)are common at high tide. Both men and wom[n fish

in this habitat.

Habitat 2: Oleasi - This is the deepest part of the

lagoon and has coral boulders scattered on | ,undy

bottom. Several species of sponge

Diacarnus spp. (collectively known as kuikuil, $ea cu-

cumbers (ramela), and sea grass (sara au) are

The many crevices in the rocks provide hid

for Siganus argenteus and S. sutor (Mu'u nt

sio), Naso unicornis (ume), Rhinecanthus ve

(bubuu fahato), and R. rectangulus (bubuu sidai

2).

Habitat 3: Fafobusu - This habitat is the ge of

sp.,

(Table

places

, Mu'u

sed

), L.

the lagoon juxtaposed to the reef and is

by bare sand. Lethrinus kal.Lopterus (.sur

harak (hatemela), L. variegatus lgoufuu) and L.

(surugou) are commonly fbund searching for fotd here

(Table 2). Fishermen frequently catch them wh{n they

try to hide in the sand. Also found infafobusu @re the

mullet species Valamugil suheli (kalua) and Mugil

cep halus (iliiliwalo).

Habitat 4: Fakana nata - This habitat begins at point

where sand and corals meet and is exposed at low tides.

A large number of fish search fbr food and take shelter

here in the most stagnant seawater during low tide (Table

2). This is the most dangerous habitat because of the

presence of the stingray, Dasyatis kuhlii (fali), and the

scorpion fish, Scorpaena plumieri (qwiaqwi.a). Siganus

virglatus (nanara kwao), Scarus ghobban (rnarq), and

Chaetodon ephippiunt (bebee) are the main target

species.

Habitat 5: Nata - This habitat has the highest

biodiversity and is dominated by coral with occ4sional

open areas of sand. The fishermen consider thig to be

the most productive habitat as it contains a lot of edible

species of fish (Table 2). Occasionally the crdwn ofthorns starfish, Acanthaster planci (site), and tfre sea

urchin, Diadema savignyi (tala), are seen in thip area.

The villagers have reported that they haue nefer ob-

served large numbers of A. planci on the rebf nor

observed the eff'ects on corals of large populatior{s. Nor

have they heard stories about large populations of the

starfish occurring within the Lau lagoon. Edible inver-

(18) - 75 - 7\+t+'?Aefi leee E 10 E ffi84/854 (ffi22&ffi3/4+)

tebrates are commonly gleaned in this habitat and

include the spider conch Lambis scorpius (tafisikoko),

L. lantbis (trunkoko), and L. truncata (Ragotai), cush-

ion sea urchins, Tripneustes gratilla (binu kero) anrJ T.

gratilla (binu laungi).

Habitat 6: Barafou- This is the surl habitat on the

ocean side of the main reef and the fish fiom here are

known as ala'a {Table 2). These fish always swim in

mixed-species schools in search of tbod. The habitat

is only fished at low tide during the day when the coral

reef is exposed using either nets or spears.

Habitat 7: Fafoile- This habitat constitutes the outer

reef slope. Due to commonly rough seas, fishermen are

very reluctant to fish here. However, the trochus shell,

Trochus niloticus (sifalo / karongo) is collected here

during daytime low tides by divers using goggles. The

trochus meat is eaten and the shell is sold. Brave and

clever fishermen fish the habitat during night at low

tides using spear guns and "lock line" fishing techniques.

They intentionally try to catch the most expensive, and

valuable fish. such as the hump headed wrasse, CheiLinus

undulatus (gwaila) and others (Table 2) for sale in

Honiara,

CATCH STATISTICS

Fishermen observed in this study caught forty-three

species of fish (Table 2). Members of Family Ludanidae

were the most numerous and comprised about 367o ofthe catch weight. Members of Family Siganidae com-

prised about lTVa of the catch weight, Family

Acanthuridae l5o/o and Family Epinephelidae 107o.

Single individuals (Table 3) did most of the fishing.

Occasionally two persons, usually related, fished to-

gether. Women were never seen fishing alone liomcanoes. The women always went out with a male.

usually their husband or husband and another relative.

The largest group observed was l5 people fishing in

Fakana nata for Lethrinus kallopterus (suruakwaro), L.

lnrak (hatemekt), L. variegatus (goufuu) and L. mahsena

(surugou).

