MESOPOTAMIAG- In the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East (SW Asia), means “land between rivers”- 2 rivers: Tigris and Euphrates. Rivers provided silt when they flooded, which made surrounding area fertile. Rivers flooded unpredictably. Few natural barriers to invasion.

S- Social classes (stratified society): Rulers, priests on top; skilled workers (artisans, merchants, scribes) below them; peasants and slaves (most of the population) on the bottom. Men were in positions of authority (patriarchal).

P- Not unified- instead, many competing city-states. City states would battle over land and resources. Each city-state was ruled by a king (who had divine authority- believed the gods placed him there). Ruling families formed dynasties. The state (government) could get people to work on large public works projects such as ziggurats or irrigation canals. Sumer was the first civilization in Mesopotamia; Akkadians invaded, creating the first empire; after them, the Babylonians, Hittites, and Assyrians would control Mesopotamia. In Babylonia, the great ruler Hammurabi would develop the world’s first written law code- Hammurabi’s Code. Set harsh punishments.

I- Intensive farming of wheat and barley required irrigation from the rivers.

C- Polytheistic, would build ziggurats as temples to the gods. Priests would perform important rituals at the ziggurat. Animal sacrifice was practiced. Generally harsh life and miserable outlook on life; even felt the afterlife was a place of dread. First literature- the epic story Epic of Gilgamesh. Inventions included the wheel, sail, plow, and the first writing system (cuneiform)- written on clay tablets with a stylus. Worked with metal (bronze in Sumer)- the Hittites brought iron technology. Developed arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry.

E- Engaged in long-distance trade, including trade with Indus. Traded agricultural surplus crops and metal goods.

Sequence of Mesopotamian Civilizations1. Sumer (by 3000 BCE)- Considered the “foundational civilization” of Mesopotamia. 2. Akkadians (by 2350 BCE)- Led by Sargon, established the world’s first empire when they invaded

and took over Sumer3. Babylonians (by 2000 BCE)- Known for Hammurabi’s Code (first written set of laws), principle of “an

eye for an eye” 4. Hittites (by 1595 BCE)- From Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), expanded rapidly to eventually control

much of SW Asia with their iron weapons and chariots (first in SW Asia to work with iron). Competed with the Egyptian Empire for control of Syria.

5. Assyrians (by 650 BCE)- Known for its highly organized military and advanced iron weapons, the Assyrian Empire aggressively expanded across SW Asia and into Egypt. Assyrian society glorified military strength. Local rulers controlled their areas but were loyal and reported to the Assyrian king. If people rebelled or refused to pay tribute, their cities were destroyed (Assyrians ruled very harshly). The Assyrian Empire had grown too large, was invaded by the Chaldeans.

6. Chaldeans (by 600 BCE)- Made Babylon their capital. Known for the hanging gardens of Babylon. Fell to the Persians.

EGYPTG- North Africa- surrounded by desert. Most important physical feature is the Nile River. Desert kept out invaders for centuries- allowed Egypt to develop unique culture.

S- Social classes (stratified society): Pharaoh on top (everything revolved around the pharaoh); viziers (government administrators) and priests below the pharaoh; skilled workers (artisans, merchants, scribes) below them; peasants and slaves (most of the population) on the bottom. Men were in positions of authority (patriarchal), but women did have more rights than in other civilizations (such as the ability to become merchants, inherit property, and divorce).

P- Unlike Mesopotamia, one unified civilization (Upper and Lower Egypt unified to form Egyptian civilization). The powerful state (government) had the pharaoh at the top and could compel labor (could make people do things, like work on public works projects such as pyramids). Became an empire during the New Kingdom.

I- Intensive farming of wheat and barley required irrigation from the rivers. Nile was used for transportation and extensive trade.

