ORIGINAL PAPER

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effectson Apprentices’ Reflection in VocationalEducation and Training

Laetitia Mauroux & Karen D. Könings &Jessica Dehler Zufferey & Jean-Luc Gurtner

Received: 9 August 2013 /Accepted: 24 March 2014 /Published online: 30 April 2014# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract While learning journals (LJs) have been shown to support self-regulatedlearning strategies, reflection and learning outcomes in academic contexts, few studieshave investigated their relevance in vocational education. A mobile and online learningjournal (MOLJ) was developed to support reflection on workplace experiences. However,acceptance of the mobile and online learning journal by apprentices and supervisors is nottrivial. This study investigated how apprentices use the mobile and online learning journaland why they use it that way. The mobile and online learning journal was developed forapprentices in the field of bakery and contains a recipe book, a smartphone app to takepictures of workplace experiences, and a learning journal for reflection. Apprentices’workplace supervisors have access to the mobile and online learning journal to providesupport and feedback. A mixed method study was conducted with 16 apprentices.Indicators of their use of the mobile and online learning journal were recorded, whilereasons for use were studied by questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Four kindsof users of the mobile and online learning journal were identified: Multifunction users,picture takers, learning journal users, and overall low users. The most determining factorsfor the acceptance and use of the mobile and online learning journal by apprentices weretheir interest in the use of a smartphone at the workplace, their acceptance of reflection onworkplace experiences through the mobile and online learning journal, and supervisors’

Vocations and Learning (2014) 7:215–239DOI 10.1007/s12186-014-9113-0

L. Mauroux (*)UER Enseignement, Apprentissage et Évaluation, Haute École Pédagogique du Cantonde Vaud (HEP Vaud), Lausanne, Switzerlande-mail: laetitia.mauroux@hepl.ch

K. D. KöningsDepartment of Educational Development and Research, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences,Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

J. D. ZuffereyComputer-Human Interaction Lab for Learning and Instruction EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland

J.<L. GurtnerDepartment of Education, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

participation and provision of feedback. Promoting the use of learning journals byapprentices requires strong guidance in the design of the learning journal as well assupport and feedback from supervisors. Taking pictures from the workplace proves usefulfor learning and sharing experience in vocational training.

Keywords Learning journal . Vocational education and training .Workplace .Mobilelearning . Reflection . Acceptance

Effects of a Mobile and Online Learning Journal on Apprentices’ Reflectionin Vocational Education and Training

Interest in research into workplace learning has increased over the last 20 years (Rausch2013), particularly when it comes to factors influencing such learning (Billett 2001) and theconceptualization of workplaces as learning environments (Billett 2004). Two challengesemerged from the literature. Firstly, workplace learners have to be independent lifelonglearners evolving in a context where professionals are supposed to maintain and extendpreviously acquired competencies (Van den Boom et al. 2007). Therefore, the capacity toregulate one’s learning process is fundamental to Vocational Education and Training (VET),as is becoming aware of one’s learning process and being able to regulate one’s learningneeds (Jossberger et al. 2010). Secondly, when training is organized in a dual system (i.e.,training both at school and at work), learners have to integrate theory and practice. Thus, thetwo mentioned above challenges drive a need for reflection on workplace experiences inVET. This reflection can be done in action (during practice) or on action (after or beforeaction) (Schön 1983). Additionally, reflection can be on the learning process or on theintegration of knowledge acquired at school and experiences made at the workplace(Cattaneo et al. submitted). This paper reports the results of a study on the acceptance andappropriation by VET apprentices of a mobile and online learning journal designed tostimulate and support them in their reflection on their workplace experiences.

Learning journals can respond to the two previously mentioned challenges. Learningjournals are defined in academic contexts as a collection of writing assignments regularlyperformed in completion of course-work activities (Hübner et al. 2010, p. 19) and they allowto foster reflection in various ways. For instance, learning journals benefit the developmentof self-regulated learning (Abrami et al. 2008; Kicken et al. 2009), metacognition (Bertholdet al. 2007), learning strategies (Abrami et al. 2008; Berthold et al. 2007; Kicken et al. 2009;McCrindle andChristensen 1995), and students’ assessed academic performance or learningoutcomes (McCrindle and Christensen 1995).McCrindle and Christensen (1995) found thatwriting learning journals foster increased metacognitive strategies and more sophisticatedcognitive strategies in a learning task than writing scientific reports.

The current study focuses on the stimulation of apprentices’ use of learning strate-gies in their learning journal. Learning strategies are “behaviors and thoughts that alearner engages in during learning and that are intended to influence the encodingprocess” (Weinstein and Mayer 1986, p. 315). They can be cognitive (i.e., repetition,elaboration, organization), metacognitive (i.e., planning, monitoring, debugging andevaluation) or resource management learning strategies (i.e., help-seeking, time man-agement, study environment and effort management) (Berger and Karabenick 2011;McKeachie 1987; Schraw and Dennison 1994; Weinstein and Mayer 1986). They are

216 L. Mauroux et al.

also called self-regulatory strategies (Berger and Karabenick 2011). As stated in theliterature (Kramarskiy and Michalsky 2010; Pintrich 2000) self-regulated learnersmanage to adequately use learning strategies. Thus, the capacity to regulate one’slearning process implies the development of appropriate learning strategies that couldbe acquired by writing a learning journal. In the literature, learning journals aredescribed as beneficial for the development of metacognitive reflective processes(Challis 2005; Harris 2005; Hume 2009; Priddey and Williams 1996; Wade andYarbrough 1996). Reflection is “a means for reliving and recapturing experience inorder to make sense of it, to learn from it, and to develop new understanding andappreciations” (Wade and Yarbrough 1996, p. 64). In the present study, apprentices’reflection on their learning process and mastery of professional procedures are sup-ported through learning journals. Learning journals are implemented as an aid tostimulate apprentices ’use of learning strategies through the process of reflection onworkplace experiences by responding to prompts.

In VET, reflection on workplace experiences is particularly necessary given the needto integrate information and experiences gathered in the two different contexts (schooland workplaces) into a coherent body of knowledge (Cattaneo et al. submitted). What islearned remains available only in its original context and is hardly transferred to theother context (Renkl et al. 1996). Evans et al. (2010) described transfer as follows:“Different forms of knowledge are re-contextualised as people move between sites oflearning” (p. 2). Their concept implies that what has been learned in one context isrethought and conceptualized in a new one. This process of reconceptualizationrequires further learning, reflection, use of learning strategies and some guidance.Educational innovations such as the documentation of learning journals in VET offera useful tool for reconceptualisation. The realization of a learning journal could allowapprentices to apply what is learnt in one context to another, thereby promoting furtherlearning, cognitive and metacognitive processing and interactions with others. Anotherargument demonstrating the necessity of reflection for learning is that learning is notpossible without experiences as well as the reflection on those experiences (Bourgeoisand Chapelle 2011 and mentioned in many learning models: Boud et al. 1985; Dewey1938/1963; Engeström 1987; Schön 1983). Learning journals can then be seen as ameans to foster apprentices’ reflection on the experiences they make at the workplace.

