Mesopotamia and the Mesopotamia and the Near EastNear East

Foundation of Western CultureFoundation of Western Culture

Location of MesopotamiaLocation of Mesopotamia

Meant “Between Two Rivers”: The Tigris and EuphratesMeant “Between Two Rivers”: The Tigris and Euphrates Empires: Sumeria followed by Akad then Assur (Assyria)Empires: Sumeria followed by Akad then Assur (Assyria)

Neolithic: The Fertile CrescentNeolithic: The Fertile Crescent

Fertile Crescent: starts at Levant (E. Mediterranean Sea), upward Fertile Crescent: starts at Levant (E. Mediterranean Sea), upward into Turkey and Syriainto Turkey and Syria

Then down to Iraq and Iran.Then down to Iraq and Iran.

Near Eastern NeolithicNear Eastern Neolithic

Mesopotamia was too dry to sustain Mesopotamia was too dry to sustain local agriculturelocal agriculture

Neolithic began in the Fertile Neolithic began in the Fertile Crescent, comprisingCrescent, comprising

The Levant (eastern shore of the The Levant (eastern shore of the MediterraneanMediterranean

Taurus Mountains of TurkeyTaurus Mountains of Turkey Zagros Mountains of IranZagros Mountains of Iran

Wild Ancestors of DomesticatesWild Ancestors of Domesticates

The Fertile Crescent was the natural The Fertile Crescent was the natural habitat of habitat of

Wild ancestors of domesticated plantsWild ancestors of domesticated plants Wheat --Legumes (peas and beans)Wheat --Legumes (peas and beans) BarleyBarley Wild ancestors of domesticated animalsWild ancestors of domesticated animals Cattle --PigsCattle --Pigs Sheep --Goats Sheep --Goats

Domestication ProcessesDomestication Processes

““Founder” plants were domesticated Founder” plants were domesticated 9000-7000 BC9000-7000 BC

Grains (3) : Emmer and einkorn Grains (3) : Emmer and einkorn wheat, ryewheat, rye

Legumes (5): Lentils, peas, faba Legumes (5): Lentils, peas, faba beans, chickpeas, bitter vetchbeans, chickpeas, bitter vetch

Flax for oil and fiberFlax for oil and fiber

Abu Hureyra: DomesticatesAbu Hureyra: Domesticates

Location:Location: Euphrates Valley Euphrates Valley in Syriain Syria

Shift from wild to Shift from wild to domesticated species (left)domesticated species (left)

Bone count shows shift Bone count shows shift from gazelle to sheep and from gazelle to sheep and goat bone count around goat bone count around 6500 BC6500 BC

Cattle and pig bone Cattle and pig bone increases as wellincreases as well

Grain and legume remains Grain and legume remains also increasealso increase

Abu Hureya: Other DevelopmentsAbu Hureya: Other Developments

Housing:Housing: rectangular mud rectangular mud brick (artist’s conception)brick (artist’s conception)

Site of Abu Hureyra (lower Site of Abu Hureyra (lower left) left)

Clay: Clay: There were containers, There were containers, but no fired potterybut no fired pottery

Evidence of trade:Evidence of trade: Cowrie shells (Mediterranean)Cowrie shells (Mediterranean) Turquoise (Sinai)Turquoise (Sinai) Obsidian and other crystalline Obsidian and other crystalline

stone from Turkeystone from Turkey

Abu Hureyra: DeclineAbu Hureyra: Decline

Abandonment: 6000 BCAbandonment: 6000 BC FactorsFactors Arid conditions precluded farmingArid conditions precluded farming Pastoralism (herding) more viable in a grassland Pastoralism (herding) more viable in a grassland

environmentenvironment Likely scenariosLikely scenarios Migration to the Zagros Mountains as herdersMigration to the Zagros Mountains as herders Movement to the upper part of the Tigris and Movement to the upper part of the Tigris and

Euphrates RiversEuphrates Rivers

Mesopotamia: IntroductionMesopotamia: Introduction

Meaning: From the Greek, “between Meaning: From the Greek, “between two rivers” (Euphrates and Tigris)two rivers” (Euphrates and Tigris)

