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Modern India

Q.The British Education Policy endorsed and supporteddifferentiationinIndiansociety.Elaborate.

Model Answer

TheMacaulayMinute

The Macaulay Minute, 1835, set the tone for British education policy in India. Before 1835, English was studied only as a language, not as a me-dium of modern education.

The major feature of the new education policy was the “Theory of Downward Filtration”. It was not meant for the masses, but for the rich

and learned who had literary tradi-tion, eagerness, as well as means to be trained as an Englishman. Through these trained men, modern elemen-tary education could percolate in ver-nacular medium at low cost.

Recommendations to improve ver-nacular education system were ignored on grounds of viability and expendi-ture. The modern policy was extended to Bombay & Madras Presidency.

DivisionofLabour

The whole education policy of the British rested on the idea of division of labour. The aim was to develop a small section of highly educated Indians as the cog of the administration wheel, while the majority of the Indian population should have a working knowledge of English, which was adequate to take orders and instructions from British officers. The vast majority would thus become good workers, who would help the Empire exploit local resources and also become consumers of the fin-ished goods.

Creation of universities in Calcutta, Bombay & Madras on the lines of University of London was another testimony to the fact that higher education was meant for elites in the cities. Attempts to bridge the dual-ity of education system – Higher English literary education for a few & elementary education for masses – failed when the recommendations of Indian Education Commission, 1882 to grant special funds for the education of backward communities was put in cold storage.

Key Points of the Policy

• Macaulay Minute, 1835 – downward filtration

• Aimed at upper, elite class

• Restricted access to masses

• Limited funds

CasteDiscrimination

Dalits or untouchables had negligible access to state schools, as it would antagonise the upper caste pupils. The British bureaucracy, with ele-ments of newly inducted high caste Indians as grass root functionaries, actively supported such exclusions.

Q.British policy in India in the 19th century began asa ‘policy of Orientalism’ and culminated in a ‘policy ofAnglicization’.Comment:

Model Answer

Introduction

Initially, the British policy was of non-intervention in social matters of India. The continuation of the existing system was in consonance with a broad political pragmatism.

WarrenHastings’PolicyofOrientalism

Warren Hastings’s policy of Orientalism emanated from the respect that some Europeans had for Indian culture. This was evident when Asiatic

Society of Bengal, Calcutta Madrasa and the Sanskrit College of Banaras were established.

The departure of Hastings paved the way for the entry of dif-ferent Europeans ideologies that was in favour of social engineer-ing and authoritarian reforms.

Gradually, the notion that tra-ditional Indian knowledge, ide-ologies and religious rituals are outdated and primitive, strength-ened. These factors became an ex-

cuse for Christian missionaries to work actively, especially among tribal and underdeveloped areas, sometimes even to the agony of the officials.

But the major factor that drove English to reform Indian society was economic factors. Government intervention was necessary to ensure free trade in India. It was not possible without breaking the traditional shackles.

Key Points of British Policy

• Warren Hastings – Policy of Orientalism.

• Orientalism – respect for indigenous knowledge

• Role of Missionaries• Indian reformers & their

quest of change• Bentinck (1828) and

Macaulay (1835)

4 200 Quality Questions with Model Answers

EducationasaMediumofChange

The British learnt from their own experience that education is the best vehicle that will bring about change and can be effectively introduced into an intellectually starved Indian society. But it was not possible with-out the support of the locals.

Introduction of English education in India created a class of educat-ed Indians who vehemently supported reforms in the Indian society. Major Indian reformists were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Henry Vivian Derezio etc.

With the appointment of William Bentinck as Governor General in 1828, and later. Macaulay’s Minute on Indian education, the apolo-getic reform mission of Indian masses reached its zenith. Anglicization was partly a need of the British for running low cost administration as well a creating a market for English goods. It was also partly the demand of Indian intellectuals who thought it to be the vanguard of change. However, it should be maintained that Indian reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy, were supporters of modernity, not in favour of complete Anglicization of Indians.

Q.TheBritisheducationalsystemserveddifferentpurposesforvarioussectionsofpeopleamongtheBritishaswellasIndians.Doyouagree?

Model Answer

EducationasaTooltoGovern

Various motives, some overt, many covert, played an instrumental role in the introduction of English education in India. It also helped in its sustained expansion.

First and foremost, the com-pany viewed its education policy as a tool that would help them reduce the cost of governing a country as vast and diverse as India. English education would prepare natives to man subor-dinate positions in administra-tion.

Key Points regarding the Purpose of British Educational System

• Company – administrators• Utilitarian – British

imperialism• Traders – market• Missionaries – proselytisation• Indians – economic &

intellectual gains

Model India 5

FurtheringtheCauseofImperialism

For utilitarians, it was a method to fulfill their moral duty to impart education to natives that would accelerate the mission of British imperi-alism. For traders, modern education would create a class of people who would develop a taste for English goods and would consume them. This class was destined to grow, as large scale upward social mobility offered by the new education policy, resulted in better economic opportunities. For missionaries, who have been severely critical of Indian religions and rituals and accused it of being plagued by superstitions, idolatry and tyranny of priests, this policy gave an excuse for proselytisation.

Among Indians, the upper caste Hindus from middle and lower in-come were most fascinated by the English education. For them, educa-tion has functional utility and they considered it as a tool for climbing up the social and economic ladder.

For a few Indian intellectuals, this education was a route to enlight-ened rationalism or modernity, which helped them initiate debates to reform society and attack the government.

Q.Reformingsocietythroughlegislationsseldomyieldedthedesiredresults.CriticallycommentonthisinthelightofseveralActspassedbytheBritishgovernmentinthe19thcentury.Alsoexamineitsimplications.

Model Answer

ReformsThroughFiats

The reformist agenda of the British was confined to a few English edu-cated elite. To make the reform programme a success, government fiat

was used. But it failed to change the ground reality and largely remained on paper. This approach was top to down approach, similar to educa-tion policy of downward filtration. There was no effort to reach out to masses to develop modern social consciousness.

Even after the ban of child sacri-fice at Sagar Island in Bay of Bengal in 1803 by Lord Wellesley, less overt practices of female infanticide re-

Key Points of the Legislations

• Top down approach• No effort to develop social

consciousness• No social consent• Limited to urban areas• Lack of political

& administrative commitment.


mained rampant in western and northern India. Even the ‘Female Infanticide Act, 1870’ had little impact on such practices. Similarly, Lord Bentinck abolished Sati in 1829. Also, the Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act of 1856 was enacted legalising widow remarriage. Incidence of sati declined over time, but widow remarriage could hardly take off. In Maharashtra, despite valiant efforts by Pandita Ramabai, only thirty-eight widows could be remarried by the end of the century.

The legislation failed, as it was conservative in nature. The widow, on remarriage, had to disinherit the property of her deceased husband. Also, social reformers like Vidyasagar could not garner adequate social consent. Census data showed that even the raising of age for marriage by “Age of Consent Act, 1960” could not dent the practice of child mar-riage.

ResistancetoReformsfromReligiousGroups

Reforms that were targeted at specified religious and social practices re-mained ineffective. It was because the religious groups took these legis-lations as an attack on their religion. The British Government also did not want to meddle with norms and values of society to an extent that it antagonised the people. They avoided any policy, which would pose a hurdle to their economic interests. Therefore the legislations served the dual purpose of pleasing the reformists without causing discomfort to the masses.

Q.If19thcenturyisthecenturyofIndianRenaissance,thenRaja Rammohun Roy can easily be called the Father ofIndianRenaissance.Comment.

Model Answer

VedasandUpanishadsasInspiration

The 19th century is a watershed in India’s social and cultural history, es-pecially with regard to the socio-re-ligious changes it witnessed. English educated reform oriented Indians were determined to bring about change in the Indian culture, society and reli-gion. They sought inspiration from the Vedas and the Upanishads and derived rationality from western scientific

Key points of IndianRenaissance

• Spirit of Vedas and rationality of west

• Attack on evils in Hinduism

• Rammohun Roy as reformist, educationist, etc

• Abolition of sati

Model India 7

thoughts. Leaders like Raja Rammohun Roy, Debendranath Tagore, Keshav Chandra Sen, M.G Ranade, Swami Dayanand Saraswathi, Swami Vivekananda and a host of others set out to reform Hindu religion and society. They vehemently condemned evils such as caste system, sati, child marriage, untouchability, idol worship, polytheism that harmed the image of Hinduism

The aim was to cleanse the religion from its impurity so that its pris-tine form can be restored. The movement towards this goal can be called “the Indian Renaissance” which prepared the ground for later day na-tionalism and freedom struggle.

RoleofRajaRammohunRoy

Raja Rammohun Roy was the torchbearer of this cultural awakening. He was a patriot, scholar, intellectual and humanist .He was moved by the plight of the women due to Sati and successfully struggled to enact a law to abolish it. He also worked against polygamy, child marriage, fe-male infanticide and caste discrimination. He advocated modern west-ern scientific education for spread of modern ideas in the country. He established a Vedanta College where both Indian learning and Western social and physical science courses were taught.

The poet Rabindranath Tagore has rightly remarked: “Rammohun was the only person in his time, in the whole world of men, to realise completely the significance of the Modern Age.

Q.The contribution of Ramakrishna in the furtherance ofHinduismisunparalleled.HowcontrastingishisHinduismfromcontemporaryHindutva?

Model Answer

Introduction

Ramakrishna was born in 1836 in a village near Calcutta. Since early days he was disciplined towards formal education and worldly affairs. He took keen interest in the spiritual aspect of religion.

After the death of his brother, he became the main priest of Dakhineswar Kali Temple which was built by Rani Rasmani in 1855.

ContributiontoHinduismandhisLegacy

He broke the conventional frontiers of Hinduism and opened up to oth-er faiths like Christianity and Islam. He taught the lesson of being re-spectful to all faiths and said “Yato Mat, Tato path” (As many faiths, that


many paths). His teachings influenced the leaders of Brahmo Samaj, and Dakhineswar became a veritable parliament of religions.

In the late 19th century, when Hinduism was under attack by Christian missionaries, Ramakrishna and later his organization Ramakrishna Mission highlighted the inherent modernity and progressiveness of the Hindu religion. The organisation worked for a broad social agenda and fought for causes such as women’s education and untouchability. He was committed to eliminate social evils from Hinduism, a struggle that was carried forward by his disciple Vivekananda.

ContrastbetweenHinduismandHindutva

The religious teachings of Ramakrishna were based on the premise that all religions are same; they all lead to same path and therefore needed to be venerated equally without discrimination. However, contemporary Hindutva ideology had its genesis in the 1940s, which gained political currency after partition of India. The followers of such an ideology tried to establish the supremacy of their religion over others. The methods adopted are at times unconstitutional and violent.

Such interpretation of religion is in sharp contrast to the religious teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa whose fundamental teaching was of communal harmony and peace.

Q.Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi were religiousyetsecular.Aretheirteachingsandphilosophiesrelevanttoday? Also, bring the similarity and contrast betweentheirideas.

Model Answer

Introduction

In his famous speech at Chicago, Swami Vivekananda introduced to the world the ingrained essence of tolerance and universalism in Hinduism. His teachings set the tone of nationalistic fervour among many Indian leaders including Mahatma Gandhi. By Gandhi’s own admission, Vivekananda’s influence increased his love for the country a thousand fold and his whole life was an effort to practice the ideas of Vivekananda.

RelevanceoftheirTeachings

Vivekananda clearly emphasised the balance between material and spiritual life. He fiercely condemned social practices like untouchability

Model India 9


and once said that our religion has become “touch me notist” and is confined to the kitchen. The cause for eradication of untouchability was also very dear to Gandhi and he waged a life long struggle to root it out. He coined a new term “Harijan” to address the so-called ‘untouchables’.

Vivekananda did not believe in some aspects of religion and culture such as idol worship or polytheism. He was more concerned with ac-tion related to service towards mankind. Both Gandhi and Vivekananda identified themselves with the poorest and downtrodden people of the society. Service to them meant service to God.

Such noble ideals present an example for the younger generation to desist from the fallacy of ritualistic religion and instead work for social equality and human welfare. They believed that true liberation of the soul lay in service of mankind.

ContrastbetweenVivekanandaandGandhi

Vivekananda was a religious leader and the declared successor of Sri Ramakrishna – the great saint of Bengal. Gandhi on other hand took to politics at the age of twenty-four, and for the next fifty years, led strug-gles against racism and imperialism. Vivekananda outrightly rejected politics, while for Gandhi religion was inseparable from politics. But despite these differences, they both could respond to western influences with judicious discrimination, imbibing what was life-giving and reject-ing what was injurious.

Q.GiveanaccountoftheevolutionofeducationpolicyunderBritishsinceearlydaysto1947.

Model Answer

TheBeginning

The very early policy of East India Company under Warren Hastings was of orientalism. His policy was to use local scriptures written in

Sanskrit and Persian for ease of governance. It resulted in the estab-lishment of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta Madrasa and the Sanskrit College in Banaras. Hastings’ policy was to govern the natives in their own language and these institutions were the centres

Key Points

• Charter Act 1813• Macaulay Minute, 1835• Wood’s Despatch, 1854• Hunter Commission, 1882• Wardha Scheme, 1937

Model India 11

to learn the vernacular language. Charter Act 1793 could not be imple-mented due to fear of political unrest.

CharterAct1813

It was in the true sense the beginning of Western education in India. Earlier, a few missionaries like Protestant Missionaries at Danish Station, Madras were active. This Act not only officially allowed Christian Missionaries to come to India but also sanctioned one lakh rupees per year for imparting modern science education. This amount was put on hold till 1823. Later with the efforts of Raja Rammohun Roy, Sanskrit College in Calcutta and Orientalist College in Delhi and Agra were es-tablished.

LordMacaulayMinute,1835

It became the blue print of English education in India and tilted the bal-ance in favour of Anglicists. The dissemination of European literature and sciences through the medium of English language was advocated. Mass education was neglected in favour of downward filtration theory.

Wood’sDespatch,1854

It is considered the “Magna Carta of Western Education in India”. It envisaged a shift from downward filtration theory. It recommended the extension of vernacular elementary education and asked government to take responsibility of mass education, which was endorsed by Dalhousie’s administration. Three universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were opened in 1857. An agriculture college at Pusa and an engineering Institute at Roorkee was started.

IndiaEducationCommission(HunterCommission),1882-83

It made an unsuccessful attempt to resolve the duality in the education system by seeking to bridge the gap between an English education for a few and elementary and free education for the masses. It also recom-mended special fund for the education of backward communities.

WardhaSchemeofBasicEducation,1937

A Committee under Zakhir Hussain formulated a national scheme for basic education. The idea was to teach children through activity as as-pired by Gandhi in his writings in Harijan.


Q.Thesocio-religiousreformsdidnotconfineitselftoBengal.It touched other parts of India including western Indiawhereitwasequallyinfluentialandevenmoreinclusive.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

The torch of reforms first lit in Bengal was taken over, and made even brighter, in Maharashtra, which in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was the epicentre of reformist and radical thinking in India. The perni-

cious practice of ‘untouchability’ was attacked from below by Jyotirao Phule and from the top by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Approach

Reformism began in two differ-ent ways. One was the Orientalist method of exploring and translat-ing texts and rediscovering in them the glories of Indian civilisation. Major torch-bearers of such ap-proach were RG Bhandarkar, KT Telang etc. Another attitude was more confrontationist and with di-

rect attack on institutions such as caste system, untouchability, ban on widow remarriage etc.

Inclusiveness

Maharashtra also gave birth to India’s first home-grown feminists, such as Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai, who wrote searing texts against patriarchal practices and motivated young girls to emancipate them-selves through modern education.

Jyotirao Phule, the first prominent dalit reformer founded Satyashodhak Samaj at Poona in 1872. He fought for the cause of un-touchability, social discrimination of dalits, temple entry etc.

Organisations

Paramhansa Mandali was founded on the lines of Derozians in Bengal. Frequent visits of Keshub Chandra Sen to Bombay led to emergence of

Key Points

• Approaches – Orientalists, radicals, moderate reformers

• Reformers: MG Ranade, JyotirauPhule. Pantulu

• Feminists: Tarabai, Ramabai

• Paramhansa mandala, PrarthanaSamaj

• Mix of modernisation with culture

Model India 13

Prarthana Samaj in 1967. Though founded by Atamaram Pandurang, the real spirit behind it was MG Ranade. It preached monotheism, de-nounced idolatry, priestly domination and caste domination.

In Telugu speaking areas of Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu who founded Society for Social Reform in 1878 started widow remarriage movement.

Influence

Radical organisations such as Paramhansa Mandali had very limited impact. Prarthana Samaj had cautious approach to reforms. It did not seek to break with the past and cease all connections with society, as Ranade pointed out. They tried to bring gradual change in the society with modernisation accommodated with tradition. This made it accept-able to a large section of the society including the Madras Presidency.

Q.CriticallyevaluatethecontributionofDayanandSaraswatitothereformmovementofthe19thcentury.

Model Answer

Introduction

Dayanand Saraswati’s Aryan ideology stirred a new debate within the reformist movement in India. It made the masses culturally conscious. However, it is also criticised for its cultural chauvinism than reformism.

He gave primacy to Rigveda and Upanishads.

Contribution

He founded Arya Samaj in Bombay in 1875 and invoked the authority of Vedas as the most authentic Indian religious reforms and sought to purge Hinduism of all its post-Vedic accre-tions. Using the authority of Vedas, he attacked idolatry, polytheism, and ritualistic religions. His aim was to free

Hinduism from the clutches of the priests and put an end to irrational and costly rituals.

He also denounced untouchability and rejected caste system. In the temples, he started performing marriages, mostly inter-caste, based on

Key Points

• Cultural consciousness to cultural chauvinism

• Attacked idolatry and priest class.

• Influence in north west region

• Revivalist nature of the movement


Vedic traditions. He also focused on the issues of women, condemned the practice of sati and sought respectable position for women.

Influence

Due to its aggressive nature, his reformism failed to impress the ortho-dox Hindus and remained marginal in eastern and western India. But it had wider acceptance in Punjab and the north-western provinces. After his death in 1883, moderates among his disciples led by Lala Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai chose to focus on education and community work. They founded DAV schools and colleges first at Lahore in 1887, and then in other parts of India.

Another group that was militant in its approach started preaching the religion of Vedas, attacking Muslims and initiating Shuddhi or re-conversion. Orthodox Hindus led by Swami Shraddhanand founded Gurukul at Kangri, Haridwar in 1902.