The benefits of learning journals for learning as well as their potential to stimulatelearner reflection have mainly been demonstrated outside VET, except for one study thatreported positive effects on the development of self-directed learning skills (Kicken et al.2009). The current study aims to respond to this lack of research. The situation of VETapprentices differs from that of academic students in that the former learn while doing orworking, which occurs while carrying out tasks at work and solving problems (Weber2013). They are neither used to reflecting on workplace experiences, nor describingthem, as required by learning journals. Although working activities also engenderlearning (Ellström 2011), learning at the workplace mainly occurs while apprenticespursue working goals rather than learning goals (Rausch 2013). Learning journals mightfoster apprentices’ reflection on workplace experiences and require them to focus ontheir learning process. The relevance of learning journals in supporting and fosteringVET apprentices’ reflection on workplace experiences is at the heart of this study.

The development of information and communication technologies and their in-creased accessibility enables the creation of online learning journals, as a replacement

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 217

for paper and pencil solutions. These online solutions are called webfolios,webPortfolios or ePortfolios (Challis 2005). According to Challis (2005) anePortfolio is “a selective and structured collection of information, gathered for specificpurposes and showing/evidencing one’s accomplishments and growth which are storeddigitally and managed by appropriate software” (p.2). Advantages of online learningjournals compared to paper-based ones include the accessibility of information, the easeof sharing with peers and the ability of mentors to add comments (Challis 2005).Furthermore technologies, or more precisely in the context of this study online learningjournals provide a new learning space in which knowledge from school and workplacescan be integrated and shared with peers or supervisors: The Erfahrraum. The name is aconstruction around two German terms “Erfahrung” or experience and “Raum” forroom. This name fits well the two learning locations of apprentices in a dual system(Cattaneo et al. submitted).

But conscious and voluntary reflection generally does not occur spontaneously(Taylor and Freeman 2011), but needs to be stimulated by making explicit the expe-riences (Raizen 1994). So for an effective use of learning journals, learners’ reflectionsand activities need to be guided (Nückles et al. 2009). This guidance can be received byasking critical and reflective questions or prompts (Berthold et al. 2007; Hübner et al.2010; Kicken et al. 2009) and providing apprentices with clear feedback (Van denBoom et al. 2007). Prompts in the form of questions or hints are known to be efficientin guiding reflection and learning activities (Berthold et al. 2007; Van den Boom et al.2007). According to Kicken et al. (2009), prompts should help students assess theirown competences, formulate learning needs and select suitable future learning tasks.Additionally, apprentices at the workplace have to develop the ability to think contin-uously about what they are doing and make appropriate decisions; a sort of meta-consciousness or monitoring of actions. In this sense we refer to the definition ofmonitoring of Schraw and Dennison (1994, p. 475): “Assessment of one’s learning orstrategy use”. Thus, we propose that a learning journal for VET intentionally exercisesthis ability by means of specific prompts, for example by asking learners to select,precisely describe and document how they successfully manage relevant steps or trickymoments during baking. The need for feedback to support effective use of learningjournals has largely been demonstrated in the literature (Driessen et al. 2005; Kickenet al. 2009; Van den Boom et al. 2007). Learning journals should therefore also offerapprentice supervisors the tool to provide feedback, comments or hints.

Finally, we suggest that learning journals for VET support experience-based reflec-tion by providing an opportunity to capture workplace experiences including mistakes,steps in following a recipe, selecting appropriate products or procedures attestingapprentices’ competences, etc. and indicating exactly what, when and where they learn,by means of photos taken at the workplace. The idea to make learners select and takepictures of their own practice is not new and is termed autophotography by Fox-Turnbull (2009) and Moreland and Cowie (2007). Pictures represent a moment in time,capturing a defined action or result of a procedure while videos cover the steps inrealizing a recipe. Of course a video could also show a single episode when following arecipe, but we argue that demonstration of the cognitive process is limited. Whencapturing an experience in picture form, one has to precisely select when to photograph.Pictures also have the additional advantage of reducing the need to write, a definitebenefit knowing that apprentices do not like writing. Moreover, in the world of bakery

218 L. Mauroux et al.

the use of pictures representing ideal qualities and typical imperfections of productionsis common (Richemont Professional School 2007). We contend that the activity ofcapturing pictures in itself is an effective source of learning because it promptsapprentices to review the pictures and become aware of mistakes, imperfections orsuccesses. There is also a neurological basis in favor of the use of visual material,according to Harper (2002, p.13). “The parts of the brain that process visual informa-tion are evolutionary older than the parts that process verbal information. Thus imagesevoke deeper elements of human consciousness than do words; exchanges based onwords alone utilize less of the brain’s capacity than do exchanges in which the brain isprocessing images as well as words”. So the use of pictures as a basis of reflection andfor discussion of the learning journals’ content with supervisors can support learning.

A Learning Journal for VET

Since autumn 2011, a new Swiss ordinance on initial professional training in bakeryrequires the creation of a learning journal by all apprentices. Once a semester, theperson responsible for the apprentice’s training (i.e., supervisor at the workplace) isexpected to evaluate the learning journal and discuss its content with the apprentice(SERI—State Secretariat for Education, Research and innovation 2011). Taking intoaccount the success criteria for learning journals use as described in the literature, andmotivated by the necessity to encourage apprentices to complete a learning journal, amobile and online learning journal was developed. In order to accommodate thespecific needs of the professional field of bakery, this development was made incollaboration with schoolteachers from a professional association responsible for thedevelopment of a pedagogical concept to be implemented at a national level. Anelement resulting from this collaboration was the introduction of a recipe book in themobile and online learning journal, as apprentices are required to produce a recipe bookduring the training. The mobile and online learning journal is then composed of thefollowing functions: A smartphone app, a recipe book, a repository of photos and alearning journal. The smartphone app serves to take pictures of workplace experiencesthat can be posted directly to an online repository. The recipe book contains all therecipe procedures. Pictures stored and classified in the repository can be linked torecipes or used in the learning journal as a basis for reflection. Finally, the learningjournal is linked to each recipe and serves to foster apprentice’s reflection on workplaceexperiences by means of prompts that stimulate learning strategies (Mauroux et al.2013). As stipulated in the professional ordinance, and the recommendations fromliterature (Driessen et al. 2005; Kicken et al. 2009; Van den Boom et al. 2007),supervisors were encouraged to organize regular meetings with apprentices in orderto discuss their use of the mobile and online learning journal.

