Individual Differences

AS Psychology – PSYA2

Name: ______________________

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PSYA2 Assessment

1 hour 30 minutes exam = 50% of the total AS marks, = 25% of the total A2 marks

Three compulsory structured questions, one based on the Biological Psychology content, one based on the Social Psychology content and one based on the Individual Differences content.

Questions include short answer, stimulus material and one or more: Biological Psychology, Social Psychology, & Individual Differences

12-mark questions requiring extended writing in which QWC will be assessed.

Introduction

We will be working through this booklet in lesson time, it can also be used as a revision aid nearer to the exam. Inside this booklet are resources that have been designed to help you to understand and revise Individual Differences. Two different areas are covered;

Defining and explaining psychological abnormality Treating abnormality

The booklet also contains a list of the specification requirements which you can use as a checklist to monitor your progress. Past exam questions have also been included so you know what to expect, some of these will be completed during lesson time.

These are useful sites which may help you with your revision; some of them have been used within the booklet.

5 http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/specifications/alevel/AQA-2180-W-SP-14.PDF 6 http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/coreIndividual.html 7 http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/psychology/psychological-abnormality.html 8 http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/videos/

When preparing resources, the following textbook has been used: Cardwell, M. & Flanagan, C. (2012) Psychology AS: The Complete Companion.

(Third Edition) Folens Limited.

You will be expected to: develop knowledge and understanding of concepts, theories and studies in relation to

social psychology develop skills of analysis, evaluation and application in relation to social psychology develop knowledge and understanding of research methods associated with this area of

psychology develop knowledge and understanding of ethical issues associated with this area of

psychology.

Knowledge and understanding of research methods should be developed through undertaking practical research activities involving collection, analysis and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data, and analysis and evaluation of studies relevant to the content for each area of psychology in this unit.

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Abnormality

What is abnormal psychology? Every day of our lives we are trying to understand other people. But determining why people or why another person does or feels something is a difficult task. Understanding human behaviour that is beyond the normal range is even more difficult.

There are 3 common definitions of abnormality:o Deviation from social normso Failure to function adequatelyo Deviation from ideal mental health

Each definition offers an explanation defining ‘abnormality’. However, each definition has its limitations…

Abnormality is particularly difficult to define because it can take many forms

Views of abnormality can change across cultures It can vary within cultures over time, and from group to

group within the same society There is great difficulty in deciding what is normal and

what is abnormal

What is abnormal about the following behaviour?

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Definitions of Abnormality

Which of the following would you do in public?

Label them onto the at the bottom of the page (using the numbers)

Think about your REASONS for your answers and be prepared to explain why to the class.

1. Spit on the floor.

2. Belch loudly at the dinner table after you finish eating your meal.

3. Take a gift to someone’s house if they invited you for dinner.

4. Wear your shoes inside a (A) house (B) school (C) restaurant.

5. Argue about the price of food at a market.

6. Tell someone if you like a piece of furniture or an ornament in their house.

7. Throw litter in the street.

8. Smoke inside a bar or restaurant.

9. Smoke in the street.

10. Wear a bikini to the beach.

11. Talk on your mobile phone on the train.

12. Drink tea.

13. Talk when your teacher is talking.

14. Look at the floor when someone is speaking to you.

15. Give up your seat for an elderly person or pregnant woman on the train.

Normal Abnormal

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Deviation from Social NormsDeviation from Social Norms explains abnormal behaviour by stating that when a person does not follow the norms of the public, that individual is ‘abnormal’. An example of a social norm is ______________________________. A social norm states what is desirable or acceptable by people in a social group or setting, and these standards exist for good reasons. Social rules also exist for moral issues, for example what is acceptable sexual behaviour; for example, our culture sees sex as acceptable between consenting adults, anything other than this is sexually deviant.

Evaluation

Make notes about the limitations of the ‘deviation from social norms’ definition of abnormality.

Strengths

• The model distinguishes acceptable behaviour from the unacceptable.• Takes into account how our behaviour has an effect on others.• Social rules are there to help us live happily with one another, if someone breaks

these rules then it does make it hard to live with them.• Takes into account the greater good of society, and recognises that deviant

behaviour damages others.