Criticism

Dayanand Saraswati tried to project Hinduism as a ‘religion of book’ like Christianity and Islam, and prepared the grounds for reconversion of those lost to these proselytizing religions. The cow protection move-ments in 1890s changed the nature of movement from reformist to re-vivalist. Though he condemned the caste system, he upheld the four-fold Varna division.

Q.Critically examine the factors which limited the spreadandinfluenceofthesocio-religiousreformmovementsofthenineteenthcentury.

Model Answer

ElitistReformMovements

These movements were elitist in nature and were confined to a small social group who were the economic and cultural beneficiaries of the colonial rule. In Bengal, where the movement had its genesis, it involved Western educated elite called Bhadralok (gentlemen). They were benefi-ciaries of Permanent settlement and due to English education they were in subordinate administrative positions. Socially, they were mostly Hindus of upper castes.

Secondly, the language of the reformers including Rammohun Roy, was Sanskritised Bengali prose, which made it incomprehensible for the

Key Points

• Elitist nature• Language

incomprehensible for masses

• Domination of high caste

• No role of women• Over – reliance on

the government.

Model India 15

Vedic traditions. He also focused on the issues of women, condemned the practice of sati and sought respectable position for women.

Influence

Due to its aggressive nature, his reformism failed to impress the ortho-dox Hindus and remained marginal in eastern and western India. But it had wider acceptance in Punjab and the north-western provinces. After his death in 1883, moderates among his disciples led by Lala Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai chose to focus on education and community work. They founded DAV schools and colleges first at Lahore in 1887, and then in other parts of India.

Another group that was militant in its approach started preaching the religion of Vedas, attacking Muslims and initiating Shuddhi or re-conversion. Orthodox Hindus led by Swami Shraddhanand founded Gurukul at Kangri, Haridwar in 1902.

Criticism

Dayanand Saraswati tried to project Hinduism as a ‘religion of book’ like Christianity and Islam, and prepared the grounds for reconversion of those lost to these proselytizing religions. The cow protection move-ments in 1890s changed the nature of movement from reformist to re-vivalist. Though he condemned the caste system, he upheld the four-fold Varna division.

Q.Critically examine the factors which limited the spreadandinfluenceofthesocio-religiousreformmovementsofthenineteenthcentury.

Model Answer

ElitistReformMovements

These movements were elitist in nature and were confined to a small social group who were the economic and cultural beneficiaries of the colonial rule. In Bengal, where the movement had its genesis, it involved Western educated elite called Bhadralok (gentlemen). They were benefi-ciaries of Permanent settlement and due to English education they were in subordinate administrative positions. Socially, they were mostly Hindus of upper castes.

Secondly, the language of the reformers including Rammohun Roy, was Sanskritised Bengali prose, which made it incomprehensible for the

Key Points

• Elitist nature• Language

incomprehensible for masses

• Domination of high caste

• No role of women• Over – reliance on

the government.

masses. The attempt to take these movements to peasants, artisans and women, the real sufferers, was very limited. In Madras presidency, caste

domination of Brahmins remained unshak-en, which stonewalled all reform measures. In fact the domination of high caste in these reforms explains to an extent their silence over the issues of caste discrimination. It was only Jyotirau Phule who raised caste issues, later to be pursued by the likes of Gandhi and Ambedkar.

BeliefinBritishAltruism

Reformers of the nineteenth century did not realise the importance of involving those for whom the reforms was meant. They re-

posed immense faith in the altruistic nature of British rule and expected the legislations to play an instrumental role in transforming a society, which was illiterate and yet to awaken.

The British and the reformers, both believed that scriptures form the basis of religion in India and the social evils that persist are due to the distortion of the scriptures. The argument though partially true, forced the reformers to redefine and reinterpret the scriptures with an aim to bring about change. At the same time, there was no attempt to make women and lower castes the agency in their own emancipation.

Q.Draw an outline of how rural India responded to thecolonisationprocess initiatedbyBritish?Also commentuponthenatureofsuchresponses.

Model Answer

Introduction

The response of rural society to British colonial rule was quite dif-ferent to the developments in urban India. Urban intelligentsia saw British rule as an opportunity to usher mo-dernity and scientific temper among the masses. They were direct benefi-ciaries of the colonial rule as well.

Key Points

• Resistance and Defiance• Subsistence of peasants

affected due to revenue• Division in rural society• Restorative in nature• Unified by religion


Initially, the traditional elite and peasants reacted in unison and resorted to resistance and defiance in order to preserve the old order. Various revenue experiments by the company had direct impact on the subsistence provisions of the peasants. They could not cope with the exploitative revenue policies and had no other option but rebel.

FundamentalChangeinRuralStructure

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the revenue re-forms of the company altered the rural structure. The rural society was divided into three broad categories: rural landlords, rich peasants or peasant farmers and the poor peasants or landless peasants. It was more often than not the rich peasants of middle strata who would harbour re-bellion fervor and initiate and sustain peasant rebellions. But later, due to land reforms and high revenue demands, all sections of peasantry participated in violent struggle in different parts of the country.

NatureoftheRebellions

Most of the rebellions in the first century of the British rule were restor-ative in nature as it was started by rulers or zamindars, disillusioned with the British rule. They were openly supported by the local peasant soci-eties who considered the rulers the rightful inheritors of power. A few such revolts included the one led by Poligars in Madras, Bundella rebel-lion, revolt under Vizier Ali of Awadh. Incidents like Rangpur rebellion, 1783, testifies the fact that peasants also took initiative to resist against the British rule. Religious groups like Dasmani Sanyasi and Madari Fakirs, who were in possession of armed army were considered a threat by British administration. They also resisted the new revenue system.

Different social groups, all over the country, put up a spirited defi-ance against the company raj. But they lacked coordination and modern arms to defeat the organised army of the Company. The British benefit-ted from the differences between the rich zamindars and poor peasants.

Q.Inthelate18thandearly19thcentury,religionplayedanimportantroleinunitingthepeasantsandconceptualisingresistanceagainsttheCompany.Discuss.

Model Answer

Introduction

Religion defined the ideology of protests as seen in the Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion that rocked Bengal and adjacent areas of Bihar. Dasmani

Key Points

• Religion mixed with economy

• British intolerance to religious groups

• Revolts secular in nature

• Religion unifying as well as divisive

Model India 17

Initially, the traditional elite and peasants reacted in unison and resorted to resistance and defiance in order to preserve the old order. Various revenue experiments by the company had direct impact on the subsistence provisions of the peasants. They could not cope with the exploitative revenue policies and had no other option but rebel.

FundamentalChangeinRuralStructure

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the revenue re-forms of the company altered the rural structure. The rural society was divided into three broad categories: rural landlords, rich peasants or peasant farmers and the poor peasants or landless peasants. It was more often than not the rich peasants of middle strata who would harbour re-bellion fervor and initiate and sustain peasant rebellions. But later, due to land reforms and high revenue demands, all sections of peasantry participated in violent struggle in different parts of the country.

NatureoftheRebellions

Most of the rebellions in the first century of the British rule were restor-ative in nature as it was started by rulers or zamindars, disillusioned with the British rule. They were openly supported by the local peasant soci-eties who considered the rulers the rightful inheritors of power. A few such revolts included the one led by Poligars in Madras, Bundella rebel-lion, revolt under Vizier Ali of Awadh. Incidents like Rangpur rebellion, 1783, testifies the fact that peasants also took initiative to resist against the British rule. Religious groups like Dasmani Sanyasi and Madari Fakirs, who were in possession of armed army were considered a threat by British administration. They also resisted the new revenue system.

Different social groups, all over the country, put up a spirited defi-ance against the company raj. But they lacked coordination and modern arms to defeat the organised army of the Company. The British benefit-ted from the differences between the rich zamindars and poor peasants.

Q.Inthelate18thandearly19thcentury,religionplayedanimportantroleinunitingthepeasantsandconceptualisingresistanceagainsttheCompany.Discuss.

Model Answer

Introduction

Religion defined the ideology of protests as seen in the Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion that rocked Bengal and adjacent areas of Bihar. Dasmani

Key Points

• Religion mixed with economy

• British intolerance to religious groups

• Revolts secular in nature

• Religion unifying as well as divisive

Sanyasi, a traditional martial group, and Madari fakirs were engaged in several economic activities including landhold-ing, money lending and trade in raw materials.

BritishIntolerancetotheseGroups

Both these groups were affected by high revenue demands and commercial mo-nopoly. However, British intolerance to these armed wandering groups whom they perceived as a threat to administra-

tive order, played a catalyst in the conflict. They were supported by the sufferers of the famine of 1769-70 such as small zamindars, disbanded soldiers and the rural poor.

Resistancein19thcentury

In east Bengal, Karim Shah and later his successor Tipu Shah, started a new religious movement under the Pagalpanthi sect. They promised a regime of just rule as opposed to new exploitative revenue collection by collectors of the company. Later, Titu Mir and his followers, who de-rived inspiration from Shah Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli, vehemently opposed taxes such as tax on beard, which they perceived as an attack on their religious sentiments. Farazi movement, which sought to pu-rify Islam from all un-Islamic beliefs, revolted against both Hindu and Muslim landlords, indigo planters and British rulers. Their leader Dudu Mian declared that the land belonged to God and collecting rent on it was against the divine law.

Moplah Uprisings in Malabar region of South India in 1840s -50s also had religious undertones. Majority of the janmi or landown-ers were Hindus, while peasants were the Muslim moplahs which in-cluded descendants of Arab traders and converted lower caste Hindus( Cherumars). The open resistance put up by Moplahs was fuelled by reli-gious as well as economic grievances.

Religion indeed played a critical role – both unifying and divisive - in these uprisings; many believe it was essentially a class struggle. When the British took over Malabar in 1872, they changed land relations by recognising individual land ownership right of janmi. It created two classes – landowners and landless peasants, standing opposite to each other’s economic interests.


Q.Give an account of various tribal uprisings during theBritishrule.

Model Answer

Introduction

Initially during the company’s expansion, tribal areas remained un-touched and unaffected. However with the expansion of economic ac-

tivities, particularly the search for more revenues and raw materials for indus-tries in Europe, tribal interests came in conflict of the British. Their political autonomy was also threatened.

Uprisings

British occupation of Khandesh hill ranges brought outsiders in the region and also caused dislocation in the local community life of Bhils. The Bhil in-

surgence, 1819 was crushed by the British. The Kolis of Ahmednagar District also staged a stiff challenge to British in 1829.

Later in 1831-32, Kol uprising occurred in Chota Nagpur and Singbhum region of Bihar and Orissa. They were antagonised by the British laws that threatened the powers of tribal chiefs which they en-joyed for centuries.

However, Santhals inhabiting the areas around Rajmahal hills put up the most effective resistance. They called outsiders as Dikus. They were supported by the low caste non-tribal peasants.

BritishResponse

Initially, the tribals were able to defeat the small contingents of British officers or zamindars. Some of them were even able to get complete in-dependence and demarcate their administrative areas. But the British retaliated with full force and could capture, kill or prosecute the trib-al chiefs. By some estimate during the Santhal uprising, about twenty thousand tribals were killed during the conflict.

The uprising made the British more cautious about the demands and sentiments of tribals. Santhal Parganas was recognized as a separate ad-ministrative unit. Similar exercises were carried at other places as well indicating the fact that the British recognised the distinctiveness of trib-al culture and identity.

Key Points

• Attack on culture and livelihood

• Dislocation of locals • Bhil Insurgence, Kolis,

Kols, Santhals etc• Massive repression by

British

Model India 19

Conclusion

Most of these conflicts were a result of changing economic and admin-istrative situations. The Company, in pursuance of maximum economic gains, drastically altered the fragile subsistence levels of the tribals. In addition to this forceful eviction, cultural intolerance, exploitative land-lords and arbitrary laws were other factors which drove the tribals to violent rebellion.

It is also important to note that tribals mostly resorted to looting of property of outsiders rather than other forms of violence.

Q.The East India Company‘s marginal interest in takingadministrativecontrolof the Indianterritories reflectedin the policy decisions it took. Examine the underlyingfactors that led topre1857 rebellionsanduprisings indifferentpartsofIndia.

Model Answer

Introduction

Before the advent of the British, the rulers who ruled India came either to rule or to loot. It was the British, who for the first time adopted a

policy to rule without responsi-bility. They used landlords, za-mindars, moneylenders, taluk-dars and most importantly the peasants as conduit to channel resources out of the country. They were ruthless and indiffer-ent in their approach. It caused widespread agony and disgrun-tlement among the natives, which was expressed through armed re-bellion.

RuralEconomyandPeasants

The peasant economy in the pre-colonial period was based on a subsis-tence level. The state collected surplus and peasants did not protest even during the time of scarcity, given they had enough for their subsistence. Colonisation resulted in vigorous extraction of resources. The agrarian

Key points

• Rule without responsibility• Subsistence ethic of peasants

affected • Land becomes private

property• Landlords were revived• Land alienation and credit

nexus


relations worsened as British tried to introduce capitalist agriculture and integrate Indian economy into capitalist system.

LandasPrivateProperty

For the first time the concept of property right in land and land market was introduced. Recognition of a few tenants at the expense of others pushed the landless into starvation. The landowners were only consid-ered in revenue extraction without bothering to invest to increase pro-ductivity. Landless cultivators suffered the most.

MenaceofLandlords

The British considered revitalising the culture of landlordism that would ease the cost of revenue collection. A similar system was a suc-cess in England at that time. But this change made the peasants tenants at the mercy of landlords. The judiciary, the police and legislations – all of them suited the landlords.

LandMarket

The land market resulted in a growing alienation of the peasants. High revenue demand to landlords was transferred to peasants who had no other option but to borrow from moneylenders and merchants who would invariably recover the loan by evicting the peasants from the land.

Tribals

Tribals who were already perturbed by the gradual Hinduisation and the resultant ritualism were aggrieved by the new land revenue system. New forest regulations were aimed to further colonial interests. Tribal autonomy in terms of power, freedom and culture was compromised to a great deal.

Q.Peasant and tribal rebellions before the rise of modernnationalismisconsideredprecursorofnationalmovement.How was peasant rebellion different from modernnationalism?

Model Answer

Introduction

The rebellion of 18th and 19th century were an act of great bravado and courage, yet sporadic and uncoordinated. It was different from the na-

Key Points

• No mass mobilisation• Limited to

geographical areas• Lack of coherent

ideology• Lesser internal

conflicts• National leaders

Model India 21

relations worsened as British tried to introduce capitalist agriculture and integrate Indian economy into capitalist system.

LandasPrivateProperty

For the first time the concept of property right in land and land market was introduced. Recognition of a few tenants at the expense of others pushed the landless into starvation. The landowners were only consid-ered in revenue extraction without bothering to invest to increase pro-ductivity. Landless cultivators suffered the most.

MenaceofLandlords

The British considered revitalising the culture of landlordism that would ease the cost of revenue collection. A similar system was a suc-cess in England at that time. But this change made the peasants tenants at the mercy of landlords. The judiciary, the police and legislations – all of them suited the landlords.

LandMarket

The land market resulted in a growing alienation of the peasants. High revenue demand to landlords was transferred to peasants who had no other option but to borrow from moneylenders and merchants who would invariably recover the loan by evicting the peasants from the land.

Tribals

Tribals who were already perturbed by the gradual Hinduisation and the resultant ritualism were aggrieved by the new land revenue system. New forest regulations were aimed to further colonial interests. Tribal autonomy in terms of power, freedom and culture was compromised to a great deal.

Q.Peasant and tribal rebellions before the rise of modernnationalismisconsideredprecursorofnationalmovement.How was peasant rebellion different from modernnationalism?

Model Answer

Introduction

The rebellion of 18th and 19th century were an act of great bravado and courage, yet sporadic and uncoordinated. It was different from the na-

Key Points

• No mass mobilisation• Limited to

geographical areas• Lack of coherent

ideology• Lesser internal

conflicts• National leaders

tional movement of 20th century where mass mobilisation under the likes of Gandhi became the backbone of the struggle.

GeographicalLimit

The spread of rebellion depended upon the rebels’ own perception of space and ethnic boundaries. Santhal uprising, for example, was for reclaiming their own land. Sometimes, ethnic ties as in the case of Kol insurrection, bridged the

geographical gaps and Kols of different regions put up simultaneous united fight against British. The freedom struggle had a national charac-ter led by national leaders.

IdeologyDriven

Unlike modern nationals who were by influenced by modern ideologies of nationhood, democracy, socialism, liberty, etc., these rebellions were an attempt to restore an imagined golden past.

ClassStruggle

The social banditry and general lawlessness was common during these rebellions. For them, any non-local ruler was alien irrespective of British or Indian origin. Such acts were on the wane during the second half of the 19th century as leaders made an attempt to identify all Indians as one class, suffering equally under the British rule.

RoleofReligion

Religion, in absence of class-consciousness, proved to be binding glue for these rebels. Leaders like Birsa Munda claimed to possess supernatu-ral powers and sought to restore old moral order that was deteriorating due to intervention of the outsiders. The followers saw in their leaders’ action, an act of god. Religion thus proved to be an ideology for the movement and motivation for sacrifice.

A few nationalists like Tilak used religion to mobilise people but such practices were jettisoned during the Gandhian phase of freedom struggle.

RoleofLeaders

The leaders in these rebellions were chosen from the community itself with whom the followers could identify themselves. This was not the


case with modern nationalists. Leaders like Tilak, Gandhi, Nehru etc had pan – India presence and following.

ModeofOperation

The major difference between them was their mode of operation. These rebellions were violent in nature and involved armed struggle. Barring a few violent protests by militant nationals, Congress largely used peace-ful protests as a method.

Q.Itwasnotjustbecauseofthe“cartridge”thatthesepoysthrewintheirgauntletandroseinopenrebellionagainsttheBritish.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

Among the sepoys in Dum Dum near Calcutta in 1857, a rumour started to spread that the new Enfield rifle, replacing the old ‘Brown Bess’ musket

is greased with cow and pig fat. The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading. This angered the sepoys, coming from upper caste of Brahmins, Rajputs and Bhumihars and Muslims alike, who thought it as an attack on their religion and at-tempt to proselytisation. However, this was one of the many factors that pushed the sepoys to revolt.

UnderlyingFactors

In the 1820s & 30s, army reforms were initiated to introduce more uni-versalised military culture. It aimed to limit caste privileges and pecuni-ary benefits to the members of army. It annoyed the personnel in Bengal Army who were from the upper castes. Their religious beliefs came into conflict with new service conditions, which mandated them to serve abroad. Natives were also discriminated in the matters of pension, pro-motion and salary. There were also incidents of racial discrimination.