C- Polytheistic- worshipped many gods. Priests would perform important rituals. Better outlook on life than in Mesopotamia. Pyramids were built as tombs for the pharaohs. Mummification was practiced to preserve the body in the afterlife. It was believed that your soul or life force (ka) would return upon your death if you lived a just life. Judgment day- if you lived a good life, you would go to the underworld; if not, you’d be eaten and turned into an evil spirit. Used mathematics and geometry. Developed a solar calendar. Used papyrus and the first ink to write hieroglyphics. First to use makeup. Eventually started using the chariot and iron weapons after receiving that technology from SW Asia during the New Kingdom.

E- Engaged in long-distance trade, including trade with Mesopotamia. Extensive trade along the Nile.

Periods of Egyptian historyOLD KINGDOM (2660 BCE- 2180 BCE)- Egyptian state unified and consolidates power; pyramids built. Power of pharaohs declined toward the end of this period.

MIDDLE KINGDOM (2040 BCE- 1640 BCE)- Pharaohs restored law and order. Egypt has more contact with outside world. Improved agriculture, trade, and transportation. A group of people called the Hyksos from present-day Israel invaded Egypt. The Hyksos ruled Egypt from 1630 BCE- 1523 BCE.

NEW KINGDOM (1570 BCE-1075 BCE)- Hyksos were driven out. Egypt was led by powerful pharaohs, became an empire. After invasions toward the end of this period, Egypt never recovered its previous power and would be ruled by several different later empires. Egypt would go on to be taken over by Libyans, Nubia, Assyria, and Persia.

INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONG-Indian subcontinent- physical barriers separate this area from the rest of Asia. Indus River- flooding was unpredictable, but provided fertile soil for farming; arid climate. Monsoons (seasonal winds)= wet season, dry season.

S- Planned cities, known for grid system. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were biggest cities. Cities featured a fortified area called a citadel, which contained the most important buildings of the city (including the temple and residence of the royal family). Cities also featured sophisticated plumbing and sewer systems. Houses were of different sizes, but suggest social divisions were not great.

P- Excellent city planning indicates strong central government. Few weapons of warfare have been found, suggesting limited warfare. Lack of evidence of kings or state religion. Believed to be a theocracy.

I- Intensive farming of wheat, barley, and legumes. Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats. Built levees (earthen walls) for flood control. Sometimes built “islands” to keep cities above floodwaters. Large-scale irrigation.

C- Had a written language, but it has not yet been deciphered, so not much is known. Some figures show links to Hindu civilization (early representations of Shiva, bull worshipping, mother goddess)

E- Engaged in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia; traded copper, lumber, precious stones, and cloth

Sewer system

CHINAG- Natural barriers isolated China from the outside world more than the other early civilizations. Huang He (Yellow) River- rich silt deposits. Huang He could bring disastrous floods (“China’s sorrow”).

S- Socially stratified. Higher class lived inside city walls, peasants lived in huts outside the city. Family was central to society, emphasized respect toward parents. Group more important than the individual. Very patriarchal. Arranged marriages. Sharp difference between nobles and peasants.

P- The early Chinese state could command people to work on public works projects. Warfare was common among the early Chinese cities. Professional warrior class. Dynastic cycle est. under Zhou.

I- Intensive agriculture (primarily rice). Irrigation. Flood control by the Huang He. Unlike the other civilizations, primary building material was wood. Massive earthen walls surrounded first cities.

C- Saw China as the Middle Kingdom- the center of the civilized world. Outsiders were regarded as barbarians. Worshipped spirits of ancestors (ancestor veneration) to consult gods. Polytheistic. Used oracle bones to consult gods. Chinese writing system had no link to spoken language.

E- China had to supply its own goods rather than rely on trade with outside peoples early on. Limited trade early on with other civilizations, picked up later.

CHINA: EARLY DYNASTIESXIA (believed to be about 2000 BCE)- Based on legend. Leader was an engineer and mathematician named Yu (Wu). He had flood control and irrigation projects that helped tame the Huang He so that settlements could grow. Not much else is known.

SHANG (1700 BCE-1027 BCE)- Largely considered the first Chinese dynasty. More is known- first to leave written records.