Factors Influencing Apprentices’ Use of a Mobile and Online Learning Journal

To be effective, any learning tool needs to be accepted by apprentices and supervisors.In our situation, both the fact that the learning journal is online and mobile (use of asmartphone), and that it is designed to support reflection by means of prompts have tobe accepted. Figure 1 presents the basic elements that contribute to acceptance of themobile and online learning journal. The elements include positive attitude toward using

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 219

technologies, motivational support, appropriate responses to changes, perceptions ofthe work environment, feedback/support/guidance (prompts), positive attitude towardreflection, perceived usefulness and ease of using the mobile and online learningjournal. These elements are based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)developed by Davis (1989), which describes two particularly important factors deter-mining the intention to use and usage behavior. The first is the perceived ease of use,“the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free ofeffort” (Davis 1989, p. 320). The second is the perceived usefulness, “the degree towhich a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her jobperformance” (Davis 1989, p. 320). In the case of the mobile and online learningjournal used in VET, an example of such usefulness might be that it enables apprenticesto obtain more feedback on their tasks from supervisors.

Extensions of the TAM model (Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003)point to an additional factor influencing user acceptance—the attitude toward usingtechnology, which is defined as “an individual’s overall affective reaction to using asystem” (Venkatesh et al. 2003, p. 455). The relevance of a smartphone app to captureworkplace experiences in the form of pictures seems evident, as it enables pictures to beposted directly online without plugging in a cable. However, its suitability for theworkplace is questionable. Apprentices’ hands are often wet or coated with flour,rendering smartphone use inappropriate or difficult. Moreover, Pachler’s model of“Appropriation of Mobile Cultural Resources for Learning” introduces the concept of“motivational support”: The smartphone might be seen as a tool from everyday life,rather than a resource for learning and as such be considered more (or less) acceptable(Pachler et al. 2010). The smartphone might provide “motivational support” when usedin a formal context (Pachler et al. 2010), if, for example, apprentices like using asmartphone. But, if they consider it boring or too expensive, for example, that might

Fig. 1 Elements that contribute to acceptance of the mobile and online learning journal

220 L. Mauroux et al.

have a counter effect. According to Pachler’s model, the “appropriation” of a techno-logical device is “the process attendant to the development of personal practices withmobile devices” (Pachler 2013). This process can lead users to change their behavior toaccommodate features or shortcomings or to shape the use of the tool to suit theirspecific needs. The process of appropriation can also lead to the creation of uses notimagined by the tool’s designers (Pachler et al. 2010; Sharples et al. 2007; Waycott2004).

As stated by Akerlind and Trevitt (1999), technological innovation in educationcauses a process of change and not just the development of new skills. “This changewill be greater when it conflicts with students’ past educational experiences” (p.7).Change produces stress and anxiety that can lead students/apprentices to resist changeand can inhibit their acceptance of the mobile and online learning journal. Apprenticescan perceive their work environment as stressful or peaceful the climate with thecolleagues as enjoyable or tense, etc. Their perception of the work environment couldinfluence their attitude toward reflection (Hetzner et al. 2013). This relation could bereinforced by the kind of support available from colleagues and supervisors, alreadymentioned as a factor of success in the use of learning journals (Driessen et al. 2005;Kicken et al. 2009; Van den Boom et al. 2007).

Learners’ “attitude toward reflective practice” in an academic context, as describedby Stevenson and Willott (2008), can be defined as the student’s capacity to “useopportunities to reflect on and learn from the experience” (p. 1). In VET it can bedefined as the apprentices’ acceptance of the proposed reflection on workplace expe-riences by means of answers to prompts in learning journals. This is the last variablerepresented in our list of elements that contribute to acceptance of the mobile andonline learning journal and we call it appropriation, demonstrated through usagebehavior (as per Fig. 1), which implies attitude toward reflection.

In order to understand VET apprentices’ acceptance and appropriation of a mobileand online learning journal that was designed to support reflection on workplaceexperience, the following research questions are addressed:

(1) How do apprentices make use of the mobile and online learning journal? How dothey appropriate the tool for learning? Which functions do they use the most or theleast?

(2) Which factors can be identified as influencing apprentices’ acceptance and use ofthe mobile and online learning journal?

Method

Sample and Context

The sample consisted of a class of 16 bakery and pastry cook apprentices (i.e., 11 boysand five girls, aged from about 15 to 19 years old) from the French speaking part ofSwitzerland. This class was under the responsibility of the schoolteacher that contrib-uted to the development of the mobile and online learning journal. This study is a pilotstudy preparing a national implementation of learning journals in bakery.

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 221

The creation of a recipe book containing at least 100 recipes over a period of 3 yearwas compulsory for the apprentices of this test class, but not the creation of a learningjournal as the study was carried out before the new ordinance. All participantsvolunteered to use the mobile and online learning journal.

Materials

The Mobile and Online Learning Journal Figure 2 presents the functions of themobile and online learning journal. An application allowing the recording ofdiscussions or oral comments was installed in the smartphone. The main appli-cation includes taking and uploading pictures (2.) to the online picture repository(3.) where they had to be classified (4.) as an illustration of the ideal result of arecipe in the recipe book (5.) or as a starting point for reflection in the learningjournal (6.). In the learning journal, three prompts (inspired by Kicken et al.2009) were used to guide apprentices’ reflection: “I already master…”, “I stillhave to learn…” and “I plan to improve or remedy my learning needs…”Apprentices were also prompted to assess their own global mastery of a recipeby indicating a rating from 0 to 100 %. A fourth prompt asked apprentices towrite a summary of relevant steps or tricky moments in the realisation process ofeach recipe (“In doing this recipe, I need to be careful about…”). Finally, theywere able to draw their supervisor’s attention to a particular part of the learningjournal or a recipe by means of notifications, for example by ticking a box toflag the selected recipe. Supervisors were asked to check and comment onapprentices’ recipes, evaluate their mastery of recipes, and remark answers toprompts as well as respond to notifications. The smartphone was provided free ofcharge, but the telephone and text message functions were blocked because thedevice was meant to be used only for the purpose of the project to understandVET apprentices’ acceptance and appropriation of a mobile and online learningjournal that was designed to support reflection on workplace experiences.

Fig. 2 The functionality of the mobile and online learning journal as a reflective tool

222 L. Mauroux et al.

Measures

The project employed a mixed method research design (Smith 2006). Such a designallowed the integration of different kinds of data, including indicators of mobile andonline learning journals’ uses. According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) thecentral premise of mixed method research is that “… the use of quantitative andqualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of researchproblems than either approach alone” (p. 5). Essentially, a mixed method is useful inrespecting all facets of realism (Smith 2006).

Indicators of Mobile and Online Learning Journal’s Use Indicators of apprentices’ useof mobile and online learning journal include: Number of recipes added to the recipebook, number of pictures taken but not attributed to a recipe or added in a learning journal(i.e., number of non-classified pictures), number of pictures classified, number of recipeswith any self-evaluation of the mastery of a recipe, number of recipes with answers toprompts, number of recipes with written summary, and number of notifications tosupervisors. For supervisors we recorded the number of recipes checked, number ofrecipes commented, number of recipes with evaluation of apprentices’ mastery of arecipe, number of recipes with any comments on prompts, number of recipes withcomments on summaries, and number of responses to apprentices’ notifications.