The trip CPUE increased as expected with the

number of fishermen trom 3.3 kg fish per trip tbr solo

llshermen to 12.3 kg fish per trip fbr groups with more

than five fishermen (Table 3). While the number oftlshers increases the catch per trip the CPUE per person

per trip declines fiom 3.3 kg fish per trip fbr solo fish-

ermen to 1.4 kg fish per trip fbr large groups. None

of the trips returned without some catch. We were told

that if a fisherman went to a distant site and caught

nothing, while returning home he would stop at sites

where he was assured of catching something, albeit

smaller individuals. The mean time spent day fishing

was 5.2 hr (S,D. = 2.35: n = 27) and'1 .2 hrs spent

night fishing (S.D. = 4.23; n =18). Nighttime catches

were higher,7.4 kg fish per trip versus 3.8 kg fish per

trip during the day.

OCEANOGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE

The Lau language contains numerous terms lor dif-

ferent f'eatures of the sea. Terms for the substrate include

one'sand', fou'rock', and afu'algae'. There are three

divisions tbr sand: one kwao'white sand' found on the

reef, one bulu'grayish sand' (found near river mouths),

and one ,namago'blackish sand'fbund in the mangroves.

The surf habitat of the barrier reef is known as aen.t

walo while ile refers to sea just before the breakers in

the open sea. Inde refers to living coral and ladelade

to dead corals. Acroltora digitifera coral is known as

fou ni hata which is used to scrape a lruit call haia.

The scraped product is used to plug holes in canoes.

Several species of coral and bivalve shells are used by

women to make lime for betel nut mastication. There

was no evidence that the coral was over harvested in

this effort.

Freshwater from rivers is known as kafo and salt

water known as asi. The brackish water in estuaries is

either known as kafo asila (literally freshwater mixed

with seawater) or as asl kafola (literally sea water mixed

with freshwater).

There are terms for diff'erent states of the tide and

currents (afe). An incoming tide is called lua and oul

going tide mai. The lowest tide is nni langa and a rising

tide lua kariabulo. As the exposed reef is covered it

is called lua totonge and when it is completely covered

it is known as lua e dalafa. High tide is lua e hata

and receding tide gouna asi e mo'oi. As the rocks emerge

it is termed mai tarafafua and when they are completely

emerged it is called nni tetee'a.

FISHING GROUND MANAGEMENT

Kinship-related groups manage iishing grounds

throughout the Lau Lagoon. The fishing ground is

Journal of The Pacific Society / October 199g / No.B4 85 (Vol.22, No.3- 4) (19) -broken down into two categories: public and managed

fishing grounds (Table 4). This division restricts fishing

eftbrt. Some areas are reserved only for the chief and

certain privileged villagers. Other areas are reserved forsmall groups from the chiefs clan or other clans. The

public fishing area may be used by anyone at any time

fiom the village. There is no restriction to group size.

Unpermitted use of managed fishing grounds is forbid-

den. They are reserved for fishing prior to major social

events such as feasts, during a mourning period, and

during other major social gatherings. The traditional

kinship management group must grant permission befbre

any fishing expedition in a managed lishing ground

begins.

The general consensus of the fishermen was that the

introduction of commercial exploitation of their sea

resources should only be initiated with the permission

of the traditional kinship management group. They felt

that a management system involving local stakeholders

who have in the common interest is preferred over

regulation imposed through external government agen-

cies. This is similar to the opinions expressed by fish-

ermen in the Russell Islands (Quinn and Maraki, 1999).

FISHING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

The common individual and collective fishing prac-

tices used by Ferafalu villagers are described below.

These include hand lining (aoao), trolling (falita),

spearing (susuu and kwesu), neI \fitrai) and trap fishing(a'ala'a and oko), sago palm leaf-kite fishing (kwaferao),

and fish poisoning (z,ta). Fishing is primarily men's

work, but mollusks, sea urchins, and small flsh are

fiequently gathered by women and children (Thble 5).

Most of the fishing equipment involves simple tech-

nology such as spears, lines, hand nets, bush vines and

wrapped dried coconut branches. Accessories for fish-

ing include goggles, iron rods, hooks, plastic bags,

knives, monofilament nets, and spear guns. The type

of fishing gear used by each sex difl'ers, reflecting rhe

type of l-ishing technique used. Most men are engaged

in fishing methods which require more sophisticated gear

and manual power, although equipment can be used by

either gender.