Location: southern strip of land Location: southern strip of land between the Euphrates and Tigris between the Euphrates and Tigris RiverRiver

First villages formed in northern Meso-First villages formed in northern Meso-potamian floodplain about 6000 BCpotamian floodplain about 6000 BC

Seasonal rainfall sustained agricultureSeasonal rainfall sustained agriculture Communities comprised several Communities comprised several

houses with roof entranceshouses with roof entrances

Sites of MesopotamiaSites of Mesopotamia

This map shows Eridu Ur This map shows Eridu Ur and Uruk in south in and Uruk in south in SumerSumer

Sources of many Sources of many structures, (ziggurats), structures, (ziggurats), technology (wheels, technology (wheels, metallurgy) and godsmetallurgy) and gods

Babylonia (Babilonia) to Babylonia (Babilonia) to the northwestthe northwest

Home of the lawgiver Home of the lawgiver HammurabiHammurabi

Sites of MesopotamiaSites of Mesopotamia

This map shows Eridu Ur This map shows Eridu Ur and Uruk in south in and Uruk in south in SumerSumer

Sources of many Sources of many structures, (ziggurats), structures, (ziggurats), technology (wheels, technology (wheels, metallurgy) and godsmetallurgy) and gods

Babylonia (Babilonia) to Babylonia (Babilonia) to the northwestthe northwest

Home of the lawgiver Home of the lawgiver HammurabiHammurabi

The Gods of Mesopotamia: IThe Gods of Mesopotamia: I AnuAnu: The father of the gods; god : The father of the gods; god

of heaven (above left)of heaven (above left) Adad:Adad: the rain god, and of storms the rain god, and of storms Dumuzi (Tanmuz):Dumuzi (Tanmuz): God of God of

vegetation and the Underword; vegetation and the Underword; Husband of IshtarHusband of Ishtar

Ishtar (Innana):Ishtar (Innana): Goddess of Goddess of love, fertility, and war; Queen of love, fertility, and war; Queen of Heavan; Nemesis of Gilgamesh Heavan; Nemesis of Gilgamesh (lower left)(lower left)

The Gods of Mesopotamia IIThe Gods of Mesopotamia II Apsu: God of the primeval sweet watersApsu: God of the primeval sweet waters Ea: God of wisdom and patron of the artsEa: God of wisdom and patron of the arts Enlil: God of earth, wind, and air (aka Enlil: God of earth, wind, and air (aka

Marduk in later cultures)Marduk in later cultures) Ninhursag: Mother goddess, creator of Ninhursag: Mother goddess, creator of

vegetation; wife of Enlilvegetation; wife of Enlil Nisaba: Goddess of grainNisaba: Goddess of grain Skanash: God of the sun, judge, and law Skanash: God of the sun, judge, and law

giver; god of wisdomgiver; god of wisdom Sin: Goddess of the moonSin: Goddess of the moon

The Epic of Gilgamesh IThe Epic of Gilgamesh I

Gilgamesh represents a theme of the enjoyments of life Gilgamesh represents a theme of the enjoyments of life That ends sooner or laterThat ends sooner or later

Gilgamesh is one-part human, two-part god, blessed with Gilgamesh is one-part human, two-part god, blessed with beauty and couragebeauty and courage

When he spurns the love of Ishtar (the Queen of Heaven) When he spurns the love of Ishtar (the Queen of Heaven) and kills the Bull of Heaven, (upper left)and kills the Bull of Heaven, (upper left)

He is punished with the loss of his dearest (male) He is punished with the loss of his dearest (male) companion, Enkidu (depicted above right) companion, Enkidu (depicted above right)

Epic of Gilgamesh IIEpic of Gilgamesh II

Gilgamesh then goes on a Gilgamesh then goes on a quest for everlasting lifequest for everlasting life

When he finds a plant that When he finds a plant that promises everlasting life, a promises everlasting life, a serpent snatches it away (Left) serpent snatches it away (Left)

He is left with a vision of death, He is left with a vision of death, a “house of dust,” and a place a “house of dust,” and a place of inescapable sadnessof inescapable sadness

