messages and meaning

7/29/2019 Messages and Meaning

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Tutorial 4 Messages and Meaning

Rationale

An understanding of the communication process is necessary if a marketing strategyis to work effectively. How are messages (such as advertisements) structured, what

are the salient characteristics of the different media which carry these messages (e.g.

TV, Radio and the Press etc) and how might these messages be received are all

questions which must be considered before planning and executing any integrated

marketing communications campaign. There are broadly two types of definition of

communication. The first definition sees it as a process by which A sends a message

to B upon whom it has an effect. The aim of this approach is to identify the stages

through which communication passes so that each one may be properly studied and its

role in and effect upon the whole process clearly identified. Lasswell (1948) claimed

that an act of communication was adequately explained only when every aspect of his

famous question had been answered:

"who, says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?'

The second definition sees it as a negotiation and exchange of meaning, in which

messages interact with people/culture/society to produce some form of understanding.

This approach, and the one used on this course, focuses on the relationship between

the different elements necessary for meaning to occur. For example, communication

includes perception, cognitive and reflective thought, emotional responses, attitudes,

values and beliefs etc. Therefore, to understand what an advertisement might be

saying or attempting to say, it is necessary to look at both the text itself, and thatincludes all the significant message and executional detail, and consider the presumed

intention of the advertisement, the audience it is aimed at and the culture within which

it is being used.

Definitions

There are a couple of terms which you might not be familiar with but which you will

need in order to make sense of this assignment

denotation - in an advertisement this is the obvious, literal description of

what you can see e.g. you could describe the symbol used byNike as a tick or Apples symbol as an apple shape with a piece

missing from one side and horizontal bands of different colours

across it.

- you would make no attempt at this stage to interpret the

image (text) further, you merely describe what you see in its

simplest form.

- this stage is an attempt to be objective!

connotation - this is the stage at which you try to interpret the detail of the

text. To interpret you will need to make connections and

associations between the detail of the text and the culture withinwhich it is being analysed e.g. the Nike tick may be seen, in


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Western societies, as a symbol of getting something correct. It

is used extensively in schools, for example, to show that an

answer is right. It is also used to show approval. It can be used

to 'sign something off' as being complete or ready. All of these

possible interpretations share a similar sense of positiveness -

perhaps one of the perceptions Nike were trying to achieve!this stage is much more subjective!

context this refers to the wider social, political and cultural

circumstances and conditions which help to define the

communication process.

e.g. you would need to know the roles that magazines play in

general in society, and the magazine where your advertisement

came from in particular, to understand how and why the

advertisement might be successful.

is it a trade magazine, a generalist monthly, is it targeted at

higher income earners, at an 'arty', sporty, or more literary,

target audience?

Activities

In pairs

Describe two or three company logos/trademarks.

Why have these particular symbols/images been chosen?

What appeals are being made by these symbols?

Discuss the major lifestyle appeals associated with major brands such

as Harley Davidson, Tag Heuer, YouTube, Huffer, Adidas, LOreal?

Critiquing Advertisements

Rationale

Most advertisements in all forms of the media may be defined according to one of the

following broad categories. It should be noted, however, that the categories are not

mutually exclusive and will often overlap in some ways:

Informational

These advertisements focus on the practical, utilitarian, practical side of a

product and how it fulfils the consumers needs. Product benefits are

emphasised and appeals to reason are dominant. An obvious example would

be classified ads in newspapers. These contain few superfluous words andare usually brief and short. Some classifieds contain both facts and


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commentary. They are usually for functional items or services and often

employ direct marketing strategies e.g. 0800 numbers. Visual images are

usually simple graphics if they are used at all.

1. Simple

These ads also contain 'hard' information like the advantages of a product, its

convenience, cost, etc. and are often found in hobby or special interest

magazines, where the consumer has knowledge of the subject. TV

commercials on local and regional channels are often examples of this simple

format and appeal. Cinema ads are also similar in their localised appeal. A

simple picture might accompany relevant, literal information about a

product, coupled with modest (and usually repeated) encouragement from the

announcer/voice over. Infomercials are probably the most common television

form of these advertisements.

