Meeting IVMeeting IVLinguistic Varieties and Linguistic Varieties and Multilingual NationMultilingual Nation

Siti MukminatunSiti Mukminatun

Key termsKey terms

RepertoireRepertoire VernacularVernacular StandardStandard Lingua FrancaLingua Franca PidginPidgin CreoleCreole

Example IExample I

Kalala is 16 years old. He lives in Bukavu, an Kalala is 16 years old. He lives in Bukavu, an African city in eastern Zaire with a population African city in eastern Zaire with a population of about 220,000. It is a multicultural, of about 220,000. It is a multicultural, multilingual city with more people coming and multilingual city with more people coming and going for work and business reasons than going for work and business reasons than people who live there permanently. Over forty people who live there permanently. Over forty groups speaking different languages can be groups speaking different languages can be found in the city. Kalala, like many of his found in the city. Kalala, like many of his friends, is unemployed. He spends his days friends, is unemployed. He spends his days roaming the streets, stopping off periodically roaming the streets, stopping off periodically at regular meeting places in the market-place, at regular meeting places in the market-place, in the park, or at a friend’s place. During a in the park, or at a friend’s place. During a normal day he uses at least three different normal day he uses at least three different varieties or codes, and sometimes more. varieties or codes, and sometimes more.

Example IIExample II

Mr. Patel is a spice merchant who lives in Bombay. Mr. Patel is a spice merchant who lives in Bombay. When he gets up he talks to his wife and children in When he gets up he talks to his wife and children in Kathiawari, their dialect of Gujerati. Every morning Kathiawari, their dialect of Gujerati. Every morning he goes to the local market where he uses Marathi he goes to the local market where he uses Marathi to buy his vegetables. At the railway station he to buy his vegetables. At the railway station he buys his ticket into Bombay city using Hindustani, buys his ticket into Bombay city using Hindustani, the working person’s lingua franca. He reads his the working person’s lingua franca. He reads his Gujerati newspaper on the train, and when he gets Gujerati newspaper on the train, and when he gets to work he uses enough English to enjoy an English to work he uses enough English to enjoy an English cricket commentary on the radio, but he would find cricket commentary on the radio, but he would find an English film difficult to follow. However, since an English film difficult to follow. However, since the spice business is flourishing, his children go to the spice business is flourishing, his children go to an English-medium school, so he expects them to an English-medium school, so he expects them to be more proficient in English than he is. be more proficient in English than he is.

Vernacular languageVernacular language

1.1. refers to a language which has not refers to a language which has not been standardized and which does been standardized and which does not have official status;not have official status;

2.2. refers to the way it is acquired- refers to the way it is acquired- usually the first languages learned usually the first languages learned by people in multilingual by people in multilingual communities;communities;

3.3. used for relatively narrow range of used for relatively narrow range of informal functionsinformal functions

vernacular languagevernacular language

4. the most colloquial variety in a 4. the most colloquial variety in a person’s linguistic repertoireperson’s linguistic repertoire

5. the variety used for 5. the variety used for communication in the home and communication in the home and with close friendswith close friends

6. the language of solidarity 6. the language of solidarity between people from the same between people from the same ethnic groupethnic group

An influential 1951 An influential 1951 Unesco reportUnesco report

Vernacular languageVernacular language• The first language of a group The first language of a group

socially or politically dominated by socially or politically dominated by a group with a different languagea group with a different languagee.g. ‘Spain’ in USA in which English e.g. ‘Spain’ in USA in which English dominates, but not in Spain itself dominates, but not in Spain itself (Spain as an official language)(Spain as an official language)

* A language which is not an official * A language which is not an official language in a particular context.language in a particular context.

The extension of The extension of vernacular language vernacular language definitionsdefinitions1.1. in a monolingual community: the in a monolingual community: the

most informal and colloquial most informal and colloquial variety of a language which may variety of a language which may also have a standardized varietyalso have a standardized variety

2.2. A language used for everyday A language used for everyday interaction, without implying interaction, without implying that it is appropriate only in that it is appropriate only in informal domainsinformal domains

Standard languagesStandard languages

more difficult to define rather than more difficult to define rather than vernacular languagevernacular language

used in many different ways by used in many different ways by linguistslinguists

1.1. one which is written,one which is written,

2.2. which has undergone some degree which has undergone some degree of regularizations or codifications of regularizations or codifications (e.g. in a grammar and a dictionary)(e.g. in a grammar and a dictionary)

Standard languagesStandard languages

3. It is recognized as a prestigious 3. It is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a communityvariety or code by a community

4. It is used for H functions 4. It is used for H functions alongside the diversity of L alongside the diversity of L varietiesvarieties

5. Standard varieties are codified 5. Standard varieties are codified varieties. varieties.

Standard languagesStandard languages

Standard English emerged naturally in the 15Standard English emerged naturally in the 15thth century from century from a variety of regional English dialectsa variety of regional English dialects

It was because this variety was used by the Court and the It was because this variety was used by the Court and the influential merchants of London. influential merchants of London.