The snake recurs in the Book of The snake recurs in the Book of Genesis and leads to the Fall of Genesis and leads to the Fall of ManMan

The Prevailing Theme: Enjoyment The Prevailing Theme: Enjoyment and Despairand Despair

Michael Wood: The theme dominates Michael Wood: The theme dominates the history of Iraqthe history of Iraq

The video shows how the theme of The video shows how the theme of greatness followed by disaster recurs greatness followed by disaster recurs throughout Mesopotamian/Iraqi historythroughout Mesopotamian/Iraqi history

Another theme: constant warfareAnother theme: constant warfare Much of the art emphasizes battles, Much of the art emphasizes battles,

symbolic lions, and other symbolic lions, and other manifestations of war.manifestations of war.

Ubaid Era (5300-4100 BC): Ubaid Era (5300-4100 BC): OverviewOverview

Later shifted from northern plains to southern Later shifted from northern plains to southern river valleyriver valley

The Area lacked:The Area lacked: Sufficient rainfall for dry (nonirrigated) Sufficient rainfall for dry (nonirrigated)

farmingfarming Plants and animals capable of domesticationPlants and animals capable of domestication Even usable stone and metal oresEven usable stone and metal ores Despite it all, by 4500 BC, towns and public Despite it all, by 4500 BC, towns and public

buildings dotted the countrysidebuildings dotted the countryside Irrigation sufficient to support a nonfarm Irrigation sufficient to support a nonfarm

populationpopulation Shrines and then temples emergedShrines and then temples emerged

Ubaid Era: Main AttributesUbaid Era: Main Attributes Spread of irrigation canals Spread of irrigation canals Construction of temple Construction of temple

complexes complexes A monochrome pottery designA monochrome pottery design Triangles, grids, zigzag lines Triangles, grids, zigzag lines

were commonwere common Less decorative than the Less decorative than the

polychrome Halafian pottery polychrome Halafian pottery originating in Syriaoriginating in Syria

Ceramics made on slow-turning Ceramics made on slow-turning potter’s wheelpotter’s wheel

For lack of workable stone and For lack of workable stone and metals, tools were made of fired metals, tools were made of fired clayclay

SicklesSickles Hammers and axesHammers and axes Mullers (implements to grind Mullers (implements to grind

paints, powders, etc.)paints, powders, etc.)

Eridu (5000-3100 BC)Eridu (5000-3100 BC) Most of the early structures Most of the early structures

at Eridu were residentialat Eridu were residential Later, public and ritual Later, public and ritual

centers were erectedcenters were erected At its peak, population was At its peak, population was

50005000 In one site, a series of In one site, a series of

shrines were constructed, shrines were constructed, one over another (see one over another (see diagram)diagram)

Earliest, dated 5000 BC, Earliest, dated 5000 BC, was a simple shrinewas a simple shrine

By 3000 AD, a ziggurat was By 3000 AD, a ziggurat was constructed in the form of a constructed in the form of a 200 yard square enclosure.200 yard square enclosure.

Social Stratification: EriduSocial Stratification: Eridu

Little sign of the extreme social differentiation that was to Little sign of the extreme social differentiation that was to comecome

No elaborate funerary complexes found in this periodNo elaborate funerary complexes found in this period No sign of a single ruler dominating SumeriaNo sign of a single ruler dominating Sumeria This city was the prototype of the city-state organization This city was the prototype of the city-state organization

that that was was to come ( reconstructed ziggurat of Eridu)to come ( reconstructed ziggurat of Eridu)

Uruk Period (4100-3100 BC)Uruk Period (4100-3100 BC) The first city, Uruk with a The first city, Uruk with a

population of 10,000 population of 10,000 Overshadowed by the Anu Overshadowed by the Anu

Ziggurat and later the White Ziggurat and later the White TempleTemple

Named after the principal god Named after the principal god AnuAnu

Like Eridu, constructed over Like Eridu, constructed over earlier shrinesearlier shrines

The White Temple was The White Temple was constructed over the Anu constructed over the Anu ZigguratZiggurat

Both temples entailed massive Both temples entailed massive manpower inputs—7500 man-manpower inputs—7500 man-years aloneyears alone