Hand lining is the most common fishing method and

is generally used by individual fishermen in the shal-

low lagoon. lt involves hooks of various sizes attached

to a monofilament fishing line. No. t hooks baifs with

large insects or small fish scraps are used to catch

Caesio spp. while No. 5 hooks baited with hermi[ crabs

fDardanus megistos or D. guttatus (both termed

and fish scraps are used for Holocentridae fbl nighr

fishing. No. I hooks are baited ltermed mamu'11 withlarger pieces of frsh (mariko ia) to catch Sph spp.,

Lutjanus spp. and Pentapodus spp. No weights ar$ used

Another handline method is called fale This

technique is used for deep-sea fishing and uses larger

hooks and thicker lines and sinkers. The size bf the

hooks and thickness of the line varies according to the

size of the target fish and the fishing depthf Iron

reinforcing rods are most commonly used for

but lead weights are also used when they are avaflable.

Trolling,falita, is done both in the lagoon and lutsidethe reef. Traditionally hooks made from bones and shells

and lines made fiom plant fiber were used. Bird f-eath-

ers were also used as lures. Today diff'erent

are used. For example. lures constructed using drinking

straws or unused blood bags, obtained from ho]pitals

or clinics, and metal hooks tied to monofilamenl tish-

ing lines are towed behind a paddled canoe o, 4loto.-ized boat.

There are two spearfishing techniques. One tectfnique

uses a plain spear and the other uses wooden stqck to

hold the spear and rubber to propel it. When a spear

gun (kwanga) is used the technique is called susu'yt anct

kwanqa. At night the fishermen use a bundle of burn-

ing coconut branches rkwesu) to light their way during

low tide. Using a sharpened iron rod (susuu), a diver

wearing goggles searches fbr fish among the coral {uringthe dav-

Diving masks that allow lbr equalization qf the

middle ear are too expensive and inf-requently uspd. Apair of goggles may be purchased in local shops on

Malaita for $52.50 ($S1.00 = $US0.45, January 1997).

While divers boasred that rhey could dive ro an esri-

mated depth of 20 m or more. they acknowledged tnat

there were plenty of fish in shallower waters. Only

occasionally did they endure the pain to fish fgr the

"large ones" at deeper depths. It appeared that spgaring

at deeper depths was done by young men to qrove

themselves rather then out of necessity. The easiesi way

to increase subsistence fishing productivity and inc[ease

the comfbrt and saf'ety of divers would be to prQvide

Q0) -73 - t+t++a# leee + 10 E ffi84/85+ (ffi22&ffi3/4F=)

several masks to remote fishing villages. Being able

to equalize pressure would extend the depth the fish-

ermen could dive in comtbrt and safety and spear the

larger fish presently seeking refuge in deeper waters.

As it is, the lack of masks functions to conserve fish

stocks and prevent overfishing of the reef\.

The term "lockline" is used to describe a wooden

gun stock which supports an elastic rubber on one end

that is used to propel a spear. Many villagers refrain

fiom using "locklines" due to the belief that the con-

stant loading of the gun against the chest causes blood

clots in the chest.

Net (furai) and trap (o&o) fishing are done by groups

of five or more people. When fish have been observed

f'eeding, a gill net (furai) is placed around the area from

a canoe. People in the canoe slap the water with long

poles (airada) to scare the fish towards the net. Then

divers with spears and goggles enter the enclosed area

and capture the fish. Similarly, in ala'a fishing (a

collective name for Cetoscarus bicolor (amera),

Lethrinus varieg4atus (goufuu), and Hipposcarus

longiceps (ntoua'a)) a gill net is placed around a fish

aggregation and large numbers of flsh are caught in the

net. ln oko fishing a net using bush rope or vines, known

as dilo. is used. The dilo is obtained by just cutting

the correct size vine in the jungle. Fishermen hold the

end of the vine and pull it through the water. This scares

the fish and tlshermen behind the rope spear the fish.

Fish poisoninE fuka) involves fish poisoning with

derris (Derrls sp.) roots and vines (Henderson and

Hancock, 1988). Derris (kwalo uka) is widely used on

the reef. The plant is so common that there is no need

to cultivate it. The vines and leaves are pounded to

release its toxic component, mixed with sand and applied

under in hollows or in small pools in the reef during

low tide. Fish caught are non-toxic to people who con-

sume them.

CULTURAL AND LOCAL MARINE KNOWL.EDGE

Specialized knowledge and skills are pre-requisites

lbr a successful fishing expedition. Observations made

over many centuries about the relationship between the

abundance of fish and abiotic factors, such as weather

and tidal currents (a/e), increase the catches. For ex-

ample, fishermen know that many fish enter the lagoon

on the rising tide and that catch rates increase. It is

also believed that turtles (fonu), stingrays (fali) and

dugong (iatekwa) are the last to enter and the flrst toleave the lagoon.