ZHOU (1027 BCE-256 BCE)- overthrew the Shang, but adopted much of Shang culture. Established the Mandate of Heaven and dynastic cycle.

SHANG CHINA (1700 BCE-1027 BCE)

● Built elaborate palaces and tombs● Anyang- one of the earliest, most important cities● Shang peoples were constantly waging war (got the chariot from West Asia)● Development of a professional warrior class- lengthy training● Established the foundation for Chinese civilization. ● Ruling class of warrior-nobles headed by a king governed the Shang. These

noble families owned the land. They sent tribute to the Shang ruler in exchange for local control.

● Chinese writing system created based on characters● Used bronze

ZHOU CHINA (1027 BCE-256 BCE)

● Established the idea of the Mandate of Heaven and the dynastic cycle● Built roads and canals, coined money, produced iron● Feudalism established- Zhou granted control over different regions to

members of the royal family and other trusted nobles. These nobles owed loyalty and military service to the king and protection to the people who lived on their lands.

● Local lords became more powerful over time and competed with each other for land and wealth.

● 771 BCE-256 BCE: “Warring States” period- local lords fought with one another for control; Zhou kings were almost powerless. Chaotic time that resulted in the collapse of traditional values.

OLMECS- FIRST CIVILIZATION IN THE AMERICAS (1200 BCE-400 BCE)

G- Mesoamerica (southern/central Mexico). Along Gulf Coast. Hot, humid rainforest. Swamps and jungle. High rainfall- could cause severe flooding. Rivers provided easy transportation and fertile farmland.

S- Had a stratified society with a ruling class.

P- Early cities included San Lorenzo and La Venta. Cities featured earthen mounds, courtyards, and pyramids.

I- May have used rolling logs to transport giant stone heads. Agriculture based on maize.

C- Known as Mesoamerica’s “Mother culture”- influenced later groups. Famous for their humongous stone heads. Stone monuments in cities included columns and altars. Believed to have prayed to many nature gods. Pyramids may have been central to religion. Likely built tombs for rulers. Worshiped the jaguar spirit. May have been the first civilization in the Western hemisphere to develop a writing system.

E- Appeared to have been prosperous, directed a trading network throughout Mesoamerica. Traded food, figurines of jade and ceramic for obsidian (hard volcanic glass)

Jaguar statue

NORTE CHICO- ANDEAN SOUTH AMERICA (3000 BCE-1800 BCE)

G- Central coast of Peru- desert region had little rainfall, but rivers brought snowmelt from the Andes to the Pacific.

S- A series of 25 urban centers. Cities were smaller than those of Mesopotamia, show less evidence of economic specialization. Not much is known about their social organization. Cities lacked defensive walls- showed warfare was uncommon.

P- Little is known. Little evidence of warfare.

I- Relied heavily on fishing.

C- Monumental architecture- earthen mounds, large public ceremonial structures, stone buildings with residential apartments. Did not develop pottery or writing. A quipu (series of knotted cords later used for accounting) was developed.

E- Traded fish for cotton and food crops (squash, beans, and guava, which were grown by inland people using irrigation)

CHAVIN- ANDEAN SOUTH AMERICA (900 BCE-200 BCE)

G- Andes Mountains- rugged environment. Rocky- generally poor soil. Overland travel is difficult. Small coastal plain between the mountains and the coast.

S- Not much is known about their social organization.

P- No evidence of political organization.

I- Lived in the rugged Andes. Cultivated crops such as potatoes that would grow well in this climate. Relied more on fishing from the coast than on agriculture early on.

C- Chavin culture spread quickly across northern/central Peru. Believed to be a primarily religious civilization. Built temples to worship gods. Seen as the “mother culture” of the Andes. Chavin sites featured pyramids, plazas, and earthen mounds. Carved stone, weaved and painted cloth, produced pottery featuring warriors and animals. Worked with metal (gold and silver).

E- No evidence of economic organization.