Memory

• Learning that has persisted over time• Information that has been stored and can be retrieved

Try this: Recite the second sentence of the Pledge of Allegiance

Information Processing Models of Memory

Information Processing Models cont’d

1. Connectionism – 2. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 3 Stage Model

• Sensory memory - fleeting• Short-term memory – where we encode through rehearsal• Long-term memory – where we retrieve info later

TOO SIMPLE!

Why is it too simple?

• We are automatic processors• Working memory: focus on conscious/active processing of incoming

sensory information WHILE ALSO considering overlapping long term retrieval of information• Varies person to person• So we use the three stage model, but you MUST consider the above

information• Example?

• First think, “What does attention have to do with memory?”

Are stimuli are screened out earlier or later in our cognitive awareness?

• Location of attention filter may not be fixed (like Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model)

3. Selective Attention Model

• Attention = _________ filter• Where is filter located?

• Early during sensory input or later during processing??

Sensory Detection

Recognition of meaning

Responseselection

ResponseStimulus

Early-selectionmodels placethe filter here

Late-selectionmodels placethe filter here

• Cocktail party effect:

• Does the filter happen earlier or later?

• Location of filter depends on “cognitive load”• Multi-tasking

Is it possible for you to actually multitask?

How we encode1. Automatic Process

• Parallel processing

• A. Space• B. Time• C. Frequency• D. Well-learned

2. Effortful Process• Requires rehearsal

(conscious repetition) to create durable memories

Is it only ever one or the other?

• NO!• Effortful can become automatic through ____________

Example?

Principles of Remembering (encoding)

• The more repetition one day, the less required to relearn the next.• The amount of something remembered depends on the amount of time spent

learning

• Overlearning -

Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve

How do we learn/encode best?

• Spacing effect• Distributed study time• Testing effect• Massed practice

• Serial position effect• Recency effect• Primacy effect

Those who learn quicklyforget quickly

What we encode

• What’s the difference among these three? How do you tell the difference?• Eye scream• I scream• Ice cream

• Levels of processing• Context/experience/interpretation allow for coding differences

Levels of Processing Theory

Levels of processing cont’d

• Visual Encoding

• Acoustic Encoding

• Semantic Encoding

•Encoding activity

Two codes are better than one!

• Self-reference effect• Imagery• Mental pictures• Easier to recall items that have clear images

Visual Encoding - imagery

• Rosy retrospection• Mnemonics – some rely on visual cues, others on acoustic cues• Purpose it organize info for later

retrieval• Peg words• Method of loci

The best way to organize info for later is through…

• Chunking• Acronyms

• Hierarchies• Principles of learning

Sensory Memory

• “fleeting”

• Sensory Registry• Iconic -

• Echoic -

Working/Short-Term Memory

• From sensory memory, we illuminate by focusing on some info via our selective attention• Without active processing, short term has limited life

• Time/duration: 20 seconds• Capacity: “magical #7 (+/- 2)” – auditory input

• #3 (+/-1) for visuals

• Short term recall slightly better for random digits• Slightly worse for random letters (more similar sounds)

What’s the point?

• At any given moment, we can consciously process only a very limited amount of information

Long-Term Memory

• Capacity for memory is limitless• Not fully known, is it genetic or learned?

• The Real Rain Man• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2T45r5G3kA

Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Episodic• Memories are personally experienced

• what most people refer to as “memories”• What did you have for breakfast this morning?• What did you wear on the first day of school?

2. Semantic• General factual knowledge• Knowing what/that

3. Procedural• Memories related to

skills or habits• Things that are well-

learned

• Knowing how

Explicit and Implicit Memories• Explicit (declarative)• “I have an explicit memory of playing at a particular golf

course”• Located where?

• Implicit (non-declarative)• “It’s that thing about the stuff, well, you know I know – I

just can’t say right now…” – explaining to someone how to tie a shoe.- CC- Located where?

Storage and the brain• Hippocampus• Possible storage bin, where over time info goes to other

parts of the cerebral cortex• Left frontal for auditory• Right frontal for episodic memories

• Cerebellum• Implicit memories stored• Amnesia patient example

Dual System of Memory

1. Explains our parallel processes2. Infantile amnesia

• What we learn in the first three years (i.e. walking) extends throughout life, but we don’t recall learning it (i.e. circumcision)

Memory Retrieval

• To retrieve a memory you must first have some kind of retrieval cue

• Examples?

Retrieval

•Activating one strand of a schematic memory is called priming.• Mnemonic devices encoding and mnemonic retrieval