The presence of missionaries in the cantonment put the soldiers un-der a constant fear of forceful conversion to Christianity. Finally, the annexation of Awadh in 1856, disillusioned the Bengal army, as about 75 % were from this region.

Key Points

• Limited caste privileges• Discrimination in pension,

promotion and salary• Proselytisation• Annexation of Awadh• Summary Settlements

Model India 23

AnnexationofAwadh

It is worth noting that every agricultural family in Awadh without ex-ception sent one of its members to the British Army. The annexation proved to be the ultimate proof of untrustworthiness of the British. Sepoys who were essentially peasants in uniform, were anxious about declining conditions of the peasantry.

SummarySettlements

Annexation of Awadh in 1856 was followed with summary settlements in 1856. This settlement was made with actual occupiers of the land ig-noring all others. It dispossessed many powerful taluqdars, (who worked as middlemen between peasants and government), of their lands, ar-mory and forts. They also joined the revolt.

Hence the revolt of 1857 was the culmination of successive chain of events finally triggered off by the cartridge issue.

Q.TheIndianRebellionof1857wasnotonemovement,itwasmany.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

There are several notions regarding the revolt of the 1857 and its causal factors, participants, geographical spread, nature and so on. However

one reasoning that is largely true is that it was not a localised, single battle between two armies led by two warriors. Widespread civil participation in different regions of north-west and north India creat-ed several layers in it.

ManyMovementsinOne

The movement began as a military mutiny and then subsequently the administration collapsed and law-

less elements took over. In certain areas, an outbreak of civil population was due to self seeking local leaders. At times, mob violence was caused due to breakdown of administrative machinery.

Key Points

• Military mutiny to administrative collapse

• Outbreak of civilian rebellion

• Resistance for protecting religion

• Resistance to protect state and kingdom


It can also be argued that social reforms of earlier period indirectly created an environment of religious reforms and revival, which was further complicated by missionary activities. Hindus and Muslims felt equally threatened in such situation. It was also a factor for their lasting unity throughout the revolt.

Those who revolted were feudal elements/big landlords or peas-antry. Some feudal elements were aggrieved by British polices such as “Doctrine of Lapse” which was resulting into annexation of their king-doms. These kings, even when unwilling, had no choice but join the rebel camp.

Summary Settlement, which removed middle men between peasants and government, forced taluqdars or land magnates to mobilise villag-ers and peasants against the British. Peasants participated because they were the worst hit by high revenue demands of the state. It drove them to debt trap and finally led to dispossession.

However, not all feudal kings or taluqdars suffered under British. Many even benefitted with the new revenue system. For a few, it was an opportunity to gain upward social mobility.

Conclusion

Overall, it can be safely assumed that a common economic interest and a common adversary united these revolutionaries but they lacked ho-mogeneity and coordination. Metcalf claimed that “United in defeat, the rebel leaders would have fallen at each other’s throat in victory”. It ulti-mately led to their downfall.

Q.A centripetal impulse to congregate at Delhi preventedtherebellionfromspreadingasmuchasitcould.Analyse.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Barrackpore incident triggered a series of disobedience, incendiary activities and arson in the army cantonments in Ambala, Lucknow and Meerut. Later, Meerut sepoys started revolt by rescuing their comrades and marched to Delhi where they proclaimed the reluctant Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar their leader.

Key Points

• Attempt to free India • Faith in supremacy of

Mughal King• British mobilised

military to one place• Sepoys lacked

resources to match Company

Model India 25

It can also be argued that social reforms of earlier period indirectly created an environment of religious reforms and revival, which was further complicated by missionary activities. Hindus and Muslims felt equally threatened in such situation. It was also a factor for their lasting unity throughout the revolt.

Those who revolted were feudal elements/big landlords or peas-antry. Some feudal elements were aggrieved by British polices such as “Doctrine of Lapse” which was resulting into annexation of their king-doms. These kings, even when unwilling, had no choice but join the rebel camp.

Summary Settlement, which removed middle men between peasants and government, forced taluqdars or land magnates to mobilise villag-ers and peasants against the British. Peasants participated because they were the worst hit by high revenue demands of the state. It drove them to debt trap and finally led to dispossession.

However, not all feudal kings or taluqdars suffered under British. Many even benefitted with the new revenue system. For a few, it was an opportunity to gain upward social mobility.

Conclusion

Overall, it can be safely assumed that a common economic interest and a common adversary united these revolutionaries but they lacked ho-mogeneity and coordination. Metcalf claimed that “United in defeat, the rebel leaders would have fallen at each other’s throat in victory”. It ulti-mately led to their downfall.

Q.A centripetal impulse to congregate at Delhi preventedtherebellionfromspreadingasmuchasitcould.Analyse.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Barrackpore incident triggered a series of disobedience, incendiary activities and arson in the army cantonments in Ambala, Lucknow and Meerut. Later, Meerut sepoys started revolt by rescuing their comrades and marched to Delhi where they proclaimed the reluctant Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar their leader.

Key Points

• Attempt to free India • Faith in supremacy of

Mughal King• British mobilised

military to one place• Sepoys lacked

resources to match Company

It is argued that the rebels were try-ing to free Hindustan from foreign yoke. All believed that the country belonged to both Hindus and Muslims – a sign of remarkable religious amity. The reb-els wanted to go back to the old order under Mughals, though not exactly in same hierarchy. For them the Mughal emperor was the source of political le-gitimacy. Mughal kings gave all rebels a common ground and there prevailed a sense of familiarity.

These were the factors which made rebels congregate at Delhi. They were under the impression that reviving the authority of Mughal emper-or, as Emperor of Hindustan will help them get support from all other rulers and kings from other parts of India. But internal regional con-flicts between Indian kings stalled this movement. They saw the revolt as an opportunity to show solidarity with the British and thus did not participate.

DelhiProvesCounterproductive

Congregation at Delhi proved counterproductive for the rebels. It helped British mobilise their military at a single place and suppress the rebellion with full force. Also, the communication within the rebels was very poor which affected their coordination and spread the rebellion to other regions. Sepoys had huge shortage of capital as well as human resources, while British army had sophisticated weapons, trained army and unlimited cash at their disposal.

Q.The Queen’s proclamation of 1858 made “outsiders”,“insiders”inIndia.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

The revolt of 1857 changed the course of British rule in India and was a watershed event in modern Indian history. It ended the rule of East India Company. Miffed by the violence caused during the revolt and misrule of the company, the British parliament passed in 1858, an “Act for the Better Government of India”. With the enactment of the Act, the


Queen also made a proclamation. The Act made Queen Victoria as the sovereign of British India. Indian Council was set up at London with 15 members headed by Secretary of State for India.

OutsidersasInsiders

It formally made India a colony of the British Empire. The Queen pro-claimed that now the government in India would not annex states and also added it would practice reli-

gious tolerance. States would be mindful of the established traditions and customs. These constitutional changes were brought out to make Indians comfortable with the foreign rulers and help British assimilate with the natives. The monarch and her representatives in India, their Indian subjects and the Indian princes all were fitted into the elaborate imperial hierarchy.

There was also a growing belief among intellectuals in both India and England that the company cannot rule without self-interest and the administrative functions of the government should be carried with re-sponsibility to the parliament. The Act also mentioned that the member in the ‘Council of India’ should have worked in India at least for 10 years before being appointed in it. It was a clear indication that the British parliament wanted persons with greater acquaintance of the country to govern it.

Conclusion

There is no denying the fact that the Act and the subsequent procla-mation by the Queen ushered a new era of administration in British India. The British no more considered India as a plundering ground and looked to govern with a sense of responsibility to its subjects and its own political ethos. This change of guard brought renewed hope to intellectuals in India who thought the responsible government would take India on the path of modernity.

Q.“TheBritishRaj,duringalltheseyears,usedprincelystatesaseffectivetoolsagainstthenewforcesofnationalismintheprovinces”.Substantiate.

Key Points

• Formal transfer of power to Queen

• Responsible government• Constitutional Changes in

governance• Respect of local traditions• Familiarity to local

conditions criteria for recruiting officials.

Model India 27

Model Answer

Introduction

The arrival of Lord Minto ushered a change in the British policy towards princely states in India. Minto’s policy of laissez faire revived the rela-tionship and made it more harmonious. It was very unlike Lord Curzon’s

policy of interventionist paternal-ism. Minto’s policy insulated princely states from rising emo-tions of nationalism prevalent in British India.

PrincelyStatesandNationalism

Though some states and even a few princes were influenced by nation-alist ideology, most of them re-

mained loyal to British. They supported British conquest in World War and suppressed anti-British movement in their territory. They proved to be the most credible allies when nationalist challenges began to mount during revolutionary movements and later in Non-Cooperation Movement. They not only acted oppressively in their own territory, they even send support outside it.

When the visit of Prince of Wales was boycotted by Congress, the princes provided legitimacy by their warm and grand welcome. In the 1920s, all states witnessed popular movement in the form of prajaman-dals, who were demanding for democratic rights and constitutional changes. The princes retaliated with massive repression. During the Civil Disobedience Movement, princely states proved to be a trusted partner in suppressing Congress activities in their respective territo-ries. British even tried to dilute Indian representation in the first Round Table Conference where all princely states participated. They tried to project that Indians want British control over Indians.

Conclusion

Congress always maintained an official policy of non-interference in the affairs of the states. They respected traditional rights of sovereignty. This might be one reason that princes continued to be insensitive to internal demands of constitutionalism. They also saw Congress as a threat to their internal autonomy of rule. These reasons propelled princes to play in the hands of the Raj. The Raj, in return, pitted princes against the Congress.

Key Points

• Support during World War• Repression of NCM &

praja-mandalam• Representation at RTC• Congress as threat to

autonomy


Q.TheActof1919providedforaChamberofPrinces.Writeanoteonit.

Model Answer

Introduction

World War I showed the usefulness of the princes to the empire. The princes donated generously to the war funds, provided military support

and encouraged army recruit-ment in their states. In return of their services and loyalty to-wards the empire, princes de-manded a few concessions, which included greater partici-pation in the consultative pro-cess of the empire.

ChamberofPrinces

When Montagu and Chelmsford initiated their inquiry about the pro-posed constitutional reforms, the princes demanded for Chamber of Princess among various other things. The Act of 1919 provided for 120 members for Chamber of Princes. It was also called Narendra Mandal. The primary function of this chamber was to advise the Raj on all mat-ters related to the states and their relationship with the paramount pow-er. But it had no say in the internal affairs of individual states and had powers only to discuss matters concerning existing rights and freedoms.

However the representation of the princes remained a contentious issue. The representation was accorded on the basis of gun-salutes. All princes with 11 gun-salutes and above will be directly represented. The smaller princes would elect twelve representatives among themselves.

Conclusion

The Prince of Chamber was inaugurated in 1921 at Red Fort. But since its inception, the chamber was marked by jealousy and squabbles. But the chamber formally broke the physical and political isolation of the princes. However, the issue of extent of sovereignty and paramountcy was not addressed till 1927 when the Butler Committee was set up. This committee was set up to examine the nature of relationship between the states and government. It recommended continuing with paramountcy.

Key Points

• Advisory function • Contention on representation• Broke the isolation of princes• No major reform• Marred by jealousy

Model India 29

Q.GiveanaccountoftheevolutionofrelationsbetweentheBritishandtheprincelystatestill1947.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Anglo-French rivalry and alignment of Indian kings with English and French signified the importance of princely states in political con-quest of India. Capture of Arcot was first sign of Britain’s political as-sertiveness. Later with win in Plassey, British became a major political force.

PolicyofRingFence(1765-1813)

Warren Hastings in the wars against Marathas and Mysore aimed to create buffer zone to defend the Company’s frontiers. The policy of Subsidiary Alliance of Wellesley was extension of ring fence. Major pow-ers like Hyderabad, Awadh and Marathas accepted subsidiary alliance.

PolicyofSubordinateIsolation(1813-1857)

Theory of paramountcy began developing, as the Indian states were re-quired to act in subordinate cooperation with the British Government. They had to acknowledge British, as supreme authority. The external sovereignty wrested with the British while states could exercise sover-eignty in internal administration. However the Company continued annexing states wherever possible. The main exponent of expansionist practice was Lord Dalhousie.

PolicyofSubordinateUnion(1857-1935)

1858 was a watershed year as far as the relation between British and states are concerned. The Crown assumed direct responsibility of India in 1858. It rewarded the princely states by giving up the policy of an-nexation due to the loyalty shown by states during the revolt of 1857. However it does not mean that princes enjoyed unbridled freedom. The British government exercised the right to interfere in the internal spheres of the states. On the pretext of interest of people and of whole of India, British kept meddling with the internal administration of states. Later, Lord Curzon adopted a policy of patronage and intrusive surveil-lance. After departure of Lord Curzon and later arrival of Lord Minto, some concessions were given to the states (Chamber of Prince). But they were more on paper than in practice


PolicyofEqualFederation(1935-1947)

The Government of India Act, 1935 proposed a federal assembly with 125 out of 375 seats for the princes. In the Council of States, 104 out of 160 states were for princes. However this scheme never came into exis-tence. After World War II, it was dropped altogether.

Q.ThoughbothGandhiandAmbedkarwerefiercechampionsofanti-untouchability,theydifferedintheirviewonthecastesystem.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Gandhian and Ambedkarian discourses on untouchability are not antithetical. Both condemned this evil, which prevailed in the Indian society. However due to political and personal reasons, they adopted different methods to attack the caste system which was the causative factor for untouchability. While Gandhi sought to reform the Hindu so-ciety within the realm of caste system, Ambedkar called for annihilation of caste.

Gandhi’sView

To counter the divisive forces employed by British government, Gandhi gave up all his preoccupations and launched a campaign against un-touchability. He set up the All India Anti-Untouchability League in 1932 and started the weekly Harijan in 1933. In 1933-34, he toured throughout India to spread the message about the ills of untouchability. He severely criticised the caste Hindus for oppressing Harijans. He said “Hinduism dies if untouchability lives, and untouchability has to die if Hinduism has to live. He cited the writings of Shastras which do not sanction un-touchability. But Gandhi did not seek to abolish Varnashram system. For him Varnashram system is functional for Indian society where each caste would be complementary system. This became contentious is-sue between Gandhi and Ambedkar. Ambedkar charged Gandhi and Congress of fooling the dalits or oppressed class to meet their political ends.

Ambedkar’sView

Coming from the family of Mahars – a dalit community of Maharashtra, Ambedkar had firsthand experience of untouchability. This shaped his

Model India 31

views on both caste system and untouchability. He believed that the root of untouchability lies in the caste system. For untouchability to go, caste system has to be abolished. He did not believe in the campaign of inter-nal reforms by Gandhi, which was based on the premise that if the dalits give up practices like eating beef, consumption of liquor and take up education, cleanliness and hygiene, the caste Hindu would accept them in mainstream. Ambedkar on other hand was confident that the upper caste Hindu will not treat Dalits on equal footing with others. Thus, he demanded for a separate electorate for oppressed class so as to organise them under a formidable political unit.

Conclusion

Gandhi and Ambedkar agreed on as many issues as they would have disagreed upon. They could not find much ground for co-operation and collaboration. But their contribution to the burning issue of caste and untouchability was immense. Their debates is as relevant today as it was in the 1930s-40s.

Q.Tracetheadventofthetwo-nationtheorybytheMuslimLeagueinthelaterdecadesoffreedomstruggle.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Khilafat movement contributed in strengthening the Muslim iden-tity in Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. It also resulted in serious communal riots in Malabar in 1921. In a counter-move,

Hindu Mahasabha and Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh started mobilis-ing Hindus on communal lines. The inability of Congress to act decisively and stop Hindu militants gave rise to communalism. Muslims under All India Muslim League started uniting and demanded for separate nation for themselves.

Two-nationTheory

It was Muhammad Iqbal, president of Muslim League,who for the first time proposed the constitution of centralised territory for Islam within

Key Points

• Khilafat & Counter mobilization

• Hindu Militancy• Role of Iqbal & Jinnah• Muslim alienation from

Congress


India. Later, in 1933, Rahamat Ali, a Cambridge graduate, vaguely talk-ed about Pakistan to be constituted out of the four Muslim provinces and Kashmir. A resolution was passed by Muslim League with Jinnah as president, which mentioned a need for two politically self-determined countries for Hindus and Muslims. It was the first declaration of the two-nation theory. However it did not mean separate countries. It was more of a two separate federation with a common centre.

This idea gained currency in coming years. Muslim intellectuals from Sindh, Lahore to Aligarh started supporting this idea. Finally in the Lahore Session of Muslim League in 1940, idea of a Muslim nation was proclaimed. However, it did not mention partition or Pakistan.

Conclusion

Politically, this resolution changed the status of Muslims from minor-ity to a nation. It ensured that no future constitutional arrangement for India could be negotiated without the Muslim League. It countered the claim of Jawaharlal Nehru that in India only two parties existed – The Raj and the Congress. The notion of Muslim state was legitimised when thousands of ordinary Muslims joined processions in various parts of north India between 1938 and 1940.

Q.CriticallyevaluatetheresponseofCongresstothegrowingcommunalisminpre-independenceera.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Khilafat induced violence in Malabar and radical reciprocation by Hindu militants through Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh which communalised the Indian society. The political manifesta-

tion of such communalisation was far reaching. While Congress claimed to represent both Hindu and Muslims, Muslim League started organising Mulisms under its wings.

ResponseofCongress

The response of Congress to the rising communalism was of dis-

Key Points

• Dissent & detachment• Nationalism above

community• Identity to individuals• Role of Mahasabha• Political compulsion

Model India 33

sent and detachment. It does not mean that they supported division in society on communal lines. It was more to do with the changing concept of nationalism by the Congress. There was a distinct tendency to delegit-imise religious nationalism by relegating religion to private sphere. For Nehru, the secular view of Indian nation was above the community in-terest. So communalism was seen antithetical to nationalism. Their idea of modern India was of individual rights and identity. While Muslism League differed in this regard, they gave primacy to community identity.

Moreover, Congress failed to silence the increasing intolerance against Muslims. Hindu Mahasabha, which was working as a separate pressure group within the Congress, started to marginalise the secular-ists and sabotaged any understanding with Muslims. Congress instead of criticising such elements within its wings, tried to compromise with them. It further alienated Muslims from Congress.