Individual Semi-Structured Interviews Apprentices’ intention to use, actual use andtheir opinion about the mobile and online learning journal were explored in interviewswhich included their perceptions of the use of the smartphone at the workplace, theusefulness of the smartphone app for taking pictures, use of the mobile and onlinelearning journal in general, and the kind of discussion they had with their supervisorswhile using the mobile and online learning journal.

Questionnaires Three questionnaires were developed, partly based on existing scales.The first questionnaire concerned self-reported measures of apprentices’ acceptance ofthe smartphone. It contained five scales. The first was the perceived ease of use scalefrom Davis (1989) (6 items). The second contained two items, created to measureapprentices’ perception of the suitability of the smartphone for the workplace: “I thinkit is possible to integrate the smartphone in the daily life of the bakery” and “thesmartphone is compatible with all aspects of my job”. The third scale was the perceivedusefulness of the smartphone to contact the supervisor or colleagues and the school-teacher. Two items were created: “The use of the smartphone enables me to be incontact with my supervisor / my colleagues more often than usual”, and “the use of thesmartphone enables me to be in contact with my schoolteacher more often than usual”.The fourth scale about the attitude towards using technologies was adapted from theUser Acceptance of Information Technology (UTAUT; (Venkatesh et al. 2003) (seeTable 4). And the fifth scale on the intention to use the smartphone contained one item,adapted from the UTAUT: “If I have access to the smartphone, I intend to use it”.

The second questionnaire concerned the acceptance of the mobile and onlinelearning journal as a whole. It is composed of three scales: The intention to use themobile and online learning journal adapted from Venkatesh et al. (2003) (1 item), theperceived ease of use scale (Davis 1989; 6 items), and the perceived usefulness of the

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 223

mobile and online learning journal scale (18 items). For this last scale, two subscaleswere created: Perceived usefulness of the mobile and online learning journal forlearning (12 items) and perceived usefulness of the mobile and online learning journalfor contacts with supervisors and colleagues (6 items) (see Table 5). All the items ofboth questionnaires were to be answered on seven point Likert scales, from “totallydisagree” (−3) to “totally agree” (+3).

In addition, a third questionnaire contained: Two items addressing apprentices’perception of their work environment (from “stressful” (−3) to “peaceful” (+3) and“bad working climate” (−3) to “good working climate” (+3)), one item about appren-tices’ motivation for the training (at all motivated (−3) to totally motivated (+3)) andtwo others items questioning apprentices’ attitude towards the use of the smartphone(with the app), the picture repository, the learning journal and the online recipe book.They used a seven point scale from not at all happy (−3) to totally happy (+3) and fromreluctant (−3) to enthusiast (+3) to respond to these items.

Procedure

In this longitudinal field study over 2 years (see Fig. 3) apprentices’ use of the mobileand online learning journal was studied from the beginning of the second year of trainingto the end of the third year. The mobile and online learning journal was introduced toapprentices and supervisors in a presentation organized for them at school. Afterwards,individual visits to bakeries were carried out to reiterate the relevance of creating alearning journal for apprentices’ learning and to explain the functions of the mobile andonline learning journal both for apprentices and supervisors, as well as what wasexpected of apprentices and supervisors in the use of the mobile and online learningjournal. Apprentices and supervisors were provided with a printed user guide of themobile and online learning journal. They were also required to sign a convention of use.

The indicators of the mobile and online learning journal’s use were computed once amonth until the end of the training period. The individual semi-structured interviewswith all apprentices lasted between 60 and 90 min. The acceptance questionnaire aboutthe smartphone at the workplace was given to apprentices at the end of the first year ofstudy. A questionnaire about the acceptance of the mobile and online learning journal asa whole was given 1 month later. The questionnaire about the apprentice’s perception ofthe work environment was given to apprentices at the end of the second year of training.

Data Analyses

Indicators of mobile and online learning journal’s use by apprentices were analysed tosee whether “types” or “families” can be found. As suggested by Huberman and Miles(1994), cases in a set were “inspected to see if they fall into clusters that share certainpatterns or configurations” (p. 436). They also provided information concerning theapprentices’ attitude toward reflection, as some of the mobile and online learningjournal functions are reflective (self-evaluation and answers to prompts) and someare not (documentation of the recipe book) depending on respective frequency of usage.

The interviews were audio-recorded and fully transcribed. In order to proceed to datareduction (Huberman and Miles 1994), all apprentices’ answers were coded. The

224 L. Mauroux et al.

coding scheme used existing categories developed from the literature, completed withnew categories emerging from the interview content following a mixed model ofcategorization as suggested by L’Écuyer (1990). Table 1 presents the final version ofthe coding scheme. Sub-categories were established following L’Écuyer’s (1990)principles of categorization, which allowed the emergence of variables influencingapprentices’ use of the mobile and online learning journal.

For the scales of the questionnaires, mean and standard deviations were calculated.Then, the influence of these variables on the use of the mobile and online learningjournal was tested either through Spearman’s correlations between the indicators ofmobile and online learning journal use and scales from the questionnaires, orestablished through links explicitly made by apprentices in the interviews.

To sum up, results extracted from the indicators of the mobile and online learningjournal use made it possible to answer the question: “What use do apprentices andsupervisors make of the functions of the mobile and online learning journal?” and thus,to observe the different kinds of uses. The questionnaires and the subsequent catego-rization analysis of the interviews enabled the identification of variables having aninfluence on apprentices’ acceptance and use of the mobile and online learning journal.

Results

Apprentices’ Use of the Mobile and Online Learning Journal

Table 2 provides the frequency of use of the various functions of the mobile and onlinelearning journal by apprentices. Column 1 contains the identification code for eachparticipant. Column 2 lists the number of recipes added by each participant and the rankingcompared with the whole sample. Column 3 indicates the number of pictures with ranks

Table 1 Description of the categories used to analyze the interview content

Categories Definitions

- Appropriation of the smartphone - All the difficulties apprentices mention in relation to theirappropriation of the smartphone at the workplace.

- Smartphone’s Motivational support - Everything apprentices say about the use of the smartphonein terms of motivation or reluctance.

- Acceptance of the smartphone / the MOLJ - Everything apprentices say about their acceptance of thesmartphone / the MOLJ: Its perceived ease of use, itsperceived usefulness, their intention to use it and thedifficulties encountered while using it.

- Attitude toward reflection - What apprentices say reflection on workplace experiencein the learning journal constitutes for them and howthey fill the LJ out.

Resistance to changes - How apprentices perceive the change from having nolearning journal or online recipe book to the MOLJ,when research started at the beginning of the secondyear of training.