Ferafaluan society imposes laws that regulate the ac-

tivities of fishermen and women. For example, in the

past women were forbidden fiom having physical

contact with their husbands prior to a fishing trip. Failure

to heed such customs would bring bad luck to the fishing

expedition. Just prior to fishing, the fishermen would

assemble at the village tambu place (manabeu), an area

where females were prohibited from entry, for consult-

ing and cont-ession with the animist priest (.araifua).

While the men were out fishing, mothers were obli-

gated to make sure that the children did not cry or talk

about the father. Failure to comply was believed to cause

a poor catch or a change in weather, signifying dis-

content of the spirits. There was also an administrative

chart ranking villagers and their areas of responsibility.

This identified which villagers were responsible for tasks

before, during and after the fishing trip. A highly

respected villager organizes the trip to avoid disagree-

ments with the spirits. The trip leader's duty also

included the supervision of the fair distribution of the

catch. This is consider important to ensure good catches

in future trips and tunctions to insure social harmony

and a cooperative spirit so important when at sea.

Fishermen use their knowledge of fish behavior to

increase catch rates. Certain species such as

Rhinecanthus verrucost4s (bubu fahato) and R.

rectangulus (bubuu sidai) hide in coral rubble. To

capture these tish, the coral rubble is broken up. To

catch other species e.g. Gen'es cinereus (tereua), Siganus

spinus {kurumzsi), and Lethrinus ntahsena (surugou),

dead coral rocks are piled together and then removed

when it is suspected that fish are hiding inside. The

sand around the stones must be tiee so that the fish

may be dug out easily.

Ferafalu flshermen have traditionally associated fish-

ing activities with the gathering, cultivation or flow-

ering of fbod crops or other plants. Salt-tolerant littoral

plants are commonly used as indicators of seasons when

certain fish may be caught. For example, when

Terminalia catappa (alite) leaves change colors fiom

green to red (alite mena) it indicates that L. gibbus has

reached maturity as reflected by the presence of red-

Journal of The Pacific Society / October 1999 / No.B4 - 85 (Vol.22, No.3 4) Qt) 7

dish color on it scales. This is the mating period, which

usually takes place especially near the reef passage at

night during high tide between November and Decem-

ber. The flowering of alite indicates the return of other

edible flsh.

MARINE TENURE, CUSTOMS, AND CON.SERVATION

Reef access and management is determined by the

leading kinship group, who were usually the first settlers

to the area. The ownership and governing authority is

patriarchal. Ownership may be transf'erred to others

within and outside the village as a reward. In one case

some fishing grounds were given to a villager as a

reward for taking the skulls of villagers' forefathers at

Orukalia to Funaful lsland in the Lau Lagoon. Land-

marks, usually coconut plantations or human structures

identify the boundaries. As the villagers have seen the

monetary value of their marine resources increase there

has been an increase in the disputes about the own-

ership of specific fishing grounds.

Christianity has replaced traditional ancestor worship

or animism as the main religion today. Consequently

the Sabbath is considered a day of rest and fishing is

not allowed. This had the net eft-ect of reducing the total

fishing effbrt by one seventh. If the catch during the

week was not enough to provide fish fbr Sabbath the

people would either receive fish from other villagers

who were of a ditferent religion and observed the

Sabbath on a different day or get other foods. Many

villagers belong to the Seventh Day Adventist Church

and are prohibited from consuming marine flsh without

scales. This has the efl'ect of reducing shelliish con-

sumption by about l/3 of the community.

The villagers consider that it is vital to conserve the

marine communities by proper management of the

resources. On occasion when the low tide occurs in the

middle of the day, the villagers actively modify the

environment assisting in its conservation. The villagers

plant sea grass (ttfuu) during low tides. The sea grass

is planted in habitat one \kusuu) to protect juvenile

Tridacna gigas (doLo) fiom predation. Additionally, the

sea grass is recognized for it value in providing pro-

tection and food for fish such as Siganus spinus

(kurumusi), S. argenteus (muu ni furai), and S. sutor

(muu sio).

Within Ferafalu society there is a strong de$ire to

properly manage and conserve the resources of their

reefs and it is passed orally through the gener{tions.

Ferafalu villagers are well known throughout L1u La-

goon fbr their traditions. One of the traditions strictly

enforced is the prohibition on eating sharks (barikwa).