Limitations

Practice Question

Diane is a 30-year-old business woman and if she does not get her own way she sometimes has a temper tantrum. Recently, she attended her grandmother’s funeral and laughed during the prayers. When she talks to people she often stands very close to them, making them feel uncomfortable.

a) Identify one definition of abnormality that could describe Diane’s behaviour.Explain your choice. (3 marks)

b) Explain one limitation of this way of defining abnormal behaviour. (3 marks)

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Failure to Function AdequatelyThis definition explains abnormality as the inability to carry out day-to-day tasks. The individual is able to judge that their own behaviour is abnormal when they are not able to get out of bed, go to work, etc. There may be a feeling of depression, which means that the individual may not go to work, eat or wash their clothes.

Can you think of any more examples of failing to function adequately?

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2.

Practice Question

Before leaving the house each morning, Angus has to go round checking that all the lights are switched off. He has to do this several times before he leaves and it makes him late for work.A. Give one definition of abnormality. (1 mark)B. Use this definition to explain why Angus’ behaviour might be viewed as abnormal.

(2 marks)

Key Terms

Maladaptive Behaviour

Personal Distress Irrational Behaviour

Unpredictable Behaviour

Observer Discomfort Violation of Moral and Ideal Standards

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‘One morning Mr W told his wife he was quitting his job as a postman. He hardly slept that night, writing furiously at his desk. Next morning he withdrew the family savings and spent the lot on aquariums and a range of equipment for tropical fish. In a state of high excitement, he informed his wife that he had discovered a way to modify his equipment so that the fish would live forever. “We’ll be millionaires”, he proclaimed’

Look at the key terms, why is Mr W failing to functioning adequately?

“The inmates, here, hate me extremely because I am sane. They talk to me telepathically, continuously and daily almost without cessation, day and night. By the power of their imagination, they create extreme pain in my head, brain, eyes, heart, stomach and in every part of my body. By telepathy and imagination, they force me to say orally whatever they desire, whenever they desire and as long as they desire. I never said a word on my own”

Look at the key terms above, why is this person failing to function adequately?

Evaluation

Make notes about the weaknesses of the ‘failure to function adequately’ definition of abnormality:

Strengths Limitations• The more indicators

that are present, the more abnormal the person is considered to be

• This approach recognises the subjective nature of the individual

Practice Essay Question “Abnormality is very difficult to define. It can be hard to decide where normal behaviour ends and abnormal behaviour begins.” Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality. (12 marks)

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Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

The ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ definition describes the characteristics that ‘normal’ people must possess.

Jahoda (1958) identified characteristics that are required in order for ‘optimal living’ these are:

The following statements are all linked to different definitions of abnormality. Select the two statements that describe the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality. Tick two boxes. (2 marks)

Behaviour that is different from the way most people in society act Not achieving self-actualisation Not following the standards set by society Causing distress or discomfort to others Behaviour that interferes with everyday life Not being able to resist stress

Criteria for ‘ideal mental health’

Self attitudes Personal growth and self-actualisation

Integration

Autonomy Accurate perception of reality

Environmental mastery

The further people are from these ideals, the more abnormal

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Evaluation Make notes about the weaknesses of the ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ definition of abnormality.

Strengths Limitations• This definition looks

at ideal psychological well-being. Aiming for high standards and looking for fulfilment makes personal and social sense.

• The definition also states that the more criteria that are met, the more ‘normal’ people are.

Practice Questions1. Three of the following statements describe limitations of different definitions of

abnormality.A. What seems like abnormal behaviour may actually be beneficial to an

individual.B. This definition does not tell us which infrequent behaviours are

undesirable.C. It is difficult, maybe impossible, for an individual to achieve all the criteria

that make up this definition.D. This criteria has sometimes been used as a justification to punish social

deviants.In the table below, insert the limitation A, B, C or D that matches the corresponding definition of abnormality.

Definitions of abnormality Limitation of definitionsDeviation from ideal mental healthFailure to function adequatelyDeviation from social norms

(3 marks)

2. Select two of the definitions given in the table and explain one limitation of each definition. (2+2 marks)

3. Outline one definition of abnormality. (3 marks)4. “Explain one limitation of the failure to function adequately definition of

abnormality.(2 marks)5. Outline two definitions of abnormality. (6 marks)

Choose one of these definitions and describe a limitation associated with it. (2 marks)

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Approaches to Abnormality

Biological ApproachThe Biological Approach states that all mental disorders are because of changes within the body, e.g. bodily malfunction or genetic factors. Cures are only possible by returning the body to the normal level of functioning. This approach is sometimes referred to as the medical model due to the fact that mental illness is treated in much the same way as physical illness.