Please note that we use the abbreviation: the “MOLJ” for the mobile and online learning journals in the tablesand figures

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 225

Tab

le2

Frequencyof

useof

thevariousfunctio

nsof

themobile

andonlin

elearning

journalby

theapprentices

andthemeanforeach

kind

ofuser

Apprentices

RecipeBook

Pictures

Reflectionpage

Num

berof

recipes

Ranks

Non-classified

pictures

Classifiedpictures

Totalnumber

ofpictures

Ranks

Self-evaluations

Answersto

prom

pts

Summaries

Notifications

Reflection

page

sum

Ranks

MF1

129

327

6087

310

91

121

7

MF2

127

41

01

1424

244

052

4

MF3

947

4133

745

299

11

405

MF4

106

541

1354

66

66

624

6

Mean

114.00

27.50

26.50

54.00

17.25

12.00

3.00

2.00

34.25

LJ1

679

4014

546

6412

427

125

1

LJ2

106

59

120

129

233

3231

197

2

LJ3

5311

00

016

2321

521

703

Mean

75.33

16.33

44.67

6140

21.67

269.67

97.33

P1135

10

8787

32

11

04

13

P2134

242

104

146

15

20

07

11

P348

1241

142

81

11

14

13

Mean

105.67

27.67

6491.67

2.67

1.33

0.67

0.33

5

L1

738

170

1710

20

00

215

L2

116

40

413

00

00

016

L3

5510

71

811

22

00

512

L4

814

41

512

33

11

98

L5

2513

10

114

33

12

98

L6

515

240

249

34

20

98

Mean

27.83

9.5

0.33

9.83

21.6

0.4

0.6

5

226 L. Mauroux et al.

and column 4 provides numeric details of the reflection page, ranked for the sample. Themean values for each sub-sample are also provided in each column. Indicators of appren-tices’ use of the mobile and online learning journal revealed that the recipe book was usedmore often than the learning journal. Globally, apprentices created 1,166 recipes(M=72.88, SD=47.58) and took 733 pictures (M=45.81, SD=47.30). From the picturestaken, 434 (M=27.13, SD=41.69) were classified; while 299 (M=18.69; SD=17.47)remained unclassified. Regarding the learning journal, apprentices assessed their masteryof 210 recipes (M=13.13, SD=17.47), answered 129 prompts (M=8.06, SD=9.62), wrote96 summaries (M=6, SD=12.21) and sent 92 notifications (M=6.13, SD=16.71) to theirsupervisors. But there are large differences between apprentices, as indicated by the highstandard deviations. When looking at the details of what apprentices did with the mobileand online learning journal (Table 2), four kinds of users can be identified in terms of theiruse of the three main functions of the mobile and online learning journal, that is, takingpictures, creating a recipe book, and reflecting in the learning journal.

The Multifunction Users Four participants (MF1, MF2, MF3 and MF4) used all mainfunctions of the mobile and online learning journal. Participants in this group did notshow a clear preference for any of these functions except for the number of recipes. Thisresult is not surprising, given that entering recipes was a compulsory task.

The Learning Journal Users Among the participants, only three (LJ1, LJ2 and LJ3)madean extensive use of the learning journal and of its prompts to post reflective comments,self-evaluate1 themselves, write summaries and/or send notifications to their supervisors.

The Pictures Takers Three other participants (P1, P2 and P3) made considerable use ofpictures and produced a large number of recipes, but they hardly used the learning journal.

The Low Users Finally, six participants (L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6) made little use ofany of the functions of the mobile and online learning journal, producing only half thenumber of recipes required for the final examinations, taking only few pictures andmaking almost no use of the learning journal.

Factors Identified as Influencing Apprentices’ Acceptance and Use of the Mobileand Online Learning journal

Analysis of the semi-structured interviews and of the answers to the questionnairesidentified three factors linked to apprentice’s use of the mobile and online learningjournal: Their interest in the use of a smartphone; acceptance of the mobile and onlinelearning journal; and their need for supervisor feedback. Interestingly, apprentices’opinions about the mobile and online learning journal frequently differ from their realuse, which is indicated by the type of user. For instance, an apprentice could say in theinterview that he thinks the reflection on workplace experiences is useful for learning,but show no evidence of doing this.

1 The self-evaluations concerns the evaluation of the global mastery of a recipe by rating on a scale from 0 to100 % (see the description of the mobile and online learning journal session).

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 227

Apprentices’ Interest in the Use of a Smartphone at Work Opinions about the perceivedease of smartphone use varied considerably as illustrated by the following examples.LJ2 said he had no time to use the smartphone and take pictures at work. On thecontrary MF2 said, “The smartphone is so easy to use, it’s a piece of cake, not like thoseold cellphones”. Globally it was considered easy to use (M=1.77; SD=1.20).

Concerning appropriation of the smartphone at the workplace, several reasons werementioned about difficulties with using in daily life at the workplace. LJ1 said: “Ilooked like I was not working”. P1 explained: “Pulling the smartphone out in themiddle of the job (was a bit odd) … But now people are used to it, me too… it wasreally only in the beginning”. MF1 was perturbed by the fact that the smartphone “isnot mine, I tend to overprotect stuff that's not mine.” This result is confirmed by thenegative mean value obtained for the items: “I think it is possible to integrate thesmartphone in the daily life of the bakery” (M=−1.07, SD=2.05), and “the smartphoneis compatible with all aspects of my job” (M=−.20, SD=1.74). High standard devia-tions, however, indicate the existence of divergence in the opinions within the sample.Some apprentices adopted uses of the smartphone at work that were not anticipated.LJ1 observed that “without the smartphone we would have to write the recipes by handand when we made a mistake we would have to throw the paper away and start again”.L4 provided another example, “You can call if you are late (but have to use your ownsim card”) and P3 recorded his supervisors’ negative feedback for further improvement.These examples point to the appropriation of the smartphone.

The perceived usefulness of smartphones was expressed by P1 for example, “As wecan do everything with a smartphone, it is maybe easier… you can put it in yourpocket, quickly use it, write something down, and rapidly take a picture…” L3 said,“It’s easy to take pictures and classify them instead of having to plug in a cable everytime; it is practical”, and L5 commented, «It is a bit smaller than a camera, so you cankeep it in your pocket…”. However, the questionnaires showed that the use ofsmartphone app to take pictures from the workplace did not provide more opportunitiesto get in contact with the supervisors and colleagues (M=−.140 SD=2.03), or with theschoolteacher (M=−1.73 SD=−1.53).

Using a smartphone gave “motivational support” to the use of the mobile andonline learning journal. P1 found it attractive, suggesting “It is quite tempting whenyou are given the latest trendy cellphone” P2 said: “It is interesting to see how it[smartphone] works “. For L2 it was repulsive, “With all the crap that exists, theiPhone has rapidly gone down hill”. On the scale of “attitudes towards usingtechnologies” the mean was neutral (M=.20, SD=1.61). Furthermore, low meanson single items showed that apprentices did not particularly consider the use of thesmartphone at the workplace as funny (M=0.27, SD=2.02) nor that it made thework interesting (M=0.13, SD=1.89). Instead, they did not really appreciate work-ing with it (M=−0.31, SD=1.89). But, they did think it was a good idea to use asmartphone (M=0.73, SD=2.25), although the standard deviations were high,indicating a divergence in opinions.