Sharks are believed to be the fbrefathers of thb clan

and due respect must be given to them. Additiqnally,

it is forbidden to eat dugongs liatekwa), oJ,opu.

(kokola), and crocodiles lmatakorol. It is believ{d that

anyone failing to observe these customs will sodn die.

Consumption of turtles (fonu\ is restricted duri{g the

yam season (uni falisi) from November to April. This

coincides with the main turtle nesting ..uron. l, *u,reported that violators of this custom tbund dea$ yam

vines in their garden (falisi) and have had poor har-

vests of undersized yams (kai). These customs apply

even to women who marry into the village.

Additionally there are finfish that are fbrbid$en to

eat, e.g. K-vphosus cinerascens {leleko) and Rastrqlliger

kanagurta (rooma). It is believed that members pf the

Kwalo ai and Adagege villages on the man made iplands

in Lau Lagoon who eat these flsh will be killed by the

spirit of a villager who had previously died fiom pating

these fish. The flshes are not known to be toxic so the

belief functions to reduce the fishing pressure dn the

fish stocks leaving more fish fbr the other villages who

are not subject to this taboo.

The restricted entry custom known as otofafa,alata

is practiced at the Anaau Point and Lade fishing grounds.

This taboo prohibits fishing within the fishing gpound

when any member of the clan dies or when a large social

occasion such as a marriage or feast is to be held soon.

The taboo period usually lasts about 2 - 3 month$. The

area is marked by a upright pole with plaited cqconut

lronds attached to it. Fishing and the use of outpoard

motors are banned within these areas.

Another local conservation measure is rejection of

live undersized, dangerous, and poisonous fish. Fish-

ermen believe that by returning a fish to thp sea

demonstrates respect to spirits who will in turn plovide

a large catch. Other successful conservation strafegies

include authority exerted through elders, effectivg pen-

alties lbr violators, and fiequent monitoring overl fish-

lng grounds.

The villagers have recognized that the recent lrse of

(22) -71. -

^Fi++Affi leee + 10 E ffi84 /85tr (ffi22 ffi3 / 4+)

destructive fishing methods such as small mesh gill nets,

explosives, fish poisoning (a,ta), underwater torches and

"lockline" fishing have resulted in the extirpation or

severe depletion of several fish stocks. Villagers are con-

cerned about the threats posed by these technologies

and have begun to limit their use. The following spe-

cies are considered by the tishermen to be particularly

vulnerable: Lethrinus ntahsena (surugou), Kyphosus

cinerascens (leko), Lutjanus gibhus (hale), and Naso

unicornis (ume). It was reported that the catch volume

and average size of these fish have recently decreased.

In spite of the traditional conservation practices, the

species listed in Table 6 are now rare or possibly

extirpated, possibly due to selective overfishing or

natural modification of habitat.

Traditional fishing societies have a system of divi-sion of labor between men and women (Whewell, 1994).

Consequently there is a gender specific system ofmanaging the marine resources, although women do not

control areas of the sea. Generally, the men do the

finfishing while the women glean the lagoons and reef

flats fbr mollusks, crustaceans and seaweed species.

None of the marine resources utilized by Ferafalu

women were reported as threatened.

PRESERVATION OF LOCAL KNOWLEDGEAND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Consequently, much of the traditional knowledge ofthe construction of equipment, fishing methods and

skills, names and classification of animals and manage-

ment customs is not being passed on to the present gen-

eration of Feratalu youth. This knowledge is being lost

because of the implementation of a non-tradtional

education model that does not include local mare

knowledge in its curriculum (Daudau and Quinn, 1997).

Understandably, the education system cann not teach

what is not documented in books and thus it hastens

the demise of this largely undocumented body of aquatic

knowledge.

With local Science teachers using foreign examples

and material, interest wanes for both the students and

teachers. ln a country where there are many species un-

known to science it is crucial that a local knowledge

in the natural history of the islands be nurtured and

expanded upon so that the Solomon Islanders can take

full advantage of their own natural resources fbr sus-

tainable economic development. Some of these resources

may contain natural chemicals that may be the poten-

tial cure for cancer, AIDS, and other diseases. We

believe it is necessary to stimulate more of the bright

young minds of the Solomon Islands' youth to study

not only western sciences, but to also study their own

local ecological knowledge so that they can devise and

implement a strategy for sustainable development and

benefit from the new discoveries to be made from their

reef systems.