The biological approach states that abnormal behaviour is due to:

GenesGenes are passed from parent to child. How can you investigate genetic inheritance?

When you compare twins you are looking for a _________________ rate. This is a percentage figure which shows how similar twins are to each other in terms of a particular trait. There are low concordance rates for some disorders (e.g. _________) while there are high concordance rates for others (e.g. _____________________).

BiochemistryGenes help to function the body by determining levels of ________________ and ____________________ in the body (biochemistry). High levels of the neurotransmitter ____________________ are associated with _______________, whereas low levels may lead to _______________________.

NeuroanatomyGenes determine the structure of the ____________ (neuroanatomy). Research has found that ___________________________ have ________________________ in their brains, indicating shrinkage of tissues around these spaces.

Viral infectionResearch shows that ___________________ may be related to viruses in the womb. Torrey (2001) found that mothers of many people with schizophrenia has contracted _____________ during pregnancy. The virus enters the unborn baby’s brain and remains dormant until puberty, hormones are released and produce schizophrenia symptoms.

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Evaluation You need to evaluate the biological approach to psychopathology. You could consider strengths and weakness of the approach. Use page 194 of the textbook to help.

Human or inhumane

Cause and effect

Inconclusive evidence

1. How have biological psychologists used experiments? Outline a study to back up our answer.

2. Correlational studies have also been used, why? What are the problems with correlational studies?

Interesting case studies have shown a link between biology and criminal behaviour. In 1966 Charles Whitman strangled his wife when she was sleeping, then shot 14 people from a tower in the University of Texas. In the aftermath of his

death a letter was discovered asking for an autopsy to discover if there was any physical reason for his mental torment. A small tumour was found, but it was unclear whether this was the cause of his rampage.

Practice QuestionOutline and evaluate the biological approach to psychopathology. (12 Marks)

Case StudyJohn is a farmer. He has recently been diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder. John raises sheep on a medium-sized farm in Northumberland. He also makes some of his income from a farm shop and a campsite on his land, and lets out a small field for horses to be kept in. Although he does not keep cattle, he was hit badly by the foot-and-mouth crisis of 2001 because of the impact it had on tourism.During the crisis he had to borrow heavily to survive, and now that interest rates are rising, he is finding it difficult to make his repayments. John’s depression has been steadily worsening for some years, but he has only recently been to see his GP and been diagnosed with the disorder. During his consultation, it emerged that John’s symptoms often worsen during and immediately after sheep dipping season. John has always been known for being ‘a bit of a moody type’. His father and grandfather were known in the local areas for their periods of melancholy and low mood, and his great uncle committed suicide some years ago.However, after three months, John is responding well to antidepressant medication. Although he is not happy all the time, his mood has stabilised and he no longer feels as bad as he did prior to consulting his GP.

Using the case study above and the information provided, identify the factors in John’s life that, according to the biological model, could be contributing to his depressed symptoms.

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Biological Therapies

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Evaluation of Biological Therapies Strengths Weaknesses

Chemotherapy (Drugs)

ECT

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Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud’s theory of abnormality is based on the idea that abnormal human behaviour is due to the underlying drives we possess. We are unaware of these drives (they are unconscious) and psychodynamic therapists helps us search through our past experiences (normally parent-child relationships) to find the cause of our behaviour.

Freud believed that mental disorder had origins in childhood, and that unresolved childhood conflicts lead to psychological conflict.

Freud believed that the mind was like an iceberg (see image below) composed of three parts, the id, ego and superego. When these components conflict the ego must protect itself and will use defence mechanisms. These defences can cause mental disturbances if they are overused.

When the id and superego are in conflict the ego has to use defence mechanisms to protect the psyche. Examples of ego defence mechanisms are regression, repression and denial. Using page 196, explain some of these ego defence mechanisms below:

What happens when ego defence mechanisms are overused?

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How can early childhood experiences cause mental disorders according to Freud?

How can unconscious experiences cause mental disorders?

What methods did Freud use to investigate behaviour?