Structures separated priestly Structures separated priestly residents from the populaceresidents from the populace

Walls were constructed in Early Walls were constructed in Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370 BC)Dynastic Period (3100-2370 BC)

Ziggurat: Structure Ziggurat: Structure

Note the stairs and levels of the Ziggurat at UrNote the stairs and levels of the Ziggurat at Ur For details of design, see pp. 56-57For details of design, see pp. 56-57

Uruk and Vicinity: Technology and Uruk and Vicinity: Technology and TradeTrade

PotteryPottery Fine design of Ubaid Fine design of Ubaid

gave way to crudely gave way to crudely made utilitarian objects made utilitarian objects (upper left)(upper left)

Plow was invented with a Plow was invented with a metal tipped wooden metal tipped wooden bladeblade

Far more productive than Far more productive than the digging stickthe digging stick

Agricultural base Agricultural base diversifieddiversified

Wheat, barley, flax, datesWheat, barley, flax, dates Cattle raising and fishingCattle raising and fishing

Uruk and Vicinity: TradeUruk and Vicinity: Trade Resource poor itself, Resource poor itself,

Sumeria relied on tradeSumeria relied on trade Main routes: the rivers Main routes: the rivers

(especially the Euphrates) (especially the Euphrates) and overland east-westand overland east-west

Products importedProducts imported Persian GulfPersian Gulf Precious metals and stone: Precious metals and stone:

gold, silver, carnelian, gold, silver, carnelian, lapus lazuli, onyx, lapus lazuli, onyx, alabasteralabaster

Textiles, skins, and ivoryTextiles, skins, and ivory TimberTimber Northern regions: copperNorthern regions: copper

Uruk: Writing and Accounting, A Uruk: Writing and Accounting, A Five-Step ModelFive-Step Model

Main source: Denise Schmandt-Main source: Denise Schmandt-Besserat: Besserat: Before Writing: From Before Writing: From Counting to CuneiformCounting to Cuneiform

Step 1, 9000 BP: 16 basic shapes, Step 1, 9000 BP: 16 basic shapes, geometric, animal, or pottery jar geometric, animal, or pottery jar forms;forms;

Top of graphic: Seal form (upper Top of graphic: Seal form (upper right) depicting cattle (upper left)right) depicting cattle (upper left)

Step 2, 6000 BP: 300 forms with Step 2, 6000 BP: 300 forms with varied markings (e.g.., distinctions varied markings (e.g.., distinctions between raw and finished between raw and finished materials)materials)

Final Steps of Writing and Final Steps of Writing and AccountingAccounting

Step 3, 5500 BP: Bullae, or clay Step 3, 5500 BP: Bullae, or clay envelopes covering and indicating envelopes covering and indicating the tokens inside (upper left; this the tokens inside (upper left; this indicated oil)indicated oil)

Step 4, 5200 BP: Flattened tokens Step 4, 5200 BP: Flattened tokens to indicate kind and amount of to indicate kind and amount of commodities recordedcommodities recorded

Step 5, 5100 BP: Information Step 5, 5100 BP: Information recorded on clay tablets using recorded on clay tablets using cuneiform, or ideographic wedge-cuneiform, or ideographic wedge-shaped, markings (see lower left)shaped, markings (see lower left)

This clay tablet indicates the This clay tablet indicates the sheep and goats owned by sheep and goats owned by someone in Mesopotamiasomeone in Mesopotamia

Writing and Accounting: Writing and Accounting: RefinementsRefinements

Number of symbolsNumber of symbols Early texts: 1500 symbolsEarly texts: 1500 symbols One-for-one relations with commodityOne-for-one relations with commodity Thus, one symbol represented wheat, another for chariot, a Thus, one symbol represented wheat, another for chariot, a

third for copper ingot or blockthird for copper ingot or block Later texts: 750 unique symbolsLater texts: 750 unique symbols Advantage: Increased the control by administration of Advantage: Increased the control by administration of

products and peopleproducts and people System was still cumbersomeSystem was still cumbersome Elements could be combined but not in the way we canElements could be combined but not in the way we can Cuneiform is not alphabet-basedCuneiform is not alphabet-based Want to see your name in cuneiform? Log on to Want to see your name in cuneiform? Log on to

www.upennmuseum.com/cuneiform.cigwww.upennmuseum.com/cuneiform.cig and follow and follow instructionsinstructions

Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370)Early Dynastic Period (3100-2370)

City states dominated MesopotamiaCity states dominated Mesopotamia 10-15 were present various times10-15 were present various times Uruk itself increased to 50,000 inhabitantsUruk itself increased to 50,000 inhabitants Defensive walls were constructedDefensive walls were constructed Monarchs became independent of temple ruleMonarchs became independent of temple rule City states rose and fellCity states rose and fell Uruk: Challenged by other city states around Uruk: Challenged by other city states around

2700 BC2700 BC Ur: Located 75 miles away, became Uruk’s Ur: Located 75 miles away, became Uruk’s

principal economic and military rivalprincipal economic and military rival Bands of highwaymen, possibly pastoralists, Bands of highwaymen, possibly pastoralists,

raided the merchants en routeraided the merchants en route

UrUr Site of the “Royal Cemetery” Site of the “Royal Cemetery”

uncovered by Sir Leonard Woolley, uncovered by Sir Leonard Woolley, English archaeologistEnglish archaeologist

Site contained chariots, Site contained chariots, headdresses, lyres, jewelryheaddresses, lyres, jewelry

Classic example: lyres with bearded Classic example: lyres with bearded bull (upper left)bull (upper left)

The blue is constructed from lapis The blue is constructed from lapis lazuli crystalslazuli crystals

Lower graphic is a typical Sumerian Lower graphic is a typical Sumerian theme: animals with human facestheme: animals with human faces

This comes from the front panel of This comes from the front panel of a lyrea lyre

Evidence of Extreme Stratification: Evidence of Extreme Stratification: BurialsBurials

Sir Leonard Woolley unearthed 2500 burials Sir Leonard Woolley unearthed 2500 burials Fewer than 20 were of royaltyFewer than 20 were of royalty Queen Shub-ad (upper left) was lying on a Queen Shub-ad (upper left) was lying on a

bed accompanied by female attendantsbed accompanied by female attendants 2 wagons drawn by oxen driven by male 2 wagons drawn by oxen driven by male

servants backed down into entry rampservants backed down into entry ramp 59 bodies, mostly female, were on the 59 bodies, mostly female, were on the

ground near the tombground near the tomb All retainers were lavishly bedecked with All retainers were lavishly bedecked with

crafted elementscrafted elements Oxen dispatched, then all in the party Oxen dispatched, then all in the party

consumed poisonconsumed poison Lyre with bull’s head (lower left) was Lyre with bull’s head (lower left) was

associated with the Good Queenassociated with the Good Queen

Lower Class GravesLower Class Graves

Of the other graves in the siteOf the other graves in the site A large number contains modest A large number contains modest

quantity of goodsquantity of goods A far larger number contain none at A far larger number contain none at

allall

AkkadAkkad

First of the empires that First of the empires that consolidated city states’consolidated city states’

Sargon I led the expansion Sargon I led the expansion (Upper left)(Upper left)

Detail from Victory stelae from Detail from Victory stelae from Susa.Susa.

Irony: a stela intended to Irony: a stela intended to celebrate Akkadian victory celebrate Akkadian victory actually documented their actually documented their defeat defeat

LagashLagash

Lagash, ruled by Gudea, Lagash, ruled by Gudea, succeeded Akkadsucceeded Akkad

Gudea drew a temple plan Gudea drew a temple plan from a vision of the gods from a vision of the gods (upper)(upper)

Lower: Gudea with temple Lower: Gudea with temple plan on his lapplan on his lap

Represents a model of the Represents a model of the inspiration of heaven on earth inspiration of heaven on earth through Gudea as a channelthrough Gudea as a channel

The Ziggurat of Ur: A Contrast with The Ziggurat of Ur: A Contrast with Egypt’s PyramidsEgypt’s Pyramids

The ziggurats became ritual The ziggurats became ritual and administrative centersand administrative centers

The massive structure was The massive structure was intended to inspire awe among intended to inspire awe among the subjectsthe subjects