The intention to use the smartphone was mentioned in apprentices’ responses. Ittook a positive form for P3, “I want it (smartphone), I believe it is a good idea”. MF2was more negative, “The voice recording is not my stuff, I don’t like it. I have to listento myself (…) it’s a bit strange, not at all natural.” Nevertheless, the mean for thesample was quite high, and so was the standard deviation (M=1.26, SD=1.77).

228 L. Mauroux et al.

Apprentices’ Acceptance of the Mobile and Online Learning Journal During theinterviews, some apprentices said they did not intend to use the mobile and onlinelearning journal. MF2 blamed, “I’ve got everything I need, I just have to start” and evenLJ1 said, “I was not really motivated to visit the website at that time”. But the sample’smean on the intention to use the mobile and online learning journal was positive andquite high (M=1.53, SD=1.72).

Concerning the perceived ease of use of the mobile and online learning journal byapprentices, the suitability of the online recipe book was highlighted by P1: “It’s rapidand simple, you have all the necessary boxes, you just have to fill in the name and thequantity”. But also various difficulties were mentioned. L1 reported difficulties indeleting recipes and LJ3 complained, “I started to send pictures to the website, but itseemed overloaded, it took so long to open a folder, it was terrible!”

The measure of perceived ease of use of the mobile and online learning journal waspositive (M=1.17, SD=1.44) and showed a divergence in opinions indicated by a highstandard deviation. Positive significant correlations were found between the perceivedease of use of the mobile and online learning journal and the number of recipes written(rs=.43, p=.05). No significant correlations were found between the number ofdifficulties encountered in the use of the mobile and online learning journal and itsindicators of use (rs between -.24 and .42; p>.05).

Regarding the perceived usefulness of the mobile and online learning journal,reflection on workplace experiences in the learning journal was perceived as usefulfor learning by P3, “Writing the learning journal you can see you’ve madeprogress, it leaves a trace for later. It’s a bit of a cheat really, if you quickly readall the summaries before the exams that’ll help, provided you’ve done your workwell.” “If we are both stressed with a lot of work to do, we can quickly take apicture (to show the boss).” In the questionnaires, the average perceived usefulnessof the mobile and online learning journal was positive (M=.86, SD=1.44).Concerning the perceived usefulness of the mobile and online learning journalregarding contacts with supervisors and colleagues, apprentices mainly thought theinteractions with the supervisors remained the same as before the introduction ofthe mobile and online learning journal at the beginning of their second year oftraining of their class (M=2.31, SD=1.70). The trend is even negative concerningopportunities to create contacts with colleagues via the mobile and online learningjournal (M=−0.54, SD=2.07), as is the impact of the mobile and online learningjournal on the interactions with the supervisor (M=−0.69, SD=2.10). Negativesignificant correlations were found between the item “The interactions with mysupervisor since we use the mobile and online learning journal are the same asbefore” and the amount of self-evaluation (rs=−.52, p<.05), as well as with thenumber of answers to prompts (rs=−.58, p<.05).

When looking at apprentices representations and understanding of the learningjournal, an important observation is that the learning journal was seen as less usefulthan the compulsory recipe book. L1 said, “I’ve done nothing yet. So I’ll make a bigeffort to get the recipe book done, then I’ll do the same for the learning journal.” MF2explained, “He did not ask me for the website, but he told me to write the recipes atleast.” Poor representations and misunderstanding of what the learning journal was andhow to fill it out were observed. L3 said: “Can we put several pictures in one learningjournal page?” LJ2 asked, “Can we put pictures in the learning journal?”

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 229

Resistance to change was expressed by P1. “It’s going to require some getting usedto. But now they (colleagues) have got used to it, so I will too.” L1 commented, “I donot like change much… In fact, at the beginning I was really not willing to do that.”

The Necessity of Supervisors’ Participation and Feedback Analysis of the indicators ofmobile and online learning journal use demonstrated that the supervisors’ participationin the mobile and online learning journal and feedback to apprentices’ participation waslow (see Table 2). They checked 183 recipes (M=11.44, SD=24.94), commented on 58recipes (M=3.63, SD=8.22), evaluated apprentices’ mastery of recipes 143 times(M=8.94, SD=21.23), commented on 57 apprentices’ answers to prompts (M=3.56,SD=12.66), 36 apprentices summaries (M=2.40, SD=9.02), and responded 92 times tonotifications (M=6.13, SD=16.71).

The three members of the learning journal users group benefited from the highestsupport from their supervisors (see the supervisors’ indicators of mobile and onlinelearning journal use, Table 3). The learning journal users were also the group usingnotifications the most (see Table 2 on the indicators of apprentices’ mobile and onlinelearning journal use). A positive significant correlation was found between the numberof evaluations of apprentices’ mastery of recipes provided by supervisors and appren-tices’ satisfaction with the use of the mobile and online learning journal. More frequentevaluations of their mastery of recipes from their supervisors, made them happier(rs=.61, p<.05) and increased their enthusiasm about using the mobile and onlinelearning journal (rs=.51, p<.05).

Regarding the perception of the work environment, apprentices who assessed thework environment at the bakery as peaceful, provided fewer answers to prompts(rs=−.63, p<.001) or wrote fewer summaries (rs=−.51, p<.05). Finally, those whoreported a poor climate with colleagues, received more comments on the summaries(rs=−.49, p<.05) from supervisors.

Summary

Learning journals are known to be efficient in supporting self-regulated learning, meta-cognition, learning strategies, reflection and learning outcomes in academic contexts. Thecurrent study investigated an online learning journal in a VET context and addressed thequestions: What use do apprentices make of an online learning journal designed tosupport reflection on workplace experiences and which factors can be identified asinfluencing apprentices’ acceptance and use of the mobile and online learning journal?

Apprentices’ appeared to mostly use the functions linked to the creation of the recipebook. This finding seems logical because the realization of a recipe book was compul-sory, while the learning journal was only recommended. A closer look showed that theself-assessment of the mastery of a recipe, which is the least reflective function of thelearning journal, was most frequently used by apprentices. The first three prompts,which gave more guidance than writing summaries, were also used frequently byapprentices. The reflective functions of the learning journal were less frequently used.

Four kinds of users emerged from the analysis of indicators of mobile and onlinelearning journal use: The multifunction users, the picture takers, the learning journal

230 L. Mauroux et al.

Tab

le3

Frequencyof

useof

thevariousfunctio

nsof

themobile

andonlin

elearning

journalby

thesupervisor

ofeach

apprentice

Supervisorsof:

RecipeBook

Reflectionpage

Num

berof

recipes

controlled

Num

berof

recipes

commented

Recipebook

sum

Evaluationof

mastery

ofrecipes

Com

mentson

prom

pts

Com

mentson

summaries

Answerson

notifications

Reflection

page

sum

MF1

00

00

00

00

MF2

00

00

00

00

MF3

12

31

11

03

MF4

123

01

00

01

Mean

3.25

1.25

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.25

01

LJ1

6133

9459

5135

57202

LJ2

862

8866

20

35103

LJ3

97

160

10

01

Mean

52.00

14.00

66.00

41.67

1811.67

30.67

102

P10

00

00

00

0

P28

08

141

00

15

P30

00

00

00

0

Mean

2.67

0.00

2.67

4.67

0.33

0.00

0.00

5.00

L1

48

121

00

01

L2

00

00

00

00

L3

10

10

00

00

L4

11

20

00

00

L5

02

21

10

02

L6

00

00

00

00

Mean

1.00

1.83

2.83

0.33

0.17

0.00

0.00

0.50

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 231

users, and the low users (who made little use of any of the functions of the mobile andonline learning journal).