Conclusion

The political compulsions of Congress prevented it from taking critical stand against communal forces – whether Hindus or Muslims. Their sole aim was to earn freedom for the country from the British. Any indul-gence in local issues, especially as sensitive as religion, would have di-verted their attention and energy. It is not to say that Congress remained mute spectators. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru launched Muslim Mass Contact campaign to bring Muslim masses into Congress fold. But more often than not, the communal forces prevailed over secular attempts.

Q.Religion was only a death nail, several other factorscontributed to the decline of theMughal Empire in the17thcentury.Elucidate.

Model Answer

Introduction

Babur laid the founding stone of the Mughal Empire in 1526, which saw its best years under the rule of Akbar and began to decline after the rule of its last great ruler Aurangzeb. The reason for the downfall is ascribed to divisive religious policies of Aurangzeb that targeted Hindus who formed the majority. But there were other equally, if not more, im-portant factors for the decline.


FactorsforDecline

Aurangzeb’s expansionist poli-cies bore great results for him but also proved counterproduc-tive as seen during the attacks on Bijapur and Golconda. These adventures sucked the life out of his empire. War with Marathas also had detrimental effect. Most importantly, it is argued that rather than policies or the personalities, it was the intrin-sic nature of the institutions and

administration that diminished the Empire. The Mughal Empire was essentially a war state, having a centralised administrative system. The administrative posts were accorded according to personal loyalty to the emperor, rather than state. So after the demise of the emperor, the man-sabdars tended to revolt.

Mughal emperors, especially Aurangzeb, regularly engaged in wars of succession. These wars consumed huge material and human resources. To fund wars, Aurangzeb increased the share of royal land (Khalisa), thus disgruntling mansabdars who were resource starved. Increase in revenue demands also gave zamindars an opportunity to mobilise peas-ant support against the state. Peasant unrest became a recurrent theme in the history of the Mughal state since its inception.

Such wars continued even after Aurangzeb’s death. But there was dearth of able leaders and commanders; war technology had become obsolete and regional rulers more courageous. The allies of Mughals en-grossed in self-glorification also contributed directly to the decline of the Mughal empire.

Conclusion

The bigoted religious policy of Aurangzeb was one of many important factors to have contributed to the decline of the empire. Even Aurangzeb had to become more accommodative in his later years. Political factors such as weak institutions, exploitative economic policies of high revenue demands, inconsistent distribution of revenue lands among mansabdars were other major factors that led to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Key Points

• Depleting resources due to Deccan adventure

• Concentration of both revenue & military authority in Mansabdars

• Peasant & Zamindari rebellion

• Plundering raids by Afghans• Factionalism in nobles –

Iranis and Turanis

Model India 35

Q.Critically examine the administrative features of theMughalEmpire.

Model Answer

Introduction

Since its inception, the Mughal emperors sought to form a centralised administrative system, which was fastened by the military might of the state. Territorial expansion was one consistent policy witnessed in the rule of all major Mughal emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb and there-after.

Features

Akbar introduced Mansabdari System - a military organisation of the aristocracy, based on the patron-client relationship between emperor and the ruling class. Every aristocrat or Mansabdar has dual numerical rank of Jat and Sawar. Jat signified the rank and Sawar was the number of horsemen, he was required to maintain. Payment was done in the form of cash (naqadi) or in the form of land or Jagir (more common), which were transferrable in nature.

Personal loyalty to the emperor formed the basis of the promotion, dismissal, allocation or transfers of Jagirs. Lineage or ethnic background was the most defining factor for appointment as Mansabdar. There were continuous non-violent struggles between Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Indian Muslims, Hindus and later Deccani groups to have control over good jagirs. It led to corruption in the army, as no mansabdar main-tained required number of soldiers and horses affecting the invincibility of the empire.

The state had no land revenue policy as such. Babur categorised lands into two types – Khalisa and jagirs. About four-fifths of the land rev-enue system came from jagirs owned by Mansabdars. Akbar introduced Dahsala System that was more rational in terms of benefits to the farm-ers and state. It was maintained that land revenue demand should not exceed one-third of the actual produce and half total of the total pro-duce. Aurangzeb’s reign was the only exception when it increased sev-eral fold. He adopted Naqad system that meant that the payment had to be done in cash irrespective of crop area or value of the crop.

Conclusion

With the exception of Akbar and a few of his successors, no other Mughal emperor tried to establish a sound administrative mechanism


in the country. The quest was for expansion without consolidation. No form of impersonal loyalty – national, ethnic or religious – could be fostered.

Q.TradepoliciesofMughalsplayedanimportantroleinthewidespreadprosperityinMedievalIndia.Elaborate.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Timurid rulers always encouraged trade – whether in their Central Asian homelands or India. A pattern was established by Sher Shah Suri which was followed by Mughals, especially Akbar. He sought to inter-link different parts of India by ensuring safe road routes and abolishing inland tolls and duties. With the advent of sea route, they gave due im-portance to foreign trade as well.

TradePolicyandIndustry

The Mughals were very welcoming of foreign traders and provided am-ple security and levied very low custom duty. Akbar and Jahangir, in particular, were interested in foreign sea borne trade. Flourishing local handicrafts and high quality manufactured material were great attrac-tion for Europeans and others, while bullion, precious stones, drugs, China goods, horses were imported.

In spite of indiscriminate demand of Indian merchants for payment in gold or silver, Europeans favoured trading with India due to huge lo-cal demands of Indian goods. Under Akbar, textile industry flourished and India provided cotton cloth to almost half of the world. Silk indus-try of Bengal was another huge exporter. Chittagong, due to proxim-ity to suitable timbers, specialised in shipbuilding and supplied ships to distant places like Istanbul.

EncouragementbyRulers

Though the commercial side of the industry was in the hands of middle men, the emperor controlled large number of royal workshops. It man-ufactured items for the use of courts, households and imperial army. Developing indigenous industry was prime focus of Akbar. He took per-sonal interest in them by visiting the workshops, which enhanced the status of the artisans. He expanded silk weaving industries to Lahore and Agra. To foster demand, he ordered people of certain ranks to wear

Model India 37

particular kind of locally woven clothes. In addition to this, large num-ber of foreign weavers from Persia and Turkistan were invited to work in important workshops. Foreign traders were allowed to establish close contacts with their Indian counterparts and local manufacturers. It re-sulted in huge revenues for India to an extent that a European historian complained “Europe bleedeth to enrich Asia”.

Q.Draw a parallel between village structures and ruraleconomy under the Mughals and the current villageeconomyandstructureinIndia.

Model Answer

Introduction

The condition in the rural India under British was much the same as at present, with the exception those Mughal rulers rarely disturbed the old organisation of the villages. Panchayats formed the backbone of the village administration, while the state confined itself to land revenue.

Similarities

The Mughals did not alter the age old dispute mechanism under the pan-chayats. It further strengthened these institutions. In India, after inde-pendence, constitutional methods were used to decentralise governance to village level by empowering panchayats. Land revenue administra-tion in medieval time was quite flexible in its assessment and collection. Apart from remission of land revenues at the time of crop failure, there was reduction in government demand when the bumper crop caused prices to fall. There were instances where a very large sum has to be writ-ten off because of a series of exceptionally good harvests which caused huge surplus and peasants could not sell their crops. Similar loan waiver is quite a common practice in India today, especially at the time of crop failure.

State also advanced loans to the cultivators for seeds, implements, bullocks, digging wells called taqavi – an expression which has contin-ued in modern land revenue administration. Also the rural infrastruc-ture was given emphasis by building roads, digging wells etc.

Establishing workshops in urban areas promoted the cultivation of cotton and production of silk. Indigenous industries were promoted so as to consume local raw materials and provide employment – an exer-cise carried out today through modern medium and small enterprises (MSME) sector.


Conclusion

One glaring similarity between medieval and modern times is still the fact that most of India still lives in the villages and most villagers are dependent on agriculture.

Q.TheMughalEmpirewasonthedeathbedalreadyinthe18thcentury, British contribution was limited to performingitslastritesinthe19thcentury.WiththedeclineoftheMughals, there emerged many regional powers. Give anaccountoftheiremergenceinthelightofMughalinfluenceonthem.

Model Answer

Introduction

Though the Mughal system continued even long after the de facto de-mise of the empire, effectively it lost control over its own appointees. Yet the symbolic authority of the Mughal emperor continued, and he was considered a source of political legitimacy. New states did not sever ties with the Empire; rather they sought legitimacy from them. The pol-ity was transformed where a few Mughal institutions continued, others changed to accommodate altered power relations.

EmergenceofRegionalPowers

Bengal, Hyderabad and Awadh became three successor states of the Mughal Empire as it was founded by Mughal provincial governors. However, none of them formally severed their links with the Mughals. Murshid Quli Khan during his governorship made Bengal independent (1717). He gained control of the office of nazim and diwan simultane-ously, ending the checks and balances of Mughal system. His close aides held key positions in administration, driving his potential enemy out of the province. Large revenue generation from Bengal further consoli-dated his position as an autonomous ruler.

Chin Qulich Khan who himself took the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk AsafJah laid the foundation of autonomous kingdom of Hyderabad. He strengthened his position by pacifying refractory zamindars and show-ing tolerance towards Hindus who wielded economic power. The new administrative system accommodated indigenous power structure by allowing semi autonomous rulers to rule at local level. It kept power widely diffused in Hyderabad.

Model India 39

Saadat Khan,a Mughal governor was given charge to subdue rebel-lion in Awadh. His accomplishment of the task earned him the title of Burhan-ul-Mulk. Later, he with his son-in-law Safadar Jung, virtually made Awadh independent of imperial control. Safdarjung extended his influence by seizing Farukhabad from Pathans. His son Shuja-ud-daula further consolidated his position and played an important role in third battle of Panipat.

Conclusion

None of these states formally announced independence from Mughal control but they exercised complete freedom in the administrative deci-sions. The beleaguered Mughal emperors were dependent heavily on the revenues sent by these states. So in effect, the Mughals became receivers, from rulers, during this period.

Q.MarathasweretheonlyregionalpowerwhocouldestablishthemselvesasapanIndiaEmpire.ExaminethefactorsthatpreventedMarathastorealisetheirpotential.

Model Answer

Introduction

The demise of Aurangzeb and successive rule of weak Mughal rulers gave Marathas an opportunity to replace Mughals as rulers of India. Despite this conducive situation created due to emergence of independent rul-ers in Bengal, Hyderabad & Awadh, the Marathas could not consolidate their position. The blame goes to nature of Maratha polity itself.

Factors

A kingdom established by Shivaji, Marathas were marred with dynas-tic factionalism soon after his death in 1780. The Mughal policy of Deccan conquest did not give any opportunity to Tarabai to strengthen their hold in western India. Release of Shahu, Shivaji’s son, immersed Maharashtra in a full-scale civil war. It was fought between factions led by Shahu & Tarabai for the throne.

Later under Balaji Bajirao, Marathas adopted a policy of intervening in the regional wars of succession and in return extracted annual trib-utes from the rulers without any attempt of permanent conquest of the region. Despite gaining mastery over large parts of North India and vir-tual control over Mughal emperor, they showed no interest in establish-


ing their own empire and put in place a Maratha administration. They could not go beyond plunder and levying Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.

Reluctance to take the responsibility to rule and confining themselves to the role of invaders did not help Marathas to maintain masters and gain public support. Soon, the Afghan invasion under Ahamd Shah Abdali dealt a deadly blow to Maratha glory. The Third battle of Panipat (1761) was the beginning of decline of Maratha might. Indigenous forc-es like Rohillas and Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh, troubled by Maratha in-vasions, sided with the Afghanis.

Conclusion

Soon after the war, ugly head of factionalism rose among them. The Maratha state structure was of confederacy where power was shared among chiefs namely Bhonsles of Nagpur, Gaikwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore and Sindhia of Gwalior. They fought against each other for supremacy. Marathas’ policy of military conquest without political con-solidation proved counter-productive.

Q.TracetheevolutionofKhalsapanthandcommentupontheMughalresponsetoit.

Model Answer

Introduction

Started as a Bhakti movement under Guru Nanak, the sect gained mili-tant fervour under the tenth guru,Guru Gobind Singh. Guru Nanak was contemporary to Babur and in a quite distinctive way – one through preaching of devotion to inner soul and humanity and other by armed invasions – both began to influence North India at the same time. Mughal rulers including Aurangzeb were not hostile to Sikhism and its religious preaching.

EvolutionofKhalsaPanth

When the Sikh community started to grow and challenged the central authority of the Mughals, the Mughal emperor in turn responded with hostility and the ninth Guru, Tegbahadur was executed. In response to this, Guru Gobind Singh began to organise a military group to safe-guards the interests of Sikhs who faced heavy repression from Mughals. This group was called KhalsaPanth. The brotherhood of Khalsa was based on the premise of maintaining five distinctive insignia – Keski,

Model India 41

Kangha, Kara, Kacchera, Kripan. Arms possession in public place was necessity and tradition for them.

Not all Sikhs were part of Khalsa as was proposed at the time of its establishment. Guru Gobind also abolished the position of Guru and vested the power in Panth and Granth. By invoking the cultural resourc-es and giving guidelines of life-cycle resources, Khalsa aimed at bringing order in the life of Sikhs in the turbulent eighteenth century.

ResponseofMughalEmperor

One of the founding objectives of Khalsa sect was the armed resistance to opposing forces and this brought them in conflict with Mughal em-peror. Guru Gobind’s attempt to create an autonomous state in and around Anandpur was opposed by hill chiefs of Himachal Pradesh who turned to the emperor for help. After the death of Aurangzeb, Mughal’s hostility to Sikhs subsided. But after the murder of Guru Gobind, his follower Banda Bahadur continued the Sikh revolt. Mughals could never fully suppress the Sikhs and Misls continued gaining footholds in northern India.

Q.DescribetheRajputpolicyoftheMughalsEmperors.DoyouendorsetheviewthatAurangzeb’spolicyofantagonisingRajputsresultedinthedemiseoftheMughalEmpire?

Model Answer

Introduction

In the medieval period, Rajputs formed an important recruiting group of Indians from which the Mughals recruited soldiers. In the 16th–17th century the Rajput clan became more organised and under the patron-age of the Mughals gained control over some territory.

RajputPolicy

It was during the reign of Akbar that the Rajputs gained much more importance in the polity of Mughal empire. Akbar engaged with them politically, culturally and sometimes militarily. He incorporated them into the Mughal structure as peshkashizamindars. They had to pay an-nual tribute to the emperor for internal administrative autonomy. Many were given high military ranks in the army.

A few Rajputs rulers like Rana Pratap of Shishodia clan did not ac-cept Mughal subordination. Armies of Pratap and Akbar engaged in


Battle of Haldighati. However once having defeated them, Akbar used to honorably return lands (watan) as well as assignments (watanjagir). This policy of Mughals to defeat but not humiliate, helped them extend influence over other Rajput chieftains.

PolicyShiftunderAurangzeb

Under Aurangzeb, this harmonious relations between Mughals and Rajputs seemed to break down. He could not tolerate the territorial ex-pansions by Rajput rulers like Raj Singh of Mewar. These expansions would contradict the Mughal policy of balance of power. Aurangzeb also interfered in the succession issues of Rajput states. These factors united the Rajput kings against Mughals for the cause of Rajput unity.

Conclusion

Neither of the Mughal emperors, including Aurangzeb, discriminated against Rajput on religious grounds. The bone of contention was always political and territorial issues. During the rule of Aurangzeb, other fac-tors such as drain of wealth in war in Deccan wars, emerging local pow-ers, weak administrative institutions, played a major role in the weaken-ing of the Mughal Empire. Rajput rebellion can be termed one of these factors, not the sole one.

Q.The growth of territorial empire in India was neitherplanned in India nor directed from Britain. Criticallyexaminethestatement.

Model Answer

Introduction

It is said that the rise and expansion of British Empire was an accident rather than the result of a deliberate policy and design. Until the passage

of Pitt’s India Act, 1784, British did not envisage any consistent policy for po-litical conquest in India. Thus, it can be said, British conquered India in a fit of absent-mindedness.

Company’sConquest

Authorities in England were undecided about the course of East India Company

Key Points

• Conquest in fit of absentmindedness

• Decline of Mughal made things favorable

• Policy of Aggression• State Imperialism

Model India 43

in India and they showed little interest in acquiring territories in India. The company officials in India took the initiative of conquest and coloni-sation without any policy directives from London. Political fragmentation and instability in India after the decline of Mughals offered a favourable condition for British to pursue their goals. The company, which initially came for trade, was now fulfilling fiscal and military needs.

However, it would be naive to assume that the government in England was oblivious to the happenings in Indian subcontinent. It was apparent from the beginning that the company and the state had unison goal to further England’s diplomatic goals. Crown and Company were in sym-biotic relationship with company offering liberal loans and grants to the Crown while Crown reciprocated with security and free hand in trade.

Conclusion

The examination of early Presidency system in India testifies Crown’s involvement in colonisation of India. Also, the technical advancement of Europe in the middle of eighteenth century aided policy of aggres-sion and state imperialism by proxy. There was no formal instruction to the company officials stationed in India, either from Court of Directors of the East India Company or the government, to acquire territory in India. But they never discouraged the political subjugation of Indian states either, as Company became a powerful engine to draw largest rev-enues possible from a distant country.

Q.TheBattleofPlasseywasnotfoughtinthebattlegroundbutwasconspiredinthecourtofMurshidabad.Examinethisstatementinthelightofmercantileforcesworkingatthattime.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Battle of Plassey was the consequence of the quest of trading privi-leges and the imperatives of military exigencies of the East India Company on one hand, and the interests of Indian and European mercantile community on the other. None of them could resist the advances of the new nawab Siraj-ud-daulah who was trying to reorder the balance of pow-er in Bengal.

Key Points

• Indian and European Mercantile forces

• Abuse of Dastak• Factionalism in Court• Plassey – a great betrayal


CompanyandtheConspiracy

The seeds of strife in Bengal were sown by successive Mughal Emperors including Aurangzeb, who gave the company trading privileges in the form of farmans, zamindari rights and dastak. Rampant use of dastak by the Company caused heavy revenue losses to the Nawab, resulting in consistent conflicts. Threatened by the French and a lack of trust in the Nawab, forced the English to undertake fortifications at Calcutta.

Siraj, the new young and aggressive nawab, saw these developments as an attack on the sovereignty of Bengal. He attacked Calcutta and cap-tured it. The British under the leadership of Robert Clive made use of factionalism in the court of Murshidabad. Merchants, bankers, new za-mindars and financiers felt threatened by the policy of nawab, who was asserting his independence. They colluded with Clive and hatched the conspiracy to replace Siraj with his commander-in-chief Mir Jafar, who was also a confidant of Jagat Seth – a vital cog in the coup d’etat.