Few Solomon lslands students privileged to attend

university seek to continue their science education. In

1996, of rhe 142 Solomon Island (Sl) students attend-

ing the University of the South Pacific, only 42 stu-

dents were studying Science. There were 30 SI students

studying Law. While there are scores of secondary

schools needing trained Science teachers there are only

a few positions vacant fbr lawyers in Solomon Islands

(Daudau and Quinn, 1997).

The traditional source of income fbr the 220 people

in the Ferafalu village has been from copra earning

people about $5600 per year ($S1.00 = $US0.45 Janu-

ary 1997). ln a new nation's developing economy it is

necessary to develop natural resources to pay for

improved infrastructure and better public services.

Consequently, the natural resources of an isolated is-

land community have become increasingly important as

a source of reef fish and other marine products to a

developing nation's economy. However, it is important

in the development of the resources of a nation that

village managers of the resources are included in any

development plans and that some of the benetits from

the development go directly to the village. To do this

efl'ectively and in an ecologically and culturally sen-

sitive manner, there is a critical need to train Solomon

Island scientists to understand both modern Science and

their own countries' local knowledge systems. One ofthe most effective ways of doing this is to involve

students in enthnobiological studies and increase the

amount of local knowledge in print that can be used

in primary and secondary classrooms.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are gratetul to the Feratalu villagers tbr their

hospitality and for sharing so freely their knowledge

about the sea. Appreciation is also extended to the

Journal of The Pacific Society / October 1999 / No.B4 - 85 (yo1.22, No.3 - 4 ) (23) _

Premier of Malaita, Honorable D. Oeta, fbr his hos-

pitality and cooperation. Funding came fiom the Uni-versity ol the South Paciilc URC grant #6291-1311,

70766-15 and from Tropical Discoveries Fund. Thiswork was undertaken while N.J.Q. was a J. W. Fulbright

Fellow at the University of rhe Sourh Pacific. The

encouragement and support ol P. Newell is greatly

appreciated. P Newell, R. Thaman, B.L. Kojis and an

anonymous reviewer are gratefully acknowledged fbrreviewing the manuscript and for their constructive

comments. C. Fidali from Lau Lagoon, checked the Lau

spelling. We are grateful to S. Appana who typed the

manuscript into the computer and helped with proof-

reading.

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Table I - 6 and appendix I - 2 continue on the fol-

lowing pages.

Journal of The Pacific Society / October 1999 / No. 84 - Bb (yo1..22, No.3 - 4 ) (2b) -

Table l: Changes in vernacular names of .iuvenile and adult fish.

Table 2: List of fish caught in the habitats off Ferafalu Village.

Juvenile fish

Rarasi fouArodo

Unuunu

Kwatoa

Kokohale, malifu

Mumu

Fafawai

Kakarai

Ono

Adult fish

gwaila

suru arodo

tatnara

uSwago

raualite

mumu galau

leto i matakwa

muu sio

mamalito

Scientific name

Bolbometopon muricatus

Gnathodentex spp.

Hemirhamphus spp.

Lethrinus spp.

Lutjanus sebae

Plectorhvnchus spp.

Plectorlrynchus spp.

Siganus spp.

Sphyraena spp.

HABITAT NUMBERS

l2 3 4 -5 6 7Scientific name

Acanthurus leucocheilus herreca

Acanthurus triostegus

Caranx ignobilis

Caranx melampygus

Cetoscarus bicolor

Chaetodon ephippium

Cheilinus undulatus

Choerodon anchorago

C te noc haetus hawaiie ns is

Epinephel us magniscuttis

Epinephelus merra

Epittephelus microdon

EpinepheLus morrhua

Gerres cinereus

Hipposcarus longiceps

Kyphosus cinerascens

Lethrinus harak

Lethrinus elongatus

Lethrinus kallopterus

Lethrinus mahsema

Lethrinus nebulosus

Lethrinus ramak

Lethrinus variegatus

Lutjanus bohar

Lutjanus fitlvusLutjanus gibbus

Vernacular name

Maeto

Bereqwasu

Borabora

Edaeda

Amera

Bebee

Cwaila

Lifutange

Bolo

Ul"fu

Eeno

Ulafu bero

Ulafu haga

Tbreua

Mouaa

Leleko

Hatemela

Ugwango

Suru akwaro

Suntgou

Fotobala

Suru gwagwaro

Goufuu

Ulumaeo

Hango

Hale

*

(26) t+r++A;fi leee + 10 E ffi84/85E (ffi22&H / 4E)

M ulloidic hthys flavoline atus

Mugil cephalus

Naso unicornis

Plectorhinchus lineatus

P s e udobal is te s flav imarginat us

Rhinecanthus rectangulus

Rhinecanthus verrucosus

Sargoce nt ron spinife rum.