What do you think would happen if…The ID was too strong and took over the whole of the psycheThe SUPEREGO was too strong and took over the whole of the psycheThe person had an ID and an EGO, but did not develop a SUPEREGO

Evaluation Limitations of the Psychodynamic Approach

The model has an over-emphasis on childhood influences and ignores everyday problems in adult life.

It is difficult to validate the theory – it cannot be scientifically tested. It is difficult to find evidence for the id, ego, and superego; after all, they are

in the unconscious. The model is ‘unfalsifiable’; if an analyst uncovers something from

childhood, this is said to have an influence on adult life. However, if no such childhood event is uncovered, then the child has been traumatised by the event and it remains hidden!

The model is dominated by case studies and these are unscientific. Freud’s patients were mainly Viennese, middle-class women – can the findings be generalised? The evidence is collected by therapists is subjective and biased.

There is an over-emphasis on sexual factors being the influence of abnormal behaviour. Now social relationships are seen as important, perhaps inadequate social relationships can cause sexual problems.

Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to psychopathology. (12 marks)

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Psychodynamic TherapiesWhat is repression? And how does the therapist access the unconscious mind?

What is free association?

What is therapist interpretation?

What is working through?

Projective Techniques – Inkblot tests

The basic idea of this is that when a person is shown an ambiguous, meaningless image (i.e. an inkblot) the mind will work hard at imposing meaning on the image. That meaning is generated by the mind.

By asking the person to tell you what they see in the inkblot, they are actually telling you about themselves, and how they project meaning on to the real world. This can be used to create a profile of personality.

What do you see?

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Dream Analysis

In order to access the unconscious dreams can be analysed. Have you ever encountered one of these dreams?

Evaluation of Psychodynamic Therapies (Psychoanalysis) Strengths of psychoanalysis Weaknesses of psychoanalysis

Practice Questions There are various types of psychological therapy for treating abnormality.

Outline what is involved in psychoanalysis. (3 marks)

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Several techniques, including hypnosis, have been used in psychoanalysis to help to uncover repressed material. Outline one other technique that may be used in psychoanalysis. (2 marks)

Psychoanalysis is a beneficial therapy for some people. However, as with all therapies, it has limitations. Evaluate psychoanalysis as a therapy. (6 marks)

Behavioural ApproachBehaviourists believe that our actions are caused by experiences, rather than unconscious forces. Abnormality is seen as the development of behaviour patterns that are maladaptive. Behaviourists see no point in looking in the mind for reasons for an individual’s actions, only their behaviour.

The behavioural model only focuses on behaviour. Behaviours can be internal (e.g. a feeling) or external (e.g. over-washing of hands). External behaviours are focussed on more by behaviourists.

Abnormal behaviour is developed through learning. There are three ways of ‘learning’ an abnormal behaviour according to the behavioural approach. These are:

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association.

A conditioning cycle associated two previously unrelated items.

For example, a phobia starts due to the association of two items, a

spider and anxiety or fear.An example of this is the story of

Little Albert below.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through reinforcement.

Abnormal behaviour is no different to any other behaviour.

Maladaptive behaviour is rewarded and so the behaviour

becomes more frequent.If the behaviour was punished

then it is less likely to continue.

Social Learning Theory

Behaviour is learnt by seeing other people rewarded or

punished.When looking at abnormal

behaviours we have to look at the social context.

Some people studying anxiety might report that the disorder

runs in the family, but it is difficult to separate genetics

from social learning.How could an abnormal behaviour be learned

through classical conditioning?

How could an abnormal behaviour be learned

through operant conditioning?

How could an abnormal behaviour be learned

through social learning theory?

Summarise the story of ‘Little Albert’ below:

How do skinny celebs have an influence on eating disorders according to behavioural theory?

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Why can learning environments reinforce problematic behaviours?

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What methods does the behaviourist approach use to investigate behaviour?

Practice QuestionWhich two of the following statements (A-E) apply to the behavioural approach to psychopathology? Tick the two correct boxes.

 A Unresolved conflicts in childhood affect adult behaviour.  

B All behaviour is learned in the same way.  

C Abnormal behaviour is caused by faulty thinking.  

D The same basic laws that explain animal behaviour can also explain human behaviour.  

E Irrational thoughts lead to abnormal behaviour.  

Evaluation - Limitations of the Behavioural Approach

1. Behavioural therapists tend to ignore cognitive factors when looking at abnormality, why is this a limitation of the approach?