Finally in June 1757, Siraj was defeated by Clive at Plassey in an en-counter which was more of a skirmish than a battle. The largest contin-gent under Mir Jafar remained inactive during the battle. Siraj was later caught and put to death by the son of Mir Jafar. The Company and Clive received huge compensation from the new Nawab. This was followed by the plunder of Plassey.

Conclusion

Thus, Plassey was a great betrayal and paved the way for English rule in India. If it was not for the prevailing mercantile forces in Bengal under Jagat Seth, the English win was virtually impossible. The courtiers in the Murshidabad court scripted the battle even before it was fought.

Q.The art of Dupleix to intervene in disputes of Indianrulers and acquire political control over vast territorieswaslaterperfectedbytheEnglish.DiscusswhytheFrenchunderDupleixwereunabletoestablishanempireinIndiadespitehavingresourcesandreadiness.

Model Answer

Introduction

Though the French were the last European power to arrive on the shores of India, they were the first to envisage the idea of establishing territori-

Model India 45

al empire in India. With the arrival of Dupleix, who came as the governor of Chandernagore (1731), began the po-litical conquest of India by the French. He adopted a policy of intervening in the disputes of native rulers and later acquiring political control over vast territories.

FrenchConquest

Dupelix took charge of Pondicherry (1742) and soon attacked the British in Madras. The feudal disputes provided ground for Anglo-French conflict and gave Dupleix an opportunity to earn political and financial concessions from native rulers. Support of Muzaffar Jung for the post of Nizam earned them the jagir of Masulipatnam – a major port town.

CausesofFailure

Dupleix and his successors, especially Lally, were arrogant and rash in their approach. It proved counterproductive as their own supporters be-came hostile to them. Also because of successive wars, the French com-pany suffered huge financial losses. This displeased the government and Dupleix was recalled. Imperialists in France were keen to retain their possessions in North America. Also, when compared to the British, the French had an inferior navy. The British also had much more resources at their disposal than the French.

Conclusion

It is argued that the key to rule India, which Dupleix was search-ing in Pondicherry, was actually in Bengal. He made some wrong moves and miscalculations. There was no attempt to liaison with the Mughal Emperor who still was the political head of the subcontinent. Subsequently, the British were able to wipe the French out of the shores of India. The French East India Company wound up its operation in 1769, bringing an end to its Indian adventure of nearly a century.

Q.The British Empire in India was established in a fit ofabsentmindedness.Doyouagree?

Key Points

• Policy of Intervention• Feudal disputes in India• Lack of support from

government• Weak Navy


Model Answer

Introduction

There is a view that the parliament in England and its legislators were oblivious of the doings of the East India Company in India. They knew little about the territorial conquest and financial riches appropriated by

the company officials. In the pro-cess of extending imperial trade policies, the territories were ac-quired which left the company with no other choice but to rule them. This argument however rests upon a weak premise.

TheRoleoftheBritishState

Right from the beginning the British state participated in and profited from the empire. But the communication from England was weak and intermittent which gave free hand to the Company in Indian affairs. The fate of the company depended wholly on the renewal of charter. In re-turn the government officials were bribed and heavy subscription fee was paid. And there was clear mandate to divide the booty between the company and the royal army, if the latter participated in any joint ven-ture. With parliamentary intervention (1766), the company had to pay 400,000 pounds to the government annually.

CompanyinIndia

Company officials stationed in India were driven by the idea of sub-imperialism. They were inspired by the imperial intellectual and politi-cal crosscurrents at home. In addition to this, the pressure from natives made them tighten their screws over the administration. Since the ar-rival of British in India, they worked on the principle of delegated sov-ereignty, extended to them by the parliament. Also there was a section, which considered that it was the white man’s burden to civilise back-ward people.

Conclusion

It can be safely argued that there was not a planned conspiracy on part of British government to subjugate Indian subcontinent. The process of colonisation was initiated without national cognisance. It was an adven-ture of a few Englishmen who had no illusion about their deeds. The Government played the role of a facilitator with least care for the locals.

Key Points

• No parliamentary sanction• Territories for trade• Company had free hand• Idea of sub – Imperialism

Model India 47

Q.CommentontherelationsbetweentheBritishParliamentand the East India Company, in the light of the variouslegislativemeasurestakeninthe18thandearly19thcentury.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Company was dependent on the government for charters and in return paid the state heavy revenues. Later when the company grew enor-mously the parliament felt the need to bring it in the ambit of the state. Company officials like Clive & Hastings saw formal constitutional re-lations as the legitimisation of their authority and power.

Legislationinthe18thCentury

The Regulating Act of 1773 formally recognised the parliamentary right to control Indian affairs. It made the governor of Bengal the governor general and the Supreme Court was established. The court of director became the channel between the company and the government, with control over governor general. Later, the Pitts India Act of 1784 brought more direct government control. It also brought clarity in the hierarchy of command. The Charter Act of 1793 gave the company possession of all territories. This Act introduced in India a concept of civil law to be enacted by a secular human agency and applied universally.

Legislationsin19thCentury

The Charter Act of 1813 was an expression of the free trade policy of the House of Commons and demands of Benthamite reformists and Evangelists. This act asserted the authority of the Crown on the com-pany. The Company was denied monopoly of trade with India, However its monopoly of China trade was retained. Christian Missionaries were allowed access to India as well. In 1833, the Charter Act abolished the company’s monopoly over China trade reducing the company to only a political authority. The Governor General of Bengal was made Governor General of India. Lord Macaulay joined the council as a law member and law commission for codification of law was instituted. Later, the Charter Act, 1853 separated the executive and legislative functions of the Council and introduced the competition for recruitment of ICS.

Key Points

• Need for charter• High Revenue demand• Regulating Act, 1773• GOI Act, 1858

Key Points

• Need for charter• High Revenue demand• Regulating Act, 1773• GOI Act, 1858


Conclusion

In the aftermath of the 1857 revolt, the Crown took direct control of India. Thus the process of clipping the wings of the Company, which started with Charter Act, 1813, culminated in Government of India Act of 1858. But the new Act was a mere continuation than change in British policy. In fact the liberal policy was jettisoned for the new attitude of caution and conservatism. Thus, the company prepared the ground for the Crown to take over in 1858.

Q.PermanentSettlement, ineffect, created the institutionof private property. Discuss the rationale, features andfailureofthenewlandrevenuesystem.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Permanent Settlement of 1793 was brought by Lord Cornwallis (1784) to bring uniformity and regular-ity in the land revenue system of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Taking a cue from landlordism in England, Cornwallis for the first time recognised private owner-ship of land. This made the revenue col-lector, the landowner having propriety right over the land.

Rationale

During the reign of Warren Hastings, rampant corruption and lack of understanding of the local situation led to complete disorganisation of the agrarian economy. This affected the population in times of famine and the company faced loss of revenue and raw materials. In this con-text, Permanent settlement was introduced with the policy of assess-ment forever. It envisaged decline in corruption, investment in land, in-creased production, enhanced income of the cultivators and maximum revenue for the company.

Features

The land revenue was fixed at absolute maximum as it was fixed in per-petuity. Settlement was made with the zamindars due the administrative

Key Points

• Policy of assessment• Landlordism• Sunset Law• Absentee landlordism

Model India 49

ease in collecting revenue and ensuring loyalty of the powerful class. Zamindars enjoyed absolute right over the land. However, a sunset law was also enacted which mandated landlords to deposit fixed revenue by a particular day, failing which zamindari rights could be given to some other Zamindars.

Failures

Permanent Settlement shifted the burden to the peasant. In addition to revenue they were also made to pay illegal cess. Zamindars could seize their property without court order. It resulted in poverty and rural in-debtness. Absentee landlordism became a common phenomenon while villages were infested with money lenders. Subinfeudation, which pro-liferated up to 12 grades between peasants and zamindars, was another damaging repercussion of new revenue system.

Conclusion

Permanent settlement had best of intentions but it was reduced to a blundering affair. It is argued that it gave tranquility to the countryside and stability to the government. But it was short-lived. Soon after a se-ries of uprisings, both peasants and tribals, emerged in different parts of Bengal and Orissa region. Permanent Settlement initiated, for peasants, a never ending phase of absolute poverty which till then suffered only from relative poverty.

Q.Aimedtoplaceproprietyrightsinthehandsoffortytofiftythousandsmallproprietorsinsteadoffourtofivethousandgreatones,theRyotwarisystemendedupgivingproprietyrighttoonesupremelandlord.Criticallyevaluate.

Model Answer

Introduction

Disillusioned by landlordism in wake of Scottish Enlightenment and in-spired by Utilitarian ideas, the Ryotwari system was initiated first by Alexander Reed (1792) and then continued by Thomas Munro from 1801 in Madras presidency. Financial crisis of Madras region

Key Points

• Abolishing Intermediaries• Improper Land assessment• Reduction in Tax revenue• Social Conflict


and rising expenses of war was another contributing factor for the new system. The aim was to collect revenue from each cultivator and abolish the intermediaries.

WhyNewSettlement?

Thomas Munro argued that the Ryotwari Settlement is an Indian con-cept. It is an ancient Indian land revenue system best suited to the Indian conditions. It would also give the empire a unified concept of sovereign-ty. He believed that elimination of the mighty poligars would strengthen the root of British rule in India on one hand and would reduce the bur-den on the peasants on other. In the medieval period, land was owned by the state and the hierarchy of officers collected land revenue, a system that Munro wanted to revive.

IllsofRyotwari

The ground reality differed starkly from what Munro envisaged. In many areas, land assessment was not done and the ryot was assessed on an ar-bitrary basis. One major flaw was the fact that revenue paid was fixed on the entire farm of the ryots, not on each field. It brought discrepancy in the assessment as each field might have varying irrigation facility and thus different levels of productivity. This arrangement was also called Putcut system. Over assessment was a common practice. Right of con-traction or relinquishment (freedom to take land) was dropped in 1833. Village elites did not vanish, in fact it strengthened in some areas.

Evaluation

Ryotwari system in subsequent years did reduce the real tax burden. Agriculture did prosper and cultivation was extended. Money lenders and rich farmers could not dispossess the peasants as they could do in Permanent settlement. But these benefits were very less. Redefined property rights intensified the social conflicts. Land magnates were able to convert their collective rights into individual property rights. Government remained indifferent to the plight of the peasants.

Q.Bring out the features of various land revenue systemsbroughtoutbytheBritishinvariouspartsofIndia,withspecialfocusonMahalwariSystem.

Model India 51

Model Answer

Introduction

Ever since their arrival in India, the British never concealed their eco-nomic ambitions. Various prevailing ideologies like utilitarianism and

free trade provided impetus and le-gitimacy for bringing transforma-tion in the agrarian economy of the subcontinent. Their sole aim was to appropriate maximum revenue from the farmers, peasants, and the landlords. For this to happen, the revenue system was to be over-hauled. The consequential social and political changes were just by products, never an objective.

Features

Starting from the late 18th century and till the middle of the 19th century, the company administration devised three systems of land revenue by the middle of nineteenth century. By certain crude estimates, in 1928-29, about 29 per cent of cultivable land in British India was under Permanent Settlement, 29 per cent under Mahalwari and 52 % under Ryotwari. Permanent settlement covered Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, East UP and North Madras Ryotwari was implemented in Madras, Bombay, Assam, Coorg and Sind. Punjab, West UP and central India came under Mahalwari system.

However a few strands were common in all these settlements. Private property in land was created and propriety rights were awarded to dif-ferent groups. Over assessment was used to maximise the revenue in-come. Peasants were subjected to impoverishment, indebtness and dis-possession. Landlords and the elite class were not spared either.

MahalwariSystem

This system emphasised on the role of village community in revenue administration. In the North West province, talukdars and primary za-mindars worked as the instrument of revenue collection for the state since medieval times. But when the rates were kept very high by the British, these talukdars opposed. In response, the British liquidated them with utter ruthlessness.

Key Points

• Maximum revenue appropriation

• Land as Private Property• Impoverishment of

peasants• Mahalwari in North West

Region


In this system, revenue on entire mahal or village (fiscal unit) was fixed on the basis of net value of potential produce. The revenue was to be paid by the members of mahal. Two – thirds of the net income of the land would be given to the state. This settlement was for 30 years. But the ills of other settlements plagued Mahalwari as well. Dispossession, coercion, debt burden and arrears of revenue aggrieved the rural soci-ety, which was expressed violently in the revolt of 1857.

Q.CharttheevolutionofthejudicialsystemundertheBritishruleanditsimpactonthelocalpopulation.

Model Answer

Introduction

After getting diwani rights in 1765, the British felt the need to centralise the legal system so that people can be-come accustomed to the Company’s sovereignty.

Evolution

The following three phases outline the judicial reforms carried out by the British.

Phase I Warren Hastings, after his arrival in 1772, decided to take full control of the justice system and free it from any Indian ele-ment. The new system had two courts – Diwani or Civil and Faujdari or Criminal. Muslim Law was to be applied in Criminal Justice and Muslim or Hindu law was to apply in civil justice. Civil courts were pre-sided over by Europeans who were assisted by Maulvis and Brahman pundits. Criminal courts were under a kazi and a mufti, supervised by Europeans. Sadar Diwani Adalat served as an appeal court. Jurisdiction of Supreme Court established by Regulating Act, 1773 was limited to factories dependent on Fort William.

Phase II Under Cornwallis, revenue collection was separated from the administration of civil justice. It was done to safeguard property rights against abuse of power by revenue officials. The new system created a hierarchy of courts from District to four Provincial courts and the Sadar Diwani Adalat with appellate jurisdiction. Courts of circuits re-placed Faujdari courts. Needless to say, all courts were presided over by Europeans.

Key Points

• Controlled judiciary• Separation of revenue

collection• Hierarchy of courts• Reforms by Macaulay

Model India 53

Phase III The arrival of Lord Bentinck and the Charter Act, 1833 gave finishing touch to the judiciary. The Act threw judicial positions to Indians and the Law Commission under Lord Macaulay codified laws – IPC in 1860 and CrPC in 1862. The codes sought to establish the univer-sal principles of jurisdiction. But this universality was limited to British India.

ImpactonIndians

These reforms, for the first time, institutionalised the civil justice sys-tem. But it created problems for ordinary Indians who found the new laws difficult to comprehend. They lost the options of variety of judicial procedures. They became physically and psychologically far from the justice. Dominance of lawyers made the justice expensive and time con-suming. Punitive justice replaced mutual resolution of conflict. The only continuity from the old system was that the feudal elements continued to get benefits.

Q.Lord Wellesley championed aggressive expansionism inIndia which asserted the Company’s supreme authority.DiscusstheroleofWellesleywithparticularreferencetosubsidiaryalliancesystem.

Model Answer

Introduction

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) embarked upon an aggressive expansion of the British Empire as soon as he took office of governor general. The time was ripe for British expansion, as the great powers of Mughal and

Maratha were declining. The eco-nomic rationality also supported ex-pansion as the sale of finished prod-uct from Britain would be on a large scale only when whole of India is con-quered. The Napoleonic invasion of Egypt worked as tool for him to soften London’s resistance to expansion.

MethodsofWellesley

Through Subsidiary alliance he could place a resident in the court of the local rulers. Thus the internal affairs were controlled without any

Key Points

• Declining native powers• Subsidiary Alliance• Power without

Responsibility• Forward Policy


direct imperial liability. He created conditions where he could intervene in the princely states on the pretext of bringing tranquility. The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first victim, Thanjore, Mysore, Awadh, Puna, Gwalior followed later. But Mysore under Tipu did not go down without a war. It resulted in the Fourth Anglo – Mysore War. The states under Subsidiary alliance were supposed to pay tributes to the company and in return they were given autonomy in internal affairs and security from external aggression.

Wars

Wellesley fought two important wars during his regime. He led the British troops against Tipu Sultan. Tipu anticipating attacks from the British started negotiating with French who were on the resurgence. This made Wellesley to lead a final assault on Mysore. After Tipu’s death, Mysore was brought under Subsidiary alliance. Motivated by his zeal to conquer the whole of India, Wellesley took on the Marathas – last indigenous power in the subcontinent. It resulted in the second Anglo-Maratha War which stretched for two years (1803-1805).

Conclusion

Wellesley’s forward policy drained the empire of its wealth. The Court of Directors were dissatisfied with him and he was recalled in 1805.

Q.CriticallyanalysethepolicyofParamountcyasadoptedbyLordHastings.

Model Answer

Introduction

When Lord Hastings was appointed as governor general in 1813, he ini-tiated a new policy of Paramountcy, which gave primacy to the interests

of the company over those of oth-er powers in India. To protect such interests the company could an-nex the territories of any Indian state.

Paramaountcy

The Princely states were made to sign the treaties which reduced

Key Points

• Primacy of Imperial interest

• Company as suzerain power

• Resident as virtual ruler• Population at receiving end

Model India 55

Indian states with domestic sovereignty, while sovereignty beyond their territory lay with the Imperial power. The provisions of treaty varied according to the circumstances they were signed in—the status of the prince and size of the states. But there were certain uniformities as well. Princely states recognised company as the suzerain power; they could not enter into diplomatic relations with or wage war against any other state. They were not allowed to employ other Europeans and Americans. They no more enjoyed sovereignty over the railway tracks running in their territory. Foreign affairs were highly restricted. Similarly the com-pany also regulated the communication channels of the states.

Analysis

The basic tenant of the policy of Paramountcy was in consonance with the changing role of the British—from economic to political, in India. This policy expanded the resources of the company – both fi-nancial and manpower. It gave them authority without responsibility. For the princely states, this arrangement did cause great discomfort. The Resident interfered in the politics of the court. The Resident became the virtual ruler. However, a few princes used the faults in the organisational division of the company to retain the autonomy. Some tried to co-opt, appropriate and manipulate the political officers to their advantage and very few resisted this interference. But ultimately the native populations were at a loss. Any chance of modernisation, political reforms and con-stitutional changes were denied to them.

Q.India’s underdevelopment under British was not due toanylackofentrepreneurialskillsofIndian.Inthiscontextcomment on the status of Indian industrialists andbusinessclassinBritishIndia.

Model Answer

Introduction

India and Britain were in a classical colonial economic relationship. The resources in India were to be used for India as well as for the Imperial cause as well. India was reduced as the source of raw material and market for finished products. To maximise the profit and its drain to England, any local entrepreneurship was discouraged by tariffs and duties.