The area where the largest proportion of the English The area where the largest proportion of the English population lived in a neat triangle containing London: the population lived in a neat triangle containing London: the Court was based and the two universities, Oxford and Court was based and the two universities, Oxford and Cambridge, an important agricultural and business are, the Cambridge, an important agricultural and business are, the hub of international trade and exports to Calais, the centre hub of international trade and exports to Calais, the centre of political, social and intellectual life in England. of political, social and intellectual life in England.

Standard varieties are codified varieties. Standard varieties are codified varieties. It has served as a useful variety for communication.It has served as a useful variety for communication. Local varieties of English has developed in Malaysia, Local varieties of English has developed in Malaysia,

Singapore, India, and many African countries.Singapore, India, and many African countries. The degree of variation has not been great. The degree of variation has not been great.

codificationcodification

1.1. achieved through grammars and achieved through grammars and dictionariesdictionaries

2.2. part of the development of part of the development of every standard varietyevery standard variety

3.3. accelerated in the case of accelerated in the case of English by the introduction of English by the introduction of printing by William Caxton, 1476 printing by William Caxton, 1476

Three essential criteria Three essential criteria of standard languageof standard language

1.1. Influential or prestigious variety;Influential or prestigious variety;

2.2. Codified and stabilized;Codified and stabilized;

3.3. Served H functions (court, Served H functions (court, literature, administrationliterature, administration

Standard LanguageStandard Language

Standard language is a particular dialect Standard language is a particular dialect which has gained its special position as a which has gained its special position as a result of social, economic, and political result of social, economic, and political influences. influences.

A standard dialect has no particular A standard dialect has no particular linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary, linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciationgrammar, or pronunciation

It is simply the dialect of those who are It is simply the dialect of those who are politically powerful and socially politically powerful and socially prestigious. prestigious.

Lingua FrancasLingua Francas A language serving as a regular means of A language serving as a regular means of

communication between different linguistic communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech communitygroups in a multilingual speech community

A language used for communication between A language used for communication between people whose first languages differpeople whose first languages differ

e.g. e.g.

1. academics and experts meet at 1. academics and experts meet at international international conferences or when politicians conferences or when politicians arrange arrange summit meetings; English, French, summit meetings; English, French, or or Spanish is often used as a lingua franca.Spanish is often used as a lingua franca.

2. see example 3, p. 86-87 Holmes2. see example 3, p. 86-87 Holmes

Example IIIExample III

In the 1960s, a Catholic nun, Sister Dominic, was sent In the 1960s, a Catholic nun, Sister Dominic, was sent to Rome for a meeting between nuns from different to Rome for a meeting between nuns from different countries. She spoke no Italian but she had been countries. She spoke no Italian but she had been managing pretty well with her French and English until managing pretty well with her French and English until she lost her purse on evening. She simply was not she lost her purse on evening. She simply was not able to explain to the local police officer how she had able to explain to the local police officer how she had lost her purse. A priest overheard her struggles and lost her purse. A priest overheard her struggles and came to her rescue. They proceeded to explain their came to her rescue. They proceeded to explain their linguistic repertoires trying to find a language they linguistic repertoires trying to find a language they shared. He came from Brazil and spoke Portuguese shared. He came from Brazil and spoke Portuguese and Spanish, but he had been living in Rome for some and Spanish, but he had been living in Rome for some time, and so he was by then familiar with the local time, and so he was by then familiar with the local variety of Italian. Finally, they found a language in variety of Italian. Finally, they found a language in which they could communicate- Latin. At that time which they could communicate- Latin. At that time Latin was still the language of church services and Latin was still the language of church services and both learned Latin to university level. both learned Latin to university level.

Lingua FrancasLingua Francas

In some countries the most useful and widely In some countries the most useful and widely used lingua franca is an official language or the used lingua franca is an official language or the national language.national language.

e.g. e.g. 1. Swahili in Tanzania1. Swahili in Tanzania2. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea2. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea3. Russian among a hundred different vernaculars3. Russian among a hundred different vernaculars

In multilingual communities, lingua franca may In multilingual communities, lingua franca may eventually displace the vernaculars.eventually displace the vernaculars.

Often develop initially as trade languagesOften develop initially as trade languagese.g. ‘Hausa’ in west Africa, ‘Swahili’ in East Africa-e.g. ‘Hausa’ in west Africa, ‘Swahili’ in East Africa-the becomes national language of Tanzania. Tok the becomes national language of Tanzania. Tok Pisin has a similar experience like Swahili.Pisin has a similar experience like Swahili.