Three factors were found to influence apprentices’ acceptance and use of the mobileand online learning journal. The first was their interest in the use of a smartphone withan app for taking pictures. Students’ opinions regarding the suitability of smartphonesfor the workplace were varied. They were globally rated as easy to use, althoughdifficulties were reported regarding the appropriation of an everyday tool in theworkplace, which is in line with the findings of Pachler et al. (2010). However, thisphenomenon was present mostly at the beginning of the study and disappeared whenapprentices became accustomed to using smartphone at the workplace. Also, the use ofthe smartphone required time and necessitated stopping current activities to takepictures. Yet, it was perceived to be easy to use because it facilitates the taking,transferring, storing and classifying of pictures. The motivational support providedby the smartphone was variable, taking a positive or negative form, in line with thetheory of Pachler et al. (2010). Working with a smartphone was not considered funny,and did not particularly render work interesting, but apprentices globally thought it wasa good idea. They were mostly willing to use the smartphone.

The second factor concerned apprentices’ acceptance of the mobile and onlinelearning journal to reflect on workplace experiences. They predominantly intended touse the mobile and online learning journal. The more apprentices perceived the mobileand online learning journal as easy to use, the more they used it to produce recipes. Thispattern aligns with Davis (1989) TAM model. The mobile and online learning journalwas perceived as useful, with the online recipe book rated as convenient and rapid.Reflecting on workplace experiences by means of answers to prompts stimulating theuse of specific learning strategies was also assessed as useful for learning although thelearning journal was not used as frequently as the recipe book. Apprentices who didmost self-assessment and answered prompts, also experienced changes in contacts withsupervisors since the introduction of the mobile and online learning journal. So, the useof the mobile and online learning journal had the biggest impact on apprentices’experiences in contacts with supervisors when they used the reflective functions.

The third factor was the need for participation and feedback from supervisors.Learning journal type of users received most support and participation from supervisorsin the use of the mobile and online learning journal. This finding is in accordance withthe principle that feedback to students’ initial reflections intensifies reflective activities(Driessen et al. 2005; Kicken et al. 2009; Van den Boom et al. 2007). This was truealthough the supervisors’ feedback concerned not only the realization of the learningjournal, but also the recipe book. The highest level of interaction between apprenticesand supervisors via the notification function was found in learning journal users.Apprentices’ happiness and enthusiasm to use the mobile and online learning journalwas linked to the number of evaluations of their mastery of recipes received fromsupervisors. In other words, the supervisors’ feedback through the mobile and onlinelearning journal contributed to apprentices’ acceptance and use of it. Furthermore,when apprentices assessed the work environment as supportive, they gave feweranswers to prompts and wrote fewer summaries. It seems that where the work envi-ronment was rated as peaceful, apprentices were less stimulated to use the mobile andonline learning journal. Finally, the amount of supervisors’ feedback on apprentice’ssummaries seemed to be greater when the climate with colleagues was appraised as

232 L. Mauroux et al.

poor. In bakeries where apprentices’ interactions with colleagues are less possible, due,amongst other things, to the work climate, supervisors need to provide more support toapprentices. The mobile and online learning journal could then provide supervisorswith an additional tool to support apprentices by means of feedback.

Implications and Interpretations of the Results for VET

A first implication of this study is that the stimulation of apprentices’ reflection onworkplace experiences still seems to be challenging. This is to be expected given thatapprentices are neither used to reflecting on workplace experiences nor to writing.However, reflective practice is feasible under certain conditions. For example, guidanceand support, as well as feedback from supervisors are essential to enhance apprentices’engagement in reflective activities. In the mobile and online learning journal, guidanceof apprentices’ reflection on workplace experiences was made possible by answeringprompts. We could imagine alternatives to the writing activities, made possible bytaking pictures and using voice recordings. Indeed, in this study taking pictures was asource of reflection for two reasons. Taking pictures of workplace experiences requiredapprentices’ reflection and the pictures themselves helped realize if a mistake had beenmade or served as a support for discussions with colleagues of supervisors.

A second implication concerns the need for strong guidance and feedback fromsupervisors about apprentices’ reflection. The mobile and online learning journal gavesupervisors an opportunity to globally assess apprentices’mastery of recipes and providecomments on their learning experiences. On the other hand, apprentices could attract theirsupervisors’ attention and request feedback on a particular learning journal page usingnotifications. Apprentices who frequently used the reflective functions of the mobile andonline learning journal, i.e. evaluated their mastery of the recipe within the learningjournal and/or answered the prompts presented, benefited most if they needed theirsupervisors’ feedback. At a meta-level, concerning the VET apprentices’ attitude towardreflection, we can conclude that reflection on workplace experiences by answeringprompts does not seems to be attractive, but when carried out in dialoguewith supervisorsfrom the workplace, it becomes more interesting and apprentices tend to then reflect.

A third implication is the relevance of the mobile and online learning journal relatesto the factors influencing apprentices’ acceptance and use of the mobile and onlinelearning journal. Inspired by Davis (1989) TAM model which was further developed,several variables influencing both the user’s intention to use, as well as actual usagewere included. In addition to the perceived usefulness and ease of use, we foundevidence for the significance of the concepts we introduced for the mobile and onlinelearning journal acceptance. These included the attitude and motivation toward usingtechnologies, responses to change, perception of the work environment, supervisor’ssupport and feedback, and finally the attitude toward reflection. In our opinion, onevariable is still missing from that model; one that would enable us to understand theemergence of the four kinds of users of the mobile and online learning journal. Such avariable could be linked to apprentices’ cognitive styles or “the way people perceivestimuli and how they use that information to guide their behavior (i.e., thinking, feeling,actions)” (Cools and Van den Broeck 2007, p. 360). Along this line of thinking, adistinction had been made between an analytic style versus an intuitive cognitive style

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 233

which has in turn been further developed by splitting the analytic style into a knowingstyle and a planning style (Cools and Van den Broeck 2007). The compatibility ofapprentices’ cognitive styles or disposition to reflection and use of learning journals toreflect on workplace experiences should be the subject of further research.

A fourth implication concerns the question as to whether summative assessment oflearning journals in VET would stimulate usage or not. The risk, in using learningjournals as an assessment tool, is that learners would avoid documenting mistakes,making the learning journal demonstrate competences rather than stimulating reflectionon experiences. In this study, the learning journals were not assessed, but were still usedby a majority of the sample. This research shows that the use of reflective onlinelearning journals in VET, without the incentive of marks, is relevant and feasible.