EconomicScenario

There was unbridled import of fin-ished products from England to India till the First World War, while exports from India were taxed. Lack of import duty robbed Indian indus-tries of any protection from highly efficient British industries. This ar-rangement was not in any other British Dominion, except India. Infrastructure such as road and rail-ways were built specifically to suit British imports and exports. Only

those sites were connected to ports, which could supply raw materials or were market for British goods. There was no inter-connection between these sites. The drain of wealth deprived potential surplus generated in India to be invested back in India for more economic growth.

IndianEntrepreneurs

The British had adopted a policy of discriminatory intervention by ex-erting non-market pressures on the Indian entrepreneurs. Indians had no access to capital resources, unlike their British counterparts. Through the Chambers of Commerce, the industrial class also influenced govern-ment policies and eliminated indigenous competition. Natives were ig-nored while granting ownerships to tea, jute and coal industries.

Conclusion

However, a few Indian investors became part of board of European industries. People like G.D. Birla and Swarupchand Hukumchand set up their own mills in 1922. Later they expanded to several other industries. Indian industrialists relentlessly improvised the use of old machinery, manipulated raw materials and accessed the cheap labour. They also made profits by occupying the imperial division of those economic activities which was less profitable and more risky for Europeans liking.

Q.IndianNationalismhadauniqueemergence.Whileitwasaproductofcolonialmodernity, ittookseveralyearstocreateanationalisticideologyandnationalconsciousness.Criticallyanalyse.

Key Points

• India as supplier of raw materials as well as market

• No protection for Indian merchants

• Policy of discriminatory intervention

• Rise of few Indian merchants

Model India 57

Model Answer

Introduction

There is little doubt that a territorial sense of nationalism in Indians germinated after the arrival of the British. The British successfully car-ried the administrative and political amalgamation of hundreds of vari-

ous small chiefdoms and king-doms. Though it benefitted the colonisers, it also helped the Indian leaders to forge national unity and claim their right of self-determination.

IndianNationalism

After colonisation, regional soli-darities were consolidated into a broader cultural notion. Indians shared a common antipathy to

British, an urge of patriotism and a sense of pride in India’s ancient tra-ditions. Introduction of western education and political representation led to the creation of a western educated middle class. It can also be argued that due to domination of elites, early nationalism was captive in the hands of self-seeking leaders who pursued their own narrow goals. Another argument is that the Indian nationalist movement was a popu-lar movement of various classes.

Analysis

It was due to class, caste and religious divisions that the sense of na-tionhood and the subsequent anti-colonial struggle was delayed. Till the arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the majority of population consisting of under privileged class, women and non-elites could not participate in the constitutional politics. It was Gandhi who took the anti-British struggle to the masses. He realised that India was not yet a structured nation. It was a nation in making. Nehru later emphasised that India is not a mere emulation of west, it has evolved by critically analysing western modernity. The Indian principles of ethical conduct with a scientific approach guided the new nation.

Q.TheIndiansubcontinentinthe18thcenturywasmarredbypeasantuprisings.Howevertherewasashiftinthepeasantideologyandpoliticalconsciousnessafter1857.Comment.

Key Points

• Nationalism as response to colonization

• Common sense of antipathy• Many movements with a

movement• Mass mobilization by Gandhi• India nationalism different

form Western


Model Answer

Introduction

The conditions of the peasants under the British went from bad to worse with each passing decade. Peasants had to satisfy the relentless greed of

European planters, merchants and na-tive landlords. However, the peasant response was more subtle and consti-tutional unlike violent uprisings of yesteryears. They were aware of colo-nial policies, laws and institutions. They even embraced and believed in these institutions. They frequented courts to seek redressal of injustices meted out to them.

NewFeatures

The educated middle class became the spokesperson of the aggrieved peasantry. It not only became the channel of communication between rural society and the administration, they also created awareness about the plight of this class through writings in press as well as books. Neel Darpan by Dinabandhu Mitra was one such masterful work about the quandry of indigo farmers of Bengal.

Bringing the peasant issue to the wider arena of institutional politics built immense pressure on the planters to behave. Non-violence was an-other feature of these movements. Pabna movement for instance was largely non-violent, remained within the contours of law and believed in the British justice system.

Conclusion

Agrarian leagues, in response to high landlordism, came up in differ-ent parts of Bengal. The landlords defied all laws, made arbitrary incre-ment in the rents and imposed illegal abwabs. Though many landlords were of different faiths, the nature of movement was never communal. However when the landlords came under attack, the support of middle class became ambivalent. Religion continued playing an important role in rebellions as seen in Kuka rebellion of 1872, which was aimed to pu-rify Sikhism.

Key Points

• Non violent & constitutional response

• Role of educated class• Aware of the colonial

laws, policies• Faith in the public

institutions• Religion still a force

Model India 59

Q.Discuss the ideological foundation of modern Indiannationalism.WhatwerethefactorsthatforcedtheeducatedelitesinIndiatointrospectintotheirownculture?

Model Answer

Rise of nationalism is often aided by industrialisation and urbanisation. It was no different in the case of India as well. Indians envisaged Indian modernity that was modern but not western and created their own do-main of sovereignty. For this to happen the cultural construction of in-digenous superiority was necessary.

IdeologicalFoundation

There was a sense of traditional patriotism even before the arrival of British which was manifested in attachment to land, language and cult. The Mughal emperor was always recognised as sole emperor of the sub-continent. British occupation was always resented due to its deviation from ethical tradition of good government and proselytizing propagan-da. Colonial policies became more conservative after the revolt of 1857.

The likes of Rammohun Roy initiated a modest constitutional agi-tation for separation of powers, freedom of press, trial by jury and Indianisation of services. Educated middle class was getting aware of the fact that absence of political liberty is the cause of their misery and degradation. However none of these demands were incorporated in Government of India Act, 1853. Indian Councils Act, 1861 gave limited representation in the legislative council. It was only by the Act of 1892 that limited electoral system was introduced.

Factors

The racial discrimination, threat of conversion and import of reformist ideology of administrators made Indians to introspect. It resulted in the process of objectification of culture, amenable to contemporary needs. The nineteenth century social and religious reforms were part of this cultural project. The purpose was to purify and rediscover the Indian civilisation, which not only had European ideals in it but also was su-perior in spiritual accomplishment. The idea was to fashion a modern national culture whose spiritual quotient was superior to European ma-terialistic ideals.

These cultural constructions gave Indians a common ground to re-organise and an ideological inspiration to confront the colonial state.


Q.TracethecircumstancesunderwhichtheIndianNationalCongress was born and analyse the composition of theearlyCongressleadership.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Indian National Congress was formed at a national convention held in Bombay in December 1885. The first president was W.C. Bonnerji.

A.O. Hume, a retired civil ser-vant, played an instrumental role in bringing nationalist leaders of different regions un-der one organisation. There is also a theory that the Congress was formed to serve as a safety valve to seething discontent

among lower classes against British. However, this theory was discarded by most of the historians.

Circumstances

Attempts to form an all India forum was made in the past as well. But it was thwarted by the mutual jealousy and regional rivalry of leaders. But Hume was acceptable to all due to his supra regional identity and liberal politics. Group of educated Indians were already active in all three presi-dencies. There was widespread protest against missionary interventions and Lex Loci Act, 1850. In 1867, demands for balanced budget and agi-tation against proposed income tax surged.

Later in 1877, the issue of Indianisation of civil services and Lytton’s Afghan adventures fuelled the discontent. The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 and reluctance to implement Ilbert Bill dented the faith of edu-cated Indians in the righteousness of British rule.

Composition

Early Congress members were from Western educated professional group of lawyers, merchants, bankers, landowners, journalists, doctors and educationists. In the social composition, most of them were high caste Hindus. Between 1892 and 1909, nearly 90 per cent of delegates were Hindus and only 6.5 per cent were Muslims. Among Hindus, 40 per cent were Brahmins and the remaining were from the upper caste.

Key Points

• Protest against missionaries• Discriminating legislations• Western educated middle class• Mostly Hindu upper class

Model India 61

The first Congress session was attended by seventy-two non-official Indians. Thirty-eight of them came from Bombay, twenty-one from Madras and only four from Bengal. The trend was a clear indication that the domination of Bengal in Indian politics was on the decline.

Conclusion

In the beginning, congress members were clear that their agenda was not to drive English out of India. They relied on methods such as pe-titions and memoranda. Nevertheless, Congress was able to forge an overarching national unity and raised political demands.

Q.TheearlynationalismofCongresswaslimitedtoeconomicnationalism. Critically analyse in light of achievementsandfailuresofmoderatesofthisera.

Model Answer

Introduction

The first twenty years of Congress politics was moderate in nature. They just wanted reforms, not expulsion of British. But these moderate

Congressmen posed a few constitution-al and economic questions to the ruler. They wanted self governing rights as en-joyed by other colonies such as Canada and Australia.

EconomicNationalism

The economic critique of the British Empire was one of the biggest achieve-ments of early nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice M.G. Randade and RC

Dutt. They demanded Indianised civil service so that drainage of money in payment and pension could be stopped. Moderates demanded that British government should evenly share military expenditures.

But the major thrust of this critique was on Indian poverty created by free trade practice. They in unequivocal terms blamed the British government for famines and poverty in India. The British had reduced India to a dependent agrarian economy and a field for foreign capital investment, whose profit was expatriated through drainage of wealth. Drain theory became the major theme of opposition. The home charges,

Key Points

• Drain of Wealth• Poverty and famine

due to British policy• Attack on false

colonial morality• Most moderates were

aristocrats themselves


military charges and guaranteed interest payments on railways invest-ments came under severe criticism. High revenue demands have result-ed in land alienation and impoverishment of poverty.

AchievementsandFailures

Though most of the economic critique and subsequent recommenda-tions were unnoticed, this exercise had its own political and ethical sig-nificance. By linking Indian poverty to colonialism, they corroded the moral authority of government who till now projected themselves as the only saviour of poor in India. They generated anger against the British rule, which manifested in emergence of firebrand nationalism later.

However the social background of moderates betrayed their moral opposition to the British. Most of them were landed aristocrats and represented commercial class. This prevented Congress from taking pro-working class position. The India capitalists class themselves were exploiters of workers on their mills. There was very little representa-tion of Muslims in the Congress. They lost opportunity to win over the Muslims by failing to criticise cow-killing riots of 1893.

Q.Compare and contrast thenationalismofBal GangadharTilakandGopalKrishnaGokhale.

Model Answer

Introduction

Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gandhi’s immedi-ate predecessors in the Indian independence movement, could not be more contrasting figures. Tilak is often portrayed as an extremist while

Gokhale was considered a moderate. Yet their individual contributions, while so different from each other, were reli-ant upon a constant interaction – each responding to the other’s pronounce-ments and policies.

ComparativeAnalysis

Both Tilak and Gokhale belonged to Chitpavan Brahmin community and

were from same district – Ratnagiri. Gopal Krishna Gokhale believed in the instrumentality of British raj in bringing social reforms in Hindu

Key Points

• Common culture • Extremist vs.

constitutionalist • Mode of operation• Ideals for nationalism• Enduring legacy

Model India 63

society. But unlike his predecessor, he believed that social reform is not an end in itself. In fact, it was a necessary perquisite for political change rendering British rule unnecessary. So Gokhale’s idea was to uproot British by using their own tool of education, reforms and constitutional process. In 1902 he succeeded Sir Pherozeshah Mehta as member of the Imperial Legislative Council and caused embarrassment to the govern-ment by severely attacking their exploitative policies, particularly, eco-nomic.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, however, was more overt in his intent and ac-tion. His life philosophy was in a general way based on Hindu dharma. His religious sensibilities also influenced his political actions. He turned Ganapati puja, which was always a domestic or family affair, into an an-nual public festival. He imbibed politics in it and used it to bridge the gap between the Brahmin dominated Congress and the non-Brahman masses. He also introduced Shivaji Festival to commemorate the coro-nation of Shivaji Maharaja. These initiatives acted as important vehicles for disseminating such ideas and training a cadre for such groups. By 1900, these festivals became overtly political and acquired militant tone.

DignifiedDissent

As the freedom movement gained momentum, the Moderates began to lose ground to firebrand leaders like Tilak. Differences between Gokhale and Tilak began to become more and more pronounced, but it is to their credit that they did not allow their political ideologies to come in the way of their friendship. When Tilak was arrested, a rumour was spread that the order had been passed at Gokhale’s behest, Tilak refused to be-lieve the allegations against Gokhale.

Conclusion

Despite their different modes of operation, one can’t dispute their na-tionalism and urge for a better India for Indians. Gandhiji later syn-thesised the nationalist tendencies of Tilak and the moral principles of Gokhale to give the independence movement its ultimate form and suc-cess.

Q.FailureofmoderatestoelicitthedesiredresponsefromtheBritishandthelosingappealofmoderateideologymadethe rise of extremism in Indian nationalism inevitable.Analyse.


Model Answer

Introduction

By the end of the 19th century, it was apparent that moderate politics had lost its sheen. Moderates gave way to the rise of new reactionary trend in Congress, referred to as Extremist trend. Unlike the moderates who were more cautious and circumspect in the methods, the new trend relied on aggressive politics. This extremism developed in three main regions – in Bengal under Bipin Chandra Pal, in Maharashtra under Bal Gangadhar Tilak and in Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai.

Factors

One of the major reasons behind the rise of extremism was frustration with moderate politics. Moderates ran the Congress by an undemo-cratic constitution, much to the agony of the likes of Tilak. After much persuasion by Tilak, a new constitution was drafted and ratified in 1899 but was never put to use. Factionalism in the public life was a norm at the turn of century. It was most evident in Maharashtra where Tilak and Gokhale contested for controlling Poona Sarvajanik Sabha. When Tilak gained control over it in 1895, Gokhale started another organisation named Deccan Sabha. Madras was divided into Mylapur clique, Egmore clique and Suburban elite.

Financially unstable, the social reformism of moderates went against popular orthodoxy. It surfaced during Poona Congress where moderates proposed a national social conference in tandem with regu-lar session of the Congress. Moreover, the British never paid heed to the demands of the moderates, which most of the time remained un-fulfilled.

Conclusion

Finally the arrival of Lord Curzon and his racial arrogance against na-tive Indians, provided motivation to the Extremists in the Congress to abandon a peripheral role and control the helm of affairs to commit to a path of more direct and belligerent confrontation with colonial rule.

Q.SwarajorSelf-rule,beforethearrivalofMahatmaGandhi,wasputtomultipleinterpretations.Comment.

Model India 65

Model Answer

Introduction

Breaking away from the earlier stand of the Congress, of reforms under British rule, the extremists adopted a more overt and vocal strategy to

assert their rights. The goal of the extremists was Swaraj which various leaders interpreted differently.

DifferentInterpretations

For Tilak, Swaraj meant control of administration of India in the hands of Indians without severing ties with Great Britain. Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates

of Swaraj and a strong radical in Indian consciousness. His famously said “Swaraj is my birth right, and I shall have it”. For Bipin Chandra Pal, Swaraj meant complete freedom from British control and complete autonomy. Similar to Bipin Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh in Bengal also visual-ized Swaraj as absolute political independence.

However, for most of the other nationalists, Swaraj still meant self rule within British imperial structures. But overall the popular construction of Swaraj ideology was political in nature, meaning political autonomy.

GandhiandSwaraj

Gandhi in his Hind Swaraj (1909) broadened the meaning of Swaraj. For him Swaraj meant not just to address the obvious historical circum-stances of British colonial rule over India, but to ponder over the ques-tion that why the Western ideology such as capitalism, industrialism, imperialism and nationalism had come to dominate the world. With the help of Swaraj, he sought to not only attain the freedom to govern itself as a polity, but Indian civilisation had to come back into its own with its full array of social, economic, political and moral forms of life, some traditional and some modern.

Conclusion

Extremists adopted radical methods of agitation. They registered their protest by violation of unjust law, boycott of British goods and insti-tutions. They focused on development of indigenous alternatives like Swadeshi and national education. New regional literature that highlight-

Key Words

• Complete independence • Self rule under British• Gandhi – political as well

as moral liberation• Radical opposition• Swaraj to Swadeshi


ed India’s distinct cultural heritage provided the ideological inspiration to the extremists.

Q.DoyouagreewiththeargumentthatSwadeshimovementwasthebestexpressionofextremistpolitics?Bringoutthefactorsandnatureofmassparticipationinthemovement.

Model Answer

Introduction

Swadeshi movement began as an agitation against the partition of Bengal in 1905. Lord Curzon in his devilish design aimed to weaken

the vigorous political opposition in Bengal. The partition plan was based on the religious division rather than linguistic divisions as suggested by officials. On the pre-text of administrative ease, Lord Curzon wanted to make Bengali Hindus who were the most ex-treme brand of nationalists, a mi-nority in their homeland.

Counterproductive

However, the partition of Bengal proved to be counterproductive for the British. Instead of dividing and weakening the Bengalis, it united them further through anti-partition agitation. The Bengali identity cut across the narrow interest groups of class and regional barriers. Horizontal solidarity was achieved due to greater geographical mobility, evolution of literary language and modern communication in the form of news-papers. Even the economic situation of 1890s did not favour the British because of famines and epidemics.

Swadeshi movement which began to secure annulment of partition, started raising bigger political and social issues. It began with boycot-ting British goods and institutions. This led to development of indig-enous alternatives for foreign goods and institutions. Rabindranath Tagore (Swadeshi Samaj) became the main ideologue of “constructive Swadeshi” – non political self strengthening movement with religious revivalism. National education was emphasised upon which led to the foundation of Bengal National College and School in 1906.

Key Points

• Agitation as protest ideology• Constructive Swadeshi• Efforts for mass mobilisation• Focus on Indianisation• Expression of Swaraj in

multifaceted context

Model India 67

Conclusion

Political extremists like Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal sought to change the goal of movement from abrogation of partition to complete independence or Swaraj. For this, mass mobilisation was a pre-requisite. Religion and Samitis became tool for mobilisation. But the mass pene-tration of this movement remained limited which essentially, along with Surat split of 1907, brought the curtains on the Swadeshi Movement. Nonetheless, Swadeshi movement was the first instance in anti-colonial struggle when the efforts for mass mobilisation were made. It also raised fundamental issues of Swaraj in political, social and economic terms. Swadeshi movement indeed was the high time for extremist politics.

Q.DiscussthegrowthofrevolutionaryterrorismindifferentpartsofIndiaintheearlytwentiethcentury.