Lingua FrancaLingua Franca

UNESCOUNESCO• A language used habitually by people whose A language used habitually by people whose

mother tongue are different in order to facilitate mother tongue are different in order to facilitate communication between them.communication between them.

• A variety of other termsA variety of other terms1. a trade language (Hausa in west africa & 1. a trade language (Hausa in west africa & Swahili –EA)Swahili –EA)2. a contact language (Greek Koine in The 2. a contact language (Greek Koine in The ancient world)ancient world)3. an international language (English throughout 3. an international language (English throughout the world)the world)4. an auxiliary language 4. an auxiliary language

Pidgin Pidgin

A language which has no native speakers.A language which has no native speakers. develop as a means of communication develop as a means of communication

between people who do not have a common between people who do not have a common languagelanguage

arise when two groups with different arise when two groups with different languages are communicating in a situation languages are communicating in a situation where there is also a third dominant where there is also a third dominant languagelanguage

used almost exclusively for referential rather used almost exclusively for referential rather than affective functionsthan affective functions

used for specific functions like buying, used for specific functions like buying, selling, or animal hides, rather than to signal selling, or animal hides, rather than to signal social distinctions or expressed politenesssocial distinctions or expressed politeness

pidginpidgin1.1. has no native speakers.has no native speakers.2.2. As a means of communication between As a means of communication between

people who do not have a common people who do not have a common language. language.

3.3. Both contribute to the sounds, vocabulary, Both contribute to the sounds, vocabulary, the grammatical features, and some the grammatical features, and some additional featuresadditional features

4.4. The prestigious language contribute much The prestigious language contribute much on vocabulary and the vernacular on vocabulary and the vernacular languages on the grammar of the languages on the grammar of the developing pidgindeveloping pidgin

Pidgin Pidgin

5. simplified structure and a small 5. simplified structure and a small vocabulary compared with fully vocabulary compared with fully develop languagesdevelop languages

6. short life and disappear if the 6. short life and disappear if the function disappearsfunction disappears

Three identifying Three identifying characteristics of pidgincharacteristics of pidgin

1.1. It is used in restricted domains It is used in restricted domains and functionsand functions

2.2. It has a simplified structure It has a simplified structure compared to the source compared to the source languageslanguages

3.3. Low prestige and attracts Low prestige and attracts negative attitudes-especially negative attitudes-especially from outsidersfrom outsiders

Creole Creole

1.1. A pidgin which has acquired A pidgin which has acquired native speakersnative speakers

2.2. They are learned by children as They are learned by children as their first language and used in their first language and used in a wide range of domains.a wide range of domains.

3.3. They become more structurally They become more structurally regular.regular.

FunctionsFunctions

Pidgin can become lingua franca.Pidgin can become lingua franca. Once a Creole has developed it Once a Creole has developed it

can be used for all the functions can be used for all the functions of language, politics, education, of language, politics, education, administration. administration.

attitudesattitudes

Outsiders’ attitudes to Creole are Outsiders’ attitudes to Creole are often as negative as their attitude often as negative as their attitude to pidginto pidgin

This is not always the case for This is not always the case for those who speak them.those who speak them.

Origin and endingsOrigin and endings

found in every continentfound in every continent Most are based on one of seven Most are based on one of seven

European languages; English, European languages; English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Dutch, and ItaliaGerman, Dutch, and Italia

The debate toward the The debate toward the origin of pidginorigin of pidgin

1.1. All pidgins and creoles have a common origin.All pidgins and creoles have a common origin.2.2. Each pidgin arises and develops independently.Each pidgin arises and develops independently.

They account for the similarities by pointing two They account for the similarities by pointing two types of constraints; types of constraints;

1.1. Pidgins arise in different contexts but for the Pidgins arise in different contexts but for the same kinds of basic functions.same kinds of basic functions.

2.2. These functions are expressed through These functions are expressed through structural processes which seem universal to structural processes which seem universal to all situations of language development-such as all situations of language development-such as simplification and reduction of redundant simplification and reduction of redundant featuresfeatures

The origin of CreoleThe origin of Creole

There are a variety of answers There are a variety of answers depending on the social context.depending on the social context.

1.1. In the societies with rigid divisions, In the societies with rigid divisions, a Creole remains as a stable L a Creole remains as a stable L variety alongside an officially variety alongside an officially sanctioned H variety.sanctioned H variety.

2.2. Where the social barriers are more Where the social barriers are more fluid, the Creole may develop fluid, the Creole may develop towards the standard language towards the standard language (decreolisation)(decreolisation)

3. used side by side with standard 3. used side by side with standard variety variety → standard variety → a → standard variety → a continuum of varieties between the continuum of varieties between the standard and creolestandard and creole

4. may be adopted as an official 4. may be adopted as an official languagelanguage

e.g. Tok Pisin (PNG)e.g. Tok Pisin (PNG)

Indonesian from Pidgin MalayIndonesian from Pidgin Malay