Scarus ghobban

Siganus argenteus

Siganus guttatus

Siganus lineatus

Siganus spinus

Siganus sutor

Siganus virgatus

Ulaema lefroyi

Valamugil seheli

I 168

2433 l04452>53

Name of fishine grounds

Alata baita

Alata hafalia

Baro

Fou i rada

Goufu

Kwasi

ladre

Onetoli

Sulibusu

Mean CPUE / boat(kg fish trip-r)

J.J

5.2

6.1

6.5

8.0

12.3

Ragaraga

Iliiliwalo

Ume

lztoBabalu

Bubuu sidai

Bubuu fahatoAlasaa

Mara

Mu'u ni furaiFalata

Falata

Kurwnusi

Mu'u sio

Nanara kwao

Raemae

Kalua

****

,t*

***

*

*

Table 3. Number of people fishing on each trip by gender and CPUE in January

No. of people No. of trios Male Female

(kg person-r

t68 0

60 26

21 7

160100400

3.3

2.6

2.0

1.6

1.6

1.4

Table 4: Names and uses of public and managed tishing grounds

Individual

*

*

*

*

Small group*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Communitv Manased* Yes

* yes

x yes

* Yes

* Yes

Yes

yes

*NoYes

Journal of The Pacific Society /October 1999/No.B4 85 (Vo1.22, No.3- 4) (27) -

Table 5: Users of fishing techniques

Technique / Vernacular Name

Fish Poison - aka

Hand lining - aoao Ia

Palm leaf kite fishing - kwaferao

Net - furaiSpearing - susuu

- kuesu

Spear gun fishing - kwanga

Trap - a'ala'a

- oko

Trolling - falila

Children Women Old Men Small Grp.*{<

Table 6: Locally rare or extirpated fish species in order of extirpation

Ye0aeular-&&9Menamena

Hakwa

Isiofu

Fotobala

Hale

Takwalao

Unte

Babalu

Foloabe

Foloabe

Foloabe

Falata

Falata

Ooa

Scientific name

Acanthurus dussumieri

Chanos chanos

Fistularia tabacaria

Lethrinus nebulosus

Lutjanus gibbus

Naso lituratus

Naso unicornis

P s e udobali s te s flav imarg inat us

Platax teira

Platax orbicularis

Platax pinnatus

Siganus gattatus

Siganus lineatus

Symp ho rus nematopho rus

English name

Eyestripe surgeonfish

Milkfish

Bluespotted cornetfish

Spangled emperor

Paddletail snapper

Orangespine unicornfish

Bluespine unicornfish

Yellowmargin triggerfish

Longfin spadefish

Circular spadefish

Pinnate spadefish

Golden rabbitfish

Lined rabbitfish

Chinamanfish

(28) - 65 - A+7++A# leee 410 E ffi84/85E (ffi22&ffi3 /4E)

APPENDIX

Appendix l: Vernaculan scientific and English names of fish species caught.

Vernacular name

Menamena

Beregwasu

Bubu bulu

Gwaila

Amera & Makedea

Bebee

Hakwa

Unudolo

Lifolange

Ulafu

Eeno

Ulafu bero

Ulafu haga

Isiofu

Tereua

Moua

Ugn,ango

Hate ntela

Suru akwaro

Surugou

Fotobala

Surugwagwaro

Gouf,

Rido

Ulumaeo

Haango

Hale

Maasulua

Iliili w'alo

Takwaloo

Ume

Foloabe

Scientific name

Acant hurus duss ume i ri (Valenciennes)

Acanthurus trioste gus (Linnaeus)

Balistapus undulatus (Mungo Park)

Bolbometopon muricatum (Bloch)

Cetoscarus bicolor (Linneaus)

Chaetodon ephippium (Cuvier)

Chanos chanos (Linneaus)

CheiLinus undulatus (Ruppell)

Choerodon anchorago (Bloch)

Epinephelus magniscuttis Bleeker

Epinephelus merra (Bloch)

Epinephelus microdon (Bleeker)

Epinephe lus morrhua (ForskAl)

F istularia tabacaria (ForskAl)

Gerres cinereus (Bleeker)