Model Answer

Introduction

The failure of moderates and the Surat split in 1907 disillusioned the nationalists, especially the new brand of revolutionists who gained

ground after Vande-Mataram Movement or Swadeshi Movement. They felt it was pertinent to keep the political protest alive, even if it is violent. The violent protests nev-er died down in India after the re-volt of 1857.

ExtremistsatDifferentExtremes

In Maharashtra, revolutionary movement was kept alive through physi-cal culture and formation of youth clubs. Chapekar brothers killed W.C. Rand who was responsible for the atrocities in Poona during plague epidemics. Under the influence of Swami Vivekananda, who sought for strong muscles and nerves of steel, physical culture movement also spread in Bengal. Various groups like Anushilan Samiti( Satischandra Basu) and newspapers like Yugantar fanned extremism further. They at-tempted to assassinate oppressive officials and spies and raided wealthy merchants’ houses. Death sentence to Khudiram Bose and Prafullo Chakia and arrests of Aurobindo and Barinder Ghosh were big blows to militant activities.

Key Points

• Physical movement • Alternative to moderates • Boost to nationalist fervor• Annulment of partition

Key Points

• Physical movement• Alternative to moderates• Boost to nationalist fervor• Annulment of partition


Later the capital was transferred from Kolkata to Delhi. The epicen-ter of militant movement also shifted westwards to Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Lala Lajpat Rai was already active here. Also, Bengali revolu-tionists joined the Ghadr group from North America. Rash Bihari Bose operating from Lahore tried to organise an army revolt throughout north India.

BritishResponse

The government always came down heavily on the revolutionaries. The ones caught were hanged or were sentenced to life imprisonment. However, the British did concede some grounds when Morley-Minto Reforms were announced. Partition of Bengal was annulled. They also came up with new a Act during World War I – Defence of India Act, 1915. They also appointed sedition committee to draft the draconian Rowlatt bills.

Conclusion

Revolutionary activities did acquire legitimacy in popular mind and be-came effective alternative to the earlier mendicant policies of the mod-erates. They could also engineer the culture of physical prowess and ag-gression. It did revitalize the will and ability of younger generation to put up fight against the unjust state.

Q.The“AllIndiaMuslimLeaguewasthelogicalculminationoftheAligarhMovement”.Criticallyevaluate.

Model Answer

Introduction

Aligarh Movement initiated by Sir Sayyid Ahmed was the first modern mobilisation of the Muslim population of India. The movement had po-

litical undertones as it sought to assert the Muslim interests in new political structures under British India. However this movement had limited appeal even in United Provinces. Due to its western lib-eral ideology, Muslim conserva-tives opposed the movement. The younger generation too got disillu-

Key Points

• Politics by Sir Sayyid• New emerging strands• Need for political assertion• Disenchanted youth • Representative government

Model India 69

sioned with Aligarh Movement and wanted a new political organisation to voice their demands effectively.

AligarhtoDacca

Sir Sayyid thought that the Muslims being an ex-ruling class were en-titled to a special position of authority and power in the new cosmo-politan British Empire. He considered the Congress as a threat to the interests of Muslims. The silence of Congress on cow killing, riots of 1893 further aggravated this majority phobia. British bureaucracy also supported such sentiments to neutralise the Congress.

Later Muslims started deviating from the existing traditions of Aligarh politics as the orthodox saw it as un-Islamic while it failed to in-spire the young generation. The trend was towards greater Islamisation and anti-British politics. Recognition of Nagri script as official language in court sparked Hindi-Urdu controversy. Later, when in 1906, Morley indicated that representative government will be introduced in India, Muslims got alarmed of being ruled by Hindu dominant Congress.

Finally after meeting Lord Minto in Shimla in 1906, who supported the Muslims cause, an organization for securing a nation within a nation was floated in Dacca. It was called the All India Muslim League with the goals to safeguard political rights and interests of Muslims, seek patron-age of British and maintain inter-communal harmony.

Conclusion

The new political party represented the next stage of political develop-ment that blossomed at Aligarh. However it is argued that the new for-mation was an outcome of political development in Bengal due to parti-tion and efforts of more politicised Bengalis. But the party was domi-nated by UP Muslims with Aligarh as their epicentre.

Q.Critically evaluate the various constitutional reformsbroughtbyBritishinIndia.

Model Answer

Introduction

Early in the 20th century, anti-British activities were on rise particularly in Bengal and Bombay region. Swadeshi movement had created some difficulties in running the administration. Militant nationalism was


also peaking up. In addition to this, among British circles, inspired by Mill’s utilitarian thoughts, there was a call to introduce self-governance

in India. John Stuart Mill believed that democracy and self-government were es-sential check on despotic power but this doctrine was suited only for educated and civilised Indians.

UsheringReforms

British government in India introduced representative self government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Indian

Councils Acts of 1861 established limited self-government in Bengal, Madras and Bombay, which was extended to North West Provinces and Punjab later. The Act of 1892 increased the number of nominated mem-bers in provincial legislative councils. Another reform was the Local Self-Government Act, 1882.

In 1909, Indian Council Act or Morley-Minto reforms were intro-duced. It increased the size of Central Legislative Council to 69 from 18. It also introduced direct elections and separate electorate for Hindu and Muslims. The Monatgu – Chelmsford Reforms introduced diarchy in the provinces. Legislature could vote on the budget and could ask supplementary questions. Size of electorate was increased.

CriticalEvaluation

These reforms failed to satisfy nationalists – both militant and mod-erates. The franchise was limited and separate electorate was based on divide and rule policy. For Indians, diarchy was impractical. With lim-ited franchise and virtually no power to legislature to control executive, responsible government was a distant dream.

In England, it was argued that the reforms were because of the func-tional needs of imperialism. The empire needed Indian collaborators to raise more revenues and its judicious expenditure. Indian Nationalism played a significant role in this devolution of power. However the likes of Sardar Patel and Jawaharlal Nehru termed these reforms as an eyewash. Patel retorted ‘Separate electorate is cancerous substance in Indian pol-ity and we have to surgically remove it’.

Q.“Nationalist movement in India before the arrival ofMahatmaGandhiwasamovementrepresentingtheclassesasopposedtothemasses”.Criticallyanalyse.

Key Points

• Need for Indians in administration

• Burgeoning cost of running the country

• Imperial obligations• Limited franchise

Model India 71

Model Answer

Introduction

Before the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi, the nationalist politics was dom-inated by western educated professionals. They were the beneficiaries of

the opportunities offered by Raj in the form of administrative and legislative positions. Due to their historic advantage they ac-quired new skills and became collaborators with the British. Colonial government also was content by the fact that the Congress represented a micro-scopic minority.

ClassRepresentation

The Congressmen of the early decade of the 20th century belonged main-ly to certain specific castes and communities, linguistic and economic groups living primarily in the presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Though they too wanted change in the socio-economic life in India, but their goals were far from far-reaching. They were more concerned with preserving their class status and creating a new elite so-ciety and culture for themselves.

Unlike this elite class who was more influenced by ideas and ideals of the British aristocracy, Mahatma Gandhi focused to liberate Indian politics from the constricted arena of constitutionalism. Also the early Congress leaders did not try to scale up the membership of Congress by including the lower sections of society like lower caste Hindus and Muslims.

Gandhi’sInfluence

When Gandhi entered the political scene, the politics in India was suf-fering from a self-inflicted impasse. In the popular perception the con-stitutionalists as well as extremists had lost credibility as they could not achieve their stated goals. Gandhi on the other hand, was keen in shift-ing power from elite middle class to hands of masses. He had a vision of a plural society in a united India.

Key Points

• Domination of western ideals• Elite class domination• Microscopic representation• Influence of World War I• Gandhian nationalism rooted

in Indian civilisation


Conclusion

It can be argued that the social upheaval caused by the World War I helped Gandhi’s cause as there occurred massive social and economic dislocations of all classes of Indian population. It resulted in the neces-sary social mobilisation for impending mass upsurge. Unlike the earlier nationalists, Gandhi argued that nationalist ideology should be rooted in Indian and its ancient civilisation, not borrowed from the west.

Q.DiscussthecontributionofHomeRuleLeagueMovementinIndia’sFreedomStruggle.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Home Rule League was the name of two organisations simultane-ously established by Bal Ganagadhar Tilak and British social reformer Annie Besant respectively in 1916. It drew its name from a similar move-ment in Ireland. The leaguers were demanding self government from the colonizer and aimed at spreading the same message to the masses. It had much more reach than earlier mass movements in India.

ContributiontotheFreedomStruggle

It was one of the earliest and most accepted mass mobilisation in Indian freedom struggle. It shifted focus from the elite nationalists to the mass-es. One of the major achievements of this movement was that it pre-pared the ground for the success of Gandhi’s ‘initial Satyagraha. Many of the local leaders of Gandhi’s early Satyagraha came from Home Rule League and the later movements and its leaders used the networks cre-ated by the League.

To a certain extent it did influence the August 1917 declaration of Montagu – Chelmsford reforms. The efforts of Tilak and Besant to bring moderate and extremist faction together revived the Congress. Due to its educative mode, the movement made the masses politically aware. It inflamed the anti-British sentiments in areas which were till then politi-cally backward like Gujarat and Sindh.

Discussion

By 1917-1918, government came down heavily on the Home Rule League with severe repression. The restriction on the movement of Tilak and Besant dampened the campaign. Due to its domination by

Model India 73

the Brahmins, the movement invited opposition of the non-Brahmins. Later the conciliatory attitude of Annie Besant towards the moderates after the announcement of Monatgu-Chelmsford reform, frustrated the young extremists leaders who were the main support base of the move-ment. Thus the league became defunct and the movement fizzled out.

Q.“Rowlatt Satyagraha, more than a mass movement initself,was an indicator of futuremassparticipation forthenationalistcause”.ExaminethestatementinthelightofachievementsandfailuresoftheRowlattSatyagraha.

Model Answer

Introduction

A committee under Justice Rowlatt prepared two bills, which gave the government additional coercive power to deal with political violence. In

Imperial Legislative Assembly, the bill was passed despite unanimous opposition by Indian members. It was the time when the nationalists were ex-pecting post-war constitutional concessions. The repressive Rowlatt Act was a rude shock to them and Gandhi described it as the distrust of common men.

It also underlined the government’s insistence of using arbitrary power and making mockery of constitutional demands and reforms.

RowlattSatyagraha

Gandhi called for a nationwide protest in February 1919. He organised a Satyagraha Sabha in Bombay and inducted Home Rule Leaguers and lo-cal leaders in it. However, soon after the movement lapsed into violence, particularly after the arrest of Gandhi. The local leaders could not han-dle the mob, as they had no prior experience of leading a non-violent peaceful protest. Even Gandhi admitted that he committed a Himalyan blunder by offering the weapons of satyagraha to people insufficiently trained in the discipline of non-violence. By mid April the movement started losing momentum, forcing Gandhi to withdraw it. The move-ment was more effective in urban areas than rural areas. Even in the

Key Points

• Act gave more coercive power to government

• First nation-wide protest• Himalayan Blunder• Widespread violence• Hypocrite government


urban areas it was focused on local grievances than the protest against Rowlatt Act.

But the movement was quite significant in its political manifestations. It was the first nationwide popular agitation. It broke the boundaries of class, including masses in the politics. It provided the people a tool in the form of satyagraha, to act, rather than just giving verbal expression to their grievances. It also made Gandhi aware of the need for an imper-sonal political organisation such as the Congress.

Conclusion

Thought the movement failed to achieve its only aim to repeal the Rowlatt Act, it set the tone for future mass struggle under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The hypocrisy of British government became evi-dent, as on one hand it was promising constitutional reforms, while on another it was unleashing a reign of terror as seen in Jallianwallahbagh.

Q.Identify the ideologies and philosophies of MahatmaGandhithatmadehimleaderofthemassesandSatyagraha,theweaponofthemasses.

Model Answer

Introduction

When Gandhi arrived in India from South Africa, there existed a climate of moral and physical despon-dency. His successful exploits of Satyagraha in South Africa were already a part of nationalist de-bate in India among elite and masses alike. He was fully aware of the power of the non-violent protest and imperative role of the masses in it.

IdeologiesandPhilosophies

Gandhi was fully conscious of the Indian pluralism and deep rooted cultural awareness of the people. His predecessors wanted hegemony of a nationalist ideology which was inspired by western ideology. Gandhi, instead, argued that ideology must be rooted in India and its ancient civilization. He emphasised that popular loyalties in India is determined

Key Points

• Criticised western thoughts• Focus on Indian

civilisations• Recognised religion &

diversity• Satyagraha as a tool

Model India 75

by religion. But he did not want to revive religion but referred to reli-gious morality. He talked of Sawraj but never defined it so that different communities could relate with it. His style of politics recognised diversi-ties in India.

He countered the modernism of west as something which is cor-rupted due to its disproportionate power and spread. Gandhi offered a civilisational concept of Indian nation. To him ancient Indian civilisa-tion was unquestionably the best. He criticised Indians for embracing capitalism and its associated legal and political structures, thus surren-dering themselves and the country to the British. He evolved an Indian alternative to Western political structures.

To achieve popular sovereignty where each individual controls and restrains own self, it was necessary to practice satyagraha, which he de-fined as truth force or soul force. Satyagraha was a superior moral power of the protestors to change the heart of the oppressors by showcasing moral strength.

Conclusion

Though Gandhi did not reject all philosophies of west outrightly, he did choose judiciously all the virtues of western –eastern thoughts and amalgamated them to inspire the Indians. He always refrained from rig-idly defining his philosophies which gave him immense maneuverabil-ity in terms of real politics.

Q.DiscusstheaimandobjectiveofKhilafatMovement.Doyou concur with the argument that Mahatma Gandhi’sparticipation in this movement diluted his secularcredentials?

Model Answer

Introduction

The Muslim resentment against the British Empire began in the second decade of the 20th century. A se-ries of events like annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911, vetoing the idea of making Muslim University an affiliating body and most importantly the harsh treatment of Khalifa of

Key Points

• Reinstating rights of Khalifa• Muslim rule in Middle east• Khilafat: an opportunity for

Hindu-Muslim unity• Bridging gaps among Muslims


Turkey by the British, angered the Muslim leaders in India. It became the background for the Khilafat movement.

AimandObjectives

The movement was launched by a Khilafat committee formed in Bombay in 1919. It had three main demands: the Khalifa, the spiritual head of Islamic World must retain control over the Muslim holy places, he must be left with his pre war territories so that he could maintain his position as head of the Islamic world and Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine must not be under non-Muslim sovereignty.

Khilafat movement had two trends initially – moderate and radi-cal. Moderates were led by the Bombay merchants while Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, and Maulana Azad were the flag bearers of radicals. Gandhi played the role of mediator between two. But after the Treaty of Sevres and the Hunter Commission report, the moderates began to lose ground.

Gandhi’sParticipation

For Gandhi, Khilafat movement was an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims in a common struggle against the British. Though this movement was a pan-Islamic movement which had nothing to do with India, it was used as a symbol to bridge the differences of region, lan-guage, class and sects in Muslim community. Gandhi supported this movement to bring Muslims into the mainstream nationalism. It can be concluded that Gandhi supported the Khilafat movement because of its anti-British agitation, not because of its religious goals. He aimed to strengthen the mass movement by giving Hindus and Muslims a com-mon ground to oppose the British. Thus, Gandhi’s secular credentials could hardly be questioned.

Q.“Non-CooperationMovementcouldnotbringSwarajinoneyear but it did give a new direction and energy to thenationalmovement”.Comment

Model Answer

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 pressed Congress to adopt non-cooperation on three issues: Punjab wrong, Khilafat wrong and Swaraj. Writing in

Model India 77

Young Bengal, he announced that if non-cooperation movement is put to effective practice, it will bring Swaraj in one year. However he did not define the meaning of Swaraj.

AnalysisofNonCooperationMovement

More than a year after the resolution on Non-cooperation was adopted at a special session of Congress in Calcutta, 1920, there was no sign of Swaraj. Moreover, the British gov-ernment had become more stringent with its concessions. But it did not mean that the movement was a failure. It succeeded on many counts.

First and foremost, it was marked by the involvement of regions and classes that did not participate in any previous movements of Congress. It defied the charge that the Congress was representing only a micro-scopic minority of the Indian populace. There was significant peasant participation in many parts of India. In addition to this, the working class participation including workers, artisans, shopkeepers, traders, professionals and white collar employees was overwhelming. The spread of the movement was nationwide. The notion that the politically and educationally backward millions of Indians can’t participate in the mod-ern nationalist politics was also proved wrong. For millions of Indians, this movement was their first contact with modern world of nationalist politics and modern ideology of nationalism. This movement defied the boundaries of age, status, classes, regions, language and religion.

Conclusion

The withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement by Gandhi was op-posed by many in Congress. The likes of CR Das and Subhash Chandra Bose came out openly against Gandhi’s unilateral decision as they were of the opinion that this movement had filled the party workers and masses with a new vigour. The battle was over, but the war would con-tinue.

Q.Amidrisingnationalism,theanti-Britishpeasantmovementwasconsistentthroughoutthefreedomstruggle.WriteanoteonthePeasantMovementintheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury.

Key Points

• Three issues of NCM• Nation wide participation• New territories were

touched• Defied old logics


Model Answer

Introduction

Ever since the British took over the reins of India's administration, peas-ants’ discontent became a familiar feature. But in the twentieth century, the peasant movement was marked by a new feature. They were influ-enced deeply by and in return influenced profoundly the ongoing na-tionalist movement. Three important peasant movements erupted in three different parts of India: Kisan Sabha and Eka movement in UP, Mapilla Rebellion in Malabar and Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat.

KisanSabha&Eka

Rising prices due to World War I and oppression by the government fuelled resentment among the peasants. Initially they organised them-

selves due to the Home Rule League movement and later with the help of Madan Mohan Malaviya formed the UP Kisan Sabha in 1918. Baba Ramchandra was the main leader and he persuaded Jawaharlal Nehru to visit the villages of UP. In the movement, farmers belonging to up-per as well as lower castes participat-ed. They were fighting against beda-

khali, Nazrana, hari and begar. Later, government brought Oudh Rent (Amendment Act) which brought some relief to the tenants.

In some parts of UP, another movement began called Eka or unity movement. They were inspired by Congress and Khilafat leaders.