A methodological implication is that mixed method research, applied in this studyby combining indicators of mobile and online learning journal’s use, self-reportedmeasures collected by questionnaires and apprentices’ representations of the mobileand online learning journal gathered by interviews permitted to realize contradictionsbetween apprentices’ intention to use the mobile and online learning journal and theactual use made, and thus, to apprehend the complexity of the studied phenomenon.

A limitation of the current study is the small number of participants. Appliedresearch is often managed with small sample, but the fact that participants used thetool during 2 years throughout their training and not simply for an experiment addsvalue to our results. Also, from a methodological point of view, the small sample sizepermitted to interview all participants and to ask them about their perceptions of the useof the smartphone at the workplace, its usefulness and their perception of the wholemobile and online learning journal. This would not have been possible with a largersample. The present research was a pilot study, which served as a basis for a nation-wide implementation of the mobile and online learning journal in the training of bakeryand pastry cook apprentices (http://www.learndoc.ch/home/index.php). This largerstudy will allow the testing of the main results reported in this paper. Additionally, itwould be interesting to study gender differences concerning the acceptance and use ofsuch online learning journals as the mobile and online learning journal.

There were limitations with the time frame. The fact that the acceptance question-naires were completed after 1 year of use permitted us to react and adapt the mobile andonline learning journal to their needs. On the other hand, apprentices’ representationscould have evolved by the end of the second year of mobile and online learning journaluse. In addition, the interviews were scheduled during the summertime between thefirst and second year of use of the mobile and online learning journal, so they provideda chance to answer apprentices’ and supervisors’ questions and to motivate them to useit. However, the four kinds of use of the mobile and online learning journal were notclearly apparent at that time and only a few apprentices had already started to use thelearning journal. This might explain the observed gap between apprentices’ intention touse the mobile and online learning journal and the actual use they made of it.

For an Efficient Use of Online Learning Journals in VET

This study has shown that a mobile and online learning journal, designed for appren-tices to reflect on workplace experiences on the basis of pictures taken with a

234 L. Mauroux et al.

smartphone app and to create a recipe book, can be accepted and used by apprenticesand supervisors. The most determining factors for the acceptance of the mobile andonline learning journal were apprentices’ interest in the use of a smartphone at theworkplace, their acceptance to reflect on workplace experiences, and the supervisors’participation and provision of feedback. Without the supervisors’ contributions, ap-prentices were more tempted to use the non-reflective functions of the mobile andonline learning journal. Thus, apprentices’ reflection on workplace experiences needsstrong guidance provided not only by the design of the learning journal with promptsand notifications, but also by supervisors’ support and feedback. The mobile and onlinelearning journal constitutes an additional way for apprentices and supervisors to seek orrespectively give feedback. Consequently, for future effective use of learning journal inVET, we recommend emphasizing the dialogue between supervisors and apprenticesabout the content of the learning journals. This dialogue should focus on apprentices’reflection and encourage the development of an awareness of their learning process.Discussion about the learning journals should be planned regularly in order to maintainapprentices’ motivation and to thoroughly integrate the use of the mobile and onlinelearning journal in their training rather than having them perceive it as something apart.

Acknowledgments This study was conducted in the framework of a leading House called “Technologies forVocational Training”. Project supported by the SERI (http://www.sbfi.admin.ch/berufsbildung/01528/01529/01535/index.html?lang=en).

Appendices

Table 5 Questionnaire items created to measure usefulness of the mobile and online learning journal forlearning as perceived by apprentices as well as their perception of the usefulness of the mobile and onlinelearning journal to contact their supervisors

Perceived usefulness of the MOLJ Items used in the smartphone / MOLJ questionnaire

For learning The MOLJ helps me capture and document workplace experiences.

The MOLJ helps me reflect on my learning process.

The MOLJ helps me remember what I learned at work.

The MOLJ helps me recognize and memorize my mistakes.

The MOLJ helps me understand what I have to be carefulabout for some tasks.

Table 4 Questionnaire items used to measure apprentices’ “attitudes towards using technologies” in thesmartphone/mobile and online learning journal acceptance questionnaires

Scale Items used in the smartphone / MOLJ questionnaire

Attitudes towards using technologies Using the smartphone/MOLJ is a bad idea.

The smartphone/MOLJ makes the work interesting.

Working with the smartphone/MOLJ is fun.

I like working with the smartphone/MOLJ.

Adapted from the UTAUT (Viswanath Venkatesh et al. 2003)

Mobile and Online Learning Journal: Effects on Apprentices’ Reflection 235

Table 5 (continued)

Perceived usefulness of the MOLJ Items used in the smartphone / MOLJ questionnaire

The MOLJ helps me have an overview of what I currently master.

The MOLJ helps me evaluate the current state of my learningand the progress in my work.

The MOLJ helps me contribute to decisions about contentfor my training.

The MOLJ helps me learn from my mistakes and to improve myself.

The MOLJ helps me make links between my different professionalexperiences at work.

The MOLJ helps me understand the different steps in a recipe.

The MOLJ helps me recognize links between what I learnat school and at work.

About the contacts with thesupervisors and colleagues

The interactions with my supervisors since we use theMOLJ remains the same as before.

The MOLJ had positively influenced my interactionswith my supervisor.

The MOLJ helped me show and discuss my experiences atwork with my supervisor.

The MOLJ has improved how my supervisor gives me feedback(about my tasks, progress, recipe book, etc.)

The possibility to receive online comments from my supervisor is useful.

The MOLJ helps me discuss my learning experiences with colleagues.

Fig. 3 Data collection over 2 years

236 L. Mauroux et al.

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Laetitia Mauroux is a PhD student, at the Department of Education, University of Fribourg, Rue de Faucigny2, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland. She did her PhD in the context of the DUAL-T Leading House called“Technologies for Vocational Training” with a particular interest in the use of Learning Journals to supportlearning strategies and self-regulated learning in vocational education and training.

Karen D. Könings, PhD is Assistant Professor at the Department of Educational Development and Research,Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, the Netherlands. She conducts researchon the role of student expectations and perceptions of education, the effectiveness of blended learning, andparticipatory instructional design as a way to better account for students’ perspectives.

Jessica Dehler Zufferey, PhD is a Scientist at the Computer-Human Interaction Lab for Learning andInstruction, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland. Her research focuses on the potential of technology-enhancedlearning for diverse educational contexts, from vocational to higher education, including various technologicalsettings, from mobile learning over computer-mediated knowledge communication to tangible tabletops.

Jean-Luc Gurtner, PhD is professor of education and educational psychology at the University of Fribourg,Switzerland. He is a member of the direction of the DUAL-T Project, a nationwide joint project aimed atdesigning and experimenting original uses of technologies in vocational education and training. Selectedtopics of interest: Adolescent motivation for learning in and out of school, metacognition and self-regulatedlearning, direct versus mediated communication.

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