The pyramids were to be The pyramids were to be eternal homes of the pharaohseternal homes of the pharaohs

Ziggurats were built in states; Ziggurats were built in states; pyramids were notpyramids were not

Egypt’s pyramids were of stone; Egypt’s pyramids were of stone; ziggurats were built of mud ziggurats were built of mud bricks in a stone-poor regionbricks in a stone-poor region

Babylon: Code of HammurabiBabylon: Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi: The LawgiverHammurabi: The Lawgiver As commerce increased, civil As commerce increased, civil

law served to regulate law served to regulate transactionstransactions

Criminal law was institutedCriminal law was instituted Lex talonis—eye for an eye—Lex talonis—eye for an eye—

became one of the became one of the cornerstonescornerstones

Here, Hammurabi receives the Here, Hammurabi receives the law code from the sun godlaw code from the sun god

Babylon: Tower of Babel Babylon: Tower of Babel Babylon was the site of Babylon was the site of

another ziggurat, the another ziggurat, the Tower of BabelTower of Babel

Biblical interpretations: Biblical interpretations: humankind’s intellectual humankind’s intellectual arrogancearrogance

God imposed different God imposed different languages on the languages on the buildersbuilders

However, Babylon However, Babylon already had a diversity already had a diversity of languages and of languages and culturescultures

Why construction was Why construction was halted remains a halted remains a mysterymystery

Warlike Themes: The Assyrians Warlike Themes: The Assyrians as Extreme Typesas Extreme Types

Even today, the Assyrians is a Even today, the Assyrians is a classic study of ruthless classic study of ruthless warfarewarfare

Under Assurnasirpal II, the Under Assurnasirpal II, the Assyrians expanded his empire Assyrians expanded his empire throughout Mesopotamiathroughout Mesopotamia

Cruelty cited in his boast that Cruelty cited in his boast that he dyed the mountains red he dyed the mountains red with bloodwith blood

Combined war with culture, Combined war with culture, creating the largest library of creating the largest library of the time the time

Included the creation myths Included the creation myths and epics of Mesopotamiaand epics of Mesopotamia

Added to the arts reflecting Added to the arts reflecting war (left) war (left)

Neo-Babylonian EmpireNeo-Babylonian Empire A ziggurat dedicated to A ziggurat dedicated to

the god Marduk, thought the god Marduk, thought to be the Tower of Babel to be the Tower of Babel in biblical lorein biblical lore

The Ishtar gate used the The Ishtar gate used the round arch, later to be round arch, later to be imitated in Rome and imitated in Rome and Europe (above)Europe (above)

It was faced (covered) It was faced (covered) with glazed brickswith glazed bricks

There was also a temple There was also a temple dedicated to Ishtardedicated to Ishtar

IshtarIshtar

Babylonia is associated with Babylonia is associated with Ishtar in the BibleIshtar in the Bible

She is said to be the patron of She is said to be the patron of sacred prostitutes in her temple sacred prostitutes in her temple (upper left, a Phoenician (upper left, a Phoenician rendition)rendition)

Women were to “lay with Women were to “lay with strangers” (at a price)strangers” (at a price)

She was also a war goddess for She was also a war goddess for the Assyriansthe Assyrians

The Book of Revelation cites her The Book of Revelation cites her as the Harlot (or Whore) of as the Harlot (or Whore) of Babylon (lower left)Babylon (lower left)

ConclusionConclusion Themes of Mesopotamia are very different from Themes of Mesopotamia are very different from

those of Egyptthose of Egypt Egypt was relatively stable; Mesopotamia Egypt was relatively stable; Mesopotamia

comprised warring city statescomprised warring city states Empires rose, did not last long, fell to othersEmpires rose, did not last long, fell to others Mesopotamia was inventive; resource-poor, Mesopotamia was inventive; resource-poor,

wealth had to come from technological wealth had to come from technological innovations and tradeinnovations and trade

War was often the motor force for innovationWar was often the motor force for innovation Art—depicting themes of war and powerful Art—depicting themes of war and powerful

monarchsmonarchs Ishtar/Innana: “Make love Ishtar/Innana: “Make love and and war”war”