MapillaMovement

In August 1921, peasant discontent erupted among Mapilla tenants in Malabar district of Kerala. They lacked security of tenure and had to pay renewal fees and high rents. They were opposed to the oppressive Hindu landlords’ exactions. Here the movement got inextricably merged with Khilafat movement. Visits of Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Maulana Azad gave impetus to their fight. Later after the arrest of their leaders, the open rebellion began. They began by attacking the unpopular landlords, symbols of government authority like courts, police stations and offices. But later due to increased repression by the government, the movement acquired religious colour. The communalisation of the rebellion led to their isolation from national narrative of anti-British movement.

Key Points

• Peasants influenced by national politics – NCM & Khilafat

• Kisan Sabha in UP• Mapilla in Malabar• Bardoli Satyagraha

Model India 79

BardoliSatyagraha

A no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928. The groundwork done for the launch of civil disobedi-ence movement had changed the political landscape of the region. The movement sparked off when the authorities increased the land revenue by 30 percent in 1926. Vallabhbhai Patel came to lead the movement. It was during this movement that he got the title ‘Sardar’ from the women of Bardoli. The peasants refused to pay taxes until the government set up an independent tribunal to revise the taxes. Under pressure due to rising tensions and support of Gandhi to the movement, government set up a committee which vindicated the stand of the peasants.

Q.“TheGreatDepressionof1920sgreatlyinfluencedIndianeconomy”.Comment.Alsoexplainhowdidit impacttheIndiannationalism.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Great Depression of 1929 affected domestic industry in India. The British government in India ad-opted a protective policy, which was beneficial to England but was detrimental to the Indian econo-my. The over-dependence on ex-port and virtually no market for internal consumption hurt the co-lonial economy. The impact was more profound in rural areas than

the urban areas as the economy was driven by agricultural exports. It was export that fell during this period.

ImpactonEconomy

The prices of exportable cash crop went down steeply by about 50 per-cent. It affected the rich peasantry. The price fall was uneven with the prices of some cash crops falling more drastically than others. The prices of food crops started falling little later. The price of rice began falling in 1931, after the jute market also crashed in Bengal. These price falls negatively affected the income of all working classes. However, it was the peasantry, which suffered the most, especially the poor.

Key Points

• Agricultural exports fell• Poor peasants suffered most• Peasants movements • Inability of congress of

capitalise


The revenue demand which was settled at higher price remained static. The government showed no consideration to revise it. Landlords coerced the tenants to cough up rents. In such a situation, servicing debt became an issue as moneylenders were keen on recovering the capital. As the rural credit dried up, the peasants were forced to sell their lands to pay the rent.

ImpactonIndianNationalism

The impoverished state of all classes of peasants helped Congress to mobilise them. In regions like Bengal, coastal Andhra, UP, rich peas-ants and small holders became politically more active. Poor peasants also suffered due to repeated crop failure and shortfall in production. This led to organisation of peasant’s movement. But due to their radi-cal nature and anti- landlord nature, Congress kept itself out of them. Regardless of the role of the Congress, this parallel stream of protest against government kept emerging in many parts of India. The Congress could not fully capitalise this conducive environment as it failed to rec-oncile the interests of rich land owning peasants and landless agricul-tural workers and tenants.

Q.CriticallyevaluatetherelationshipbetweentheIndiancap-italistclassandCongressduringIndia’sfreedomstruggle.

Model Answer

Introduction

The British policy during World War One had one unintentional but positive impact on India. It was the emergence of capitalist class during and after the end of the War. The economic and fiscal needs forced the government to impose protective tariffs, which made imports costly and thus helped industrialisation of India.

CongressandCapitalistClass

The restrictive policies of the government brought the industrialists in conflict with the imperial government. So for them, siding with the Congress was a better option to fight for their own cause. Congress, on

Key Points

• Government policies• Congress as safe bet• Financing the movement • Opposition to radicalism• Relation with Gandhi

Model India 81

its part, supported many of their demands and made them national is-sues. The Great Depression, series of boycotts, hartals, and social dis-ruptions of the 1920s and 30s did not augur well for the business class. They wanted peace and most importantly tranquility in workers’ class, which only Congress under Gandhi could promise.

However, this is not to say that the capitalists were not nationalists. They played crucial role in the success of Civil Disobedience Movement. They provided finance and supported the boycott movement. Their op-position of foreign cloth led to a huge decline of value of imported cloth. However it is also argued that the alliance between the Congress and the capitalists was uneasy and vulnerable. They never favoured massive un-controlled mass movements. So, they pressurised the Congress to keep these radical tendencies under check. It is also alleged that the Gandhi-Irvin pact was brokered by the Indian bourgeoisie.

Conclusion

Though Gandhi shared cordial relations with many Indian industrial-ists, they were never in a position to exert pressure on Gandhi to with-draw the movement. Congress under Gandhi was an umbrella organisa-tion, which tried to incorporate demands of all sections of the society. It is highly unlikely that they being a miniscule group could dictate the majority. In addition to this, the goals of Congress such as Swaraj and complete independence would have benefitted Indians industries most.

Q.AnalysethemaindemandspresentedbyMahatmaGandhitoLordIrwin.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Lahore session of Congress in 1929 adopted the goal of full inde-pendence or “Purna Swaraj”. It also called upon all the members to re-

sign from their seats in legislatures. But it evoked little response. Also, the cele-bration of the Independence Day on 26th January 1930, evoked little enthusiasm. This period was also marked by sporadic violence. It was also a time when many within as well as outside the Congress opposed civil disobedience. Gandhi

Key Points

• Inclusive in appeal• Defined ‘complete

Independence’• Precursor to CDM• Compromise formula


therefore devised a strategy to break this impasse and tried to give a broader meaning to independence, something more inclusive.

DemandsofGandhi

On January 31, 1930 Gandhi announced an eleven-point ultimatum to Lord Irwin. He said if the demands were met by 11 March, there would be no civil obedience and Congress would participate in any conference. The demands can be classified into three major categories:

Issues of General Interest It included demands like reduction in expen-diture on army and civil services by 50%, total prohibition, discharge of political prisoners not convicted in murder, changes in Arms Act and acceptance of Postal Reservation Bill.

Specific Bourgeoisie Demands Reduce rupee Sterling rate, bring textile protection and reserve coastal shipping for Indians.

Specific Peasant Demands Reduce land revenues by 50% and abolition of salt tax and government salt monopoly.

Analysis

These demands were aimed to appeal to a wide section of political opin-ions dominant in India and to unite Indians under one political leader-ship. By making these objective demands, Gandhi simplified the mean-ing of the abstract term ‘Independence’ for the masses. It was also a compromise formula as by accepting these demands, government could pacify the gathering storm of movement without compromising much in terms of revenue loss. However, Lord Irwin did not relent which prompted Gandhi to begin his historic Dandi March on 12th March, 1930.

Q.“Thesalttaxisthemostinhumanpolltaxthattheingenuityofmancandevise”.Inthelightofthisstatement,explainhowdidsaltemergeasthecentralissueforlaunchingtheSatyagraha.

Model Answer

Introduction

The abolition of salt tax was one of the 11 demands presented by Gandhi to Irwin. The salt tax was one issue, which affected all sections of soci-

Model India 83

ety and had no divisive implication between different communities. It did not threaten government finances, therefore reduced the chances of government repression. Also, there was no vested inter-est in raising salt issue that could antagonise other political parties like Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.

SaltSatyagraha

The government did not relent to Gandhi’s demands. This made civil disobedience inevitable. On 12th March 1930, Gandhi embarked upon the historic march towards the seashore in Dandi, Gujarat. The plan was brilliantly conceived, as the government could not envisage the enor-mity of publicity and protest that would sweep the whole country. The significance of salt around which the whole satyagraha was planned was paramount. It appealed to all sections of the society.

Like Khadi, it became a symbol of nationalism and a way to oppose and protest against the unjust law. For urban dwellers, it provided an op-portunity of a symbolic identification with mass suffering. To the poor, manufacturing salt was a major source of income. They saw the salt tax disobedience as economic liberation.

Conclusion

By the time Gandhi reached Dandi on 6th April 1930, he awakened the whole nation to the new mass movement named Civil Disobedience Movement. Defiance of salt laws started all over the country. India’s large coastline became a ground for active mass mobilisation.

Q.CivilDisobedienceMovementarousedvariedresponseofdifferingintensityindifferentpartsofIndia.Analyse.

Model Answer

Introduction

The Civil Disobedience Movement unfolded in different forms all across the country. The Dandi march attracted enormous publicity in India

Key Points

• Salt tax affected all sections of society

• No threat to Government finances

• Symbol of nationalism• Economic liberalisation for

poor


and abroad. After the ritual begin-ning by Gandhi in Dandi, the salt law was defied throughout the country.

VariedResponses

In Tamil Nadu, C Rajagopalachari arranged a similar march to Tanjore coast. In Malabar, the hero of Vaikom Movement – K. Kelappan staged a similar protest. A band of Satyagrah is

walked from Sylhet in Assam to Bengal coast in Noakhali to make salt. Similar activities were prevalent in Andhra Pradesh as well. Khudai Khidmatgars under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan played an important role in mass movement in North West Frontier Province, especially in Peshawar region.

But later the non-violent protests began taking an abrupt and violent turn and a less disciplined mass upsurge began to take place. The ar-moury raid in Chittagong in Bengal by Surya Sen was the most promi-nent one. Also, after the arrest of Gaffar Khan in Peshawar, the masses became unruly. After the arrest of Gandhi, the workers in Sholapur went around rampaging government buildings. In Bihar and Bengal, anti-chowkidara tax and anti-union board tax campaign was met with of-fensive retaliation by government. In United Provinces, a no-rent cam-paign was organised and landlords were asked not to pay their revenues.

Analysis

Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed a marked increase in the radi-calism over the non-cooperation movement. However, participation of business class and women was overwhelming. Industrialists gave finan-cial support while women, on Gandhi’s beckoning, took a leadership role in the movement. But there was definite absence of Hindu-Muslim unity and labour participation. The urban intelligentsia was not as active as the previous movement. But the most marked feature of the move-ment was the participation of women. For them, it was a liberating ex-perience and entry into the public space.

Q.Do you agreewith the argument thatGandhi-Irwin Pactwasaretreat?Substantiate.

Key Points

• Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu and Malabar

• Khudai Khidmatgars• Chittagong raid• Women’s participation • Radicalism

Model India 85

Model Answer

Introduction

In the course of Civil Disobedience Movement, Gandhi was arrested in mid-May of 1930. This resulted in the nationwide protest and har-tals that culminated into widespread violence. The industrial town of Sholapur in Maharashtra saw fierce response to Gandhi’s arrest. The government also retaliated with repressive measures. All frontline lead-ers were arrested.

RationaleBehindthePact

Gandhi was aware of the fact that any mass movement is short lived in nature as the capacity of masses to make sacrifices is limited. In the

urban areas, the business groups were suffering huge losses. The middle class consisting of intel-ligentsia was unsupportive of the movement since beginning. Most importantly the youth, inspired by the likes of Bhagat Singh and Surya Sen, were get-ting drawn to the militant brand

of nationalism. The peasants and the working class were conspicuous by their absence. Also, their radical and anti-bourgeoisie nature wor-ried Gandhi. Due to radical tendencies of the movement, the danger of divisive impact on society was always looming.

Moreover, the concessions given by government were seen as a great beginning to the end of British high-handedness. This pact put Congress on the equal footing with the British government. It was seen as the vic-tory for Gandhi and reposed the faith of masses in the methods adopted by him.

Conclusion

The pact indeed disappointed youths as they have relentlessly partici-pated in the movement and wanted to settle for nothing less than com-plete independence. Nevertheless, the Delhi Pact or Gandhi-Irwin Pact opened the door for more constitutional reforms and some concessions for political prisoners.

Key Points

• Mass movement – Short lived• Dangers of division in society• Youths inclined to radicalism• Inability of mass to offer

prolonged sacrifices.


Q.EvaluatethecontributionofrevolutionaryterrorismtothecauseofIndia’sstruggleforIndependence.

Model Answer

Introduction

The sudden withdrawal of Non-Cooperation movement after the Chauri-Chaura incident infuriated the emotionally charged revolution-

aries. The young generation started to question the basic strategy of the na-tional leadership and non-violence. Thus they began to look for alternative methods of agitation. All the revolu-tionary terrorists like Surya Sen, Jatin Das, Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, and Sukhdev were actively in-volved in NCM.

TwoMajorStrands

Revolutionary strands can be classified into two separate strands – one in Punjab, UP and Bihar and other in Bengal. Both were influenced by social forces such as working class trade unionism that emerged after World War. Other influences were Russian Revolution and communist ideology such as Marxism, Socialism and proletariat revolution.

Revolutionist terrorists active in Punjab, UP and Bihar formed the Hindustan Republican Army. They looted the train carrying official railway cash at Kakori in August 1925. In retaliation, the government hanged Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri. The other major action was the murder of Saunders in 1928. He was respon-sible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. Later in April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly in a bid to make the deaf government hear the people’s voice. The Chittagong armoury raid by Surya Sen in Bengal was another act of daredevilry.

Contribution

The revolutionary terrorists were driven by socialist and Marxist ideol-ogy. They made failed attempts to organise an armed revolution backed by peasant and workers revolution. However they made abiding con-tribution to the national freedom movement. Their portrayal of deep

Key Points

• Spread of nationalism• Socialist consciousness• Inspired younger

generation• Resilience to repression

Model India 87

patriotism, courage and determinism and ability to make sacrifices stirred the Indians. The following movements like Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed more radicalism. The younger generation got inspired by the adventures of these revolutionaries and became more resilient to British repression. It also helped in the spread of socialist consciousness in northern India.

Q.“TheMorley-MintoReformsdidnotandcouldnotprovideananswertoIndianproblems”.Explain.

Model Answer

Introduction

In the aftermath of Sawdeshi Movement and the resultant rise of mili-tant extremism, British administration was forced to bring some consti-

tutional reform. Secretary of State Lord Minto was in favour of bal-ancing the Bengal partition with reform. And there was growing be-lief that India no more can be ruled with ‘cast iron bureaucracy’. Indians were to be included in leg-islature and if possible into the ex-ecutive council as well.

Reforms

In the legislatures, more time for budget discussion was allowed and amendments to government sponsored resolutions were to be admit-ted. It also provided for limited self-government. Seat allocation and electoral qualifications were left to be decided by local governments, which left space for bureaucratic manipulation. Separate electorate was given to Hindu Zamindars, Muslims, and professional class. One Indian was inducted in the Governor General Executive Council. But official majority was retained in Imperial Legislative Council. Even the non-officials in provincial council were to be nominated by the government. Electorate was based on high property qualification and therefore was heavily restricted.

This act failed to satisfy none of the Indian political group. It was to be most short-lived of all constitutional reforms in British India. There were three aspects to this new reform: outright repression on the one

Key Points

• Limited Self – government• Separate electorate• Bureaucratic control intact• Limited Franchise• Divide and Rule Policy


hand, concessions to rally the moderates on the other, and divide and rule through separate electorate for the Muslims. The elected legislators both at centre and province had limited powers and no control over budget or central executive.

Conclusion

Thus the Act could not match the expectations of Indians who wanted self-government, not the limited and polarised form of self-rule. In fact this Act was more damaging as it sowed the seeds of separate electorate, which polarised different religious communities on political lines.

Q.“The reforms of 1919 were crucial in establishingparliamentarydemocracyinIndiaandtherebyinbeginningtheprocessofdecolonisation”.Doyouagree?

Model Answer

Introduction

During World War I, the nationalists in India started demanding for more self-governing rights. The Congress-Muslim League pact of 1916

and beginning of Home Rule Agitation further exerted pres-sure on the government. It marked the phase of resolution of religious differences and ma-turing political scenario in the country – two grounds on which India was denied self-government earlier.

ProvisionsofAct

The Act of 1919 provided for bicameral legislature at centre, the council of state and the legislative assembly. The electorate was enlarged con-siderably to 5.5 millions for provinces and 1.5 million for the imperial legislature. Oppressed classes were offered nominated seats in the legis-latures at all levels. But the most important feature was diarchy, which meant that certain functions of the provincial governments were to be transferred to the ministers responsible to the legislative assemblies.

Key Points

• Diarchy and Bicameral legislature

• Veto power of viceroy• Extension of electorate• Vital departments with British

Model India 89

Analysis

Effectively, these measures were not for introducing parliamentary de-mocracy, instead it aimed at safeguarding the essentials of British po-sition. Legislative assembly with elected majority had no control over ministers. The viceroy could still veto a bill or push a rejected bill. Thought electorate was enlarged, the communal representation was not only retained, but also considerably extended. Sikhs were also grant-ed separate electorate, thus further dividing Indian polity on religious lines. Though diarchy was introduced, but departments of less politi-cal and economic significance like education, health, agriculture were transferred to ministers while vital departments like law and order were kept under official control.

Q.ThehistoryofnationalismduringtheBritishperiodwasnotjustthepre-historyofnation–state,butaphaseinacontinuingprocessofnation–buildingwhichcontinuedafterIndependence.Doyouagree?

Model Answer

Introduction

Nationalism in India that emerged in 18th century and gained momen-tum in the decades of 19th century was indeed a product of colonial

modernity. It was shaped by its own response to Western impe-rialism. It was necessary for the nationalists to counter British occupation by uniting India on social and political front. This necessitated the process of na-tion building with national con-sciousness among masses.

Nation-State

It is argued that Indian nationalism was built on pre-existing history of territoriality, which was based on ideas of public morality and ethical government. This territorial or regional solidarity consolidated into a broader cultural notion of India through their encounter with colonial rule. The British ridicule of Indian traditions resulted into a commonly

Key Points

• Regional solidarity• Consolidation of regional

identities • Shared sense of antipathy • National symbols• Guiding principles and values


shared antipathy towards colonial rule, a feeling of patriotism and sense of pride in India’s ancient traditions.

Due to these factors the national movement in India was never driv-en by any class ideology. It was a popular movement of various classes, which combined under Congress but did not remain exclusively con-fined by its goal. Likes of Gandhi and Nehru recognised that India was not a structured nation but a nation in making. Gandhi, in particular, emphasised on the importance of nation-building. Therefore, he gave symbols like Charkha (spinning wheel) and instruments like Satyagraha to which each Indian could connect and relate with.

AfterIndependence

The process of nation building, which was initiated during the British rule, continued under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. He empha-sised on the socio-economic liberty of the masses. This, he believed, could be achieved only by making Indians self-sufficient in economic and industrial processes. The state took up dual role of welfare as well as market regulation so that the foundation of the new country is laid strongly.

Conclusion

Thus it can be safely argued that the phase of freedom struggle was also a phase of