2. Behavioural theory relies on an individual experiencing a traumatic event in order to cause a fear reaction. Why is this problematic? Refer to Seligman (1970) in your answer.

3. The symptoms of many disorders may be behavioural, but the causes may not be, why is this a limitation of the approach?

Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to psychopathology. (12 Marks)Behavioural Therapies

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Systematic desensitisation is:

Draw up a systematic desensitisation schedule below:

Case Study of Little Peter

A good example of counter-conditioning was done by Mary Cover Jones in 1924. A 3-year-old boy, called Peter had a rabbit phobia. Jones used counter-conditioning to get rid of Peter's phobia. Firstly she showed Peter a candy, and then brought a rabbit closer to him, nearly every day for 2 months. Over the months, Peter became less fearful of rabbit. At the end Peter was playing with the rabbit, Peter associated candy with the rabbit; this means that unpleasant stimuli are replaced with pleasant ones.

Evaluation of Systematic Desensitisation Strengths Weaknesses

SD

‘Katy is afraid of spiders. Her doctor recommends that she attend a course on systematic desensitisation. Describe how this therapy might be carried out to overcome Katy's fear of spiders’. (6 Marks)

Cognitive Approach

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Create a table just like this one and make your own evaluation notes. Don’t forget to tag them into your

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Cognition means ‘thinking’. The cognitive model assumes that abnormal behaviour is the result of abnormal, faulty or maladaptive thinking processes.

Ellis (1962) referred to this as the ABC model:

Things continually happen in the real world. However, we do not experience them directly. Rather, we form an internal representation of the world. This consists of information from the real world, but filtered through our own perceptions and thought processes. If something goes wrong with a person’s perceptual or thinking processes, then this can have an impact on both their emotional experiences and their behaviour. For example: In anxiety disorders, a person may perceive objects or situations as a threat, even if they

are not. In depression, a person may interpret bad situations as being their fault, even though they

are accidental. In paranoia, a person may assume that other people have ulterior motives for their

behaviour, when they are innocent of these. In eating disorders, a person may misperceive themselves as overweight even though

they are underweight.Like the behavioural model, the cognitive model generally assumes that these faulty thinking patterns are acquired from experience, possibly going right back to childhood. It is often the case that faulty thinking patterns were originally developed to help people cope with abnormal situations, but that they have outlived their usefulness and become unuseful habits. For example, a child who grows up in a dysfunctional family, where people are continually out to undermine each other might develop paranoid thought patterns because this helps them deal with that environment. However, in the wider world, this type of thinking may lead to unreasonable and maladaptive behaviour.

Give the ABC of an unusual phobia...

A

B

C

Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach

Cognitive distortions (dysfunctional thought processes):

Cognitive Structures: Cognitive Content:

Cognitive Processes: Cognitive Products:

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What methods do psychologists use to collect data?

Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to psychopathology. (12 Marks)

Cognitive Behavioural TherapyCreate a poster that outlines and evaluates CBT. Don’t forget to tag it into your booklet. It should look like this:

Evaluation of

Cognitive Approach

Situational factors of the may be ignored because the

cognitive model assumes the individual’s thinking to be of fault. The disorder is thought

to be in the patient’s mind rather than due to the

individual’s environment.

It is not clear what comes first, the illness or the

thinking. Do thoughts and beliefs cause disturbance, or

does the mental disorder cause the faulty thinking?

Alloy and Abrahmson (1979) suggest that

depressive people tend to see things as they really are (rather than normal people seeing the world

through rose-tinted glasses) we call this the ‘sadder but wiser’ effect

Cogntitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

What is it? Evaluation

How does it work?

How do you challenge irrational beliefs?

How has the A-B-C model changed to D-E-F?

Strengths Limitations

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PSYA2 – Individual differences: Psychopathology Checklist

Use this checklist to ensure that you have covered all the areas needed for success in your exams. The following topics will be covered in class.

However, it will be your responsibility to catch up with any topics you miss and to actively revise the different areas.

Topic AreaCovere

d in Class

Revised

Defining and explaining psychological abnormality

Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health.

Limitations of these definitions of psychological abnormality.

The biological approach to psychopathology.

Psychological approaches to psychopathology including the psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive approaches.

Treating Abnormality

Biological therapies, including drugs and ECT.

Psychological therapies psychoanalysis

Psychological therapies systematic de-sensitisation

Psychological therapies Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

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