Hipposcarus longiceps (Valenciennes)

Lethrinus elongatus (ForskAl)

Le thrinus harak (Bleeker)

Lethrinus kallopterus (Bleeker)

Lethrinus mahsena (Forskil)

Lethrinus nebulosus (ForskAl)

Le thrinus ramak (Linnaeus)

Lethrinus variegatus (Valenciennes)

Lutjanus argentimaculalus (Forsk6l)

Lutjanus bo har (Forskii)

Lutjanus /zlvas (Forskil)

Lutjanus gibbas (Forskil)

Monota.ris granoculis (Forskil)

Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus)

Naso lituratus (Schneider)

Naso unicornis (ForskAl)

Platax orbicularis (Forskil)

Platax pinnatrzs (Forskil)

Platax teira (Forskil)

Pl ectorhync hus lineatus (Cuvier)

Plec trctpomus leopardus (ForskAl)

Pse ud oba li s te s flav imarginatus (Ruppell)

Ras t re I li ge r kanagurta (Cuvier)

Rhinecanthus eclnrpe (Anon.)

English name

Eyestrip surgeonfish

Convict surgeonfish

Orangestripped triggerfish

Bumbhead parrotfish

Bicolor parrotlish

Shaddled butterflyfish

Milkfish

Bumphead wrasse fish

Yellow-cheek tuskfish

Giant grouper

Honeycomb rockrod

Bluetail grouper

Brownstrip grouper

Bluespotted cornetfish

Yellowfin mojarra

Pacific longnose parrotfish

Longface emperor

Thumbprint emperor

Yellow-spot emperor

Yellowtail emperor

Spangled emperor

Stripped emperor

Variegated emperor

River snapper

Two-spot red snapper

Redtail snapper

Paddletail snapper

Large eye bream

Sea mullet

Orangespine unicornfish

Bluespine unicornfish

Circular spadefish

Pinnate spadefish

Longfin spadefish

Lined sweetlips

Coral trout

Yellow margin triggerfish

Indian mackerel

Wedge-tailed picassofish

Leto

Bilau

Babalu

Rooma

Bubu sidai

Journal of The Pacific Society /October 1999/No.B4-Bb (yo1.22, No.3-4) (2D _

Bubu fahatoAlasa

Mara

Muu ni furaiFalata

Narabulu

Kurumusu

Muu sio

Narakwao

Ooa

Raemae

Kaltn

Faero

Ycrnacu.lar-la!09

Gwarasuka

Ilo

Kome

Abubuli

Tafisikoko

Ragotai

Kwalangi baekaw

Urafou

Umari

Aususu'u

Weree

Abisifou

Takelade

DoLo

Unu

Siftila

Binu laungi

Binu kero

R hinecanthus ve rrucos us (Linnaeus)

Sargocentron spinift rum (Forsk6l)

Scarus ghobban (Forskil)

Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard)

Siganus guttatus (Bloch)

Siganus lineatus (Bloch)

Siganus punctatissimus Flower & Beam

Siganus splnas (Linnaeus)

Siganus slrror (Bleeker)

Siganus virgatus (Linneaus)

S -vmpho rus nematophorus (Bleeker)

U laema lefroyi (Forskti)

ValamugiL selzell (Forskil)

Variola Louti (Forskil)

Blackbelly picassofish

Long-sawed squirrelfi sh

Bluebarred parrotfish

Forktail rabbitfish

Golden rabbitfish

Lined rabbirfish

Peppered rabbitfish

Spinefoot rabbitfish

Afiican whitespottedfi sh

Virgate rabbitfish

Chinamanfish

Mottled mo.jarra

Bluetail mullet

Lunar-tail rockrod

Appendix 2. vernacular, scientific and English names of edible invertebrates.

Scientific name English name

Atrina pectinika Shell

Atrina vexillum Shell

Conus imperialis Cone shell

Hippopus hippopus Clam shell

Lambis scorpius Spider shell

lnmbis truncata Spider shell

Parribacus antacticus lobster

Palinurela weinecki lobster

Pinctada maxima File shell

Pleuroploca rapezium Trumpet shell

Strombus sp. Stromb shell

Tridacna crocea Tridacna shell

Tridacna deresa Tridacna shell

Tridacna gigas Tridacna shell

Tridacna maxima Tridacna shell

Trochus niloticus Trochus shell

Tripneustes gratilla (red and white color morph) sea urchin

Tripneustes gratilla (red color morph) sea urchin