2. Compound

These ads contain subtle association and persuasion. Usually pictures do the

persuading, while the facts are left to the copy. The image, therefore, is very

important; the advertiser intends that the consumer will associate the product

with the total impression. TV car ads with the product set against a tropical

beach, an exclusive hotel or pulling up to an airport would be typical

examples of this kind of lifestyle advertising.

Transformational

These advertisements, usually aligned with the concept of post-modernism, are

characterised by their lack of literal associations with a product. They seek to

create an affective association with the viewer/reader/listener which is

focussed on imagination, fantasy and the experience connected with the idea

of the product

3. Complex

These ads concentrate on the presentation of luxury and status. The

background often takes over, the product merges into it. Visual and verbal

imagery evoke the status feelings associated with money and glamour.Soundtracks are often classical and sweeping. The product is buried in the

total image.

4. Sophisticated

Here hidden or subconscious feelings are explored. Subtle associations are

made between product and situation, and fantasies are acted out. The visual

imagery may be blurred to suggest a dream-like state, and colours and

lighting are used to associate with dreams and fantasies. Sexuality may be

exploited. Self-indulgence is not far below the surface. Often very 'arty' and

sometimes very cinematic e.g. gentle tracking shots, big close-ups etc. Style,up-market fashion and 'culture' magazines use these techniques frequently.


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Critiquing Advertisements: A Checklist

This is not meant to be an exhaustive list nor is it the only way to analyse adverts. It

is intended, rather, to give you some way of looking at the 'ingredients' of an ad sothat you might be better placed to attempt a more connotative interpretation of what

the ad is trying to say and who it is saying it to. It should also provide you with a

guide as to the sorts of thing to look for but you will need to remember that not all of

the details on this sheet will be found in every ad and so you will need to select the

appropriate ones as necessary and ignore or incorporate others as required.

People

Age

how old are they?

Gender

what gender are they and how do you know?

Race

what racial group do they appear to come from?

Class

which social classes are represented and how do you know?

Clothing

what do the clothing codes tell you?

Expression

are the expressions significant?

Eyes who or what is being looked at and why?

Pose

why are they posed like this?

Touch

are they touching each other in any way - is it significant?

Relationship

how would you describe the relationships between the people and

significant objects?

Objects

Props

what objects are being used and why?

Furnishings/setting

where are they supposed to be and how do you know?

Product

what can you tell about the product from the way it appears in the ad?

Background

what do the background colours, textures and patterns tell you about

the situation?

Colour

what colour codes are at work?


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Techniques (Technical codes)

Quality of Reproduction

black and white, colour, photo, drawing, computer generated etc?

Composition

how do the different elements e.g. background, foreground, perspectiveetc. relate to each other?

Cropping

sometimes what has been left out is almost as important as what as

been left in!

Lighting

how has the shot been lit e.g. soft lighting, hard glare, backlighting, use

of shadows etc and what effect does this have on the overall image and

impression?

Camera angle

from what angle is the shot taken e.g. high, low, eye-level etc and whateffect does it have e.g. are we looking 'down' on someone?

Focus

which parts of the shot are in focus and which, if any, are not? Why

might this be?

Text

Slogan

can you relate the slogan to the image/s?

Copy

what other information are you given to help make sense of the image?

Brand

what does the brand name/image suggest?

Typeface

why was the particular lettering style chosen? How many different

styles are there, and why?

Graphics

what can you say about the graphic devices e.g. graphs, moving words,

disintegrating logos etc. Are they merely decorative?

Function

Narrative

what is the story (if there is one) and what clues are you given to makesense of it?

Identification

what is meant to be your relationship to the image/narrative? e.g. are

you supposed to be an observer, a sympathiser, a critic?

Promise

what is being promised by this ad?

Roles

what roles e.g. father figure, hero etc and stereotypes are being used?

Why?

Values

what are you supposed to value in the image e.g. independence,success, financial gain?


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Power

who is in 'control' in the image and where does this power come from?

That's enough to be getting on with .

Select an advertisement and try some of the following:

Can you decide what type of ad you are analysing e.g. is it compound,

sophisticated, informational, transformational?

Explain how it fits the category definition or how it crosses over into

other categories.

Do a quick denotative analysis of your ad. What are the main

elements?

Now attempt a connotative analysis of the advertisement.

What is it trying to say?

How effective do you think it could be?

What can you deduce about its intended audience?What does it tell you about its relationship to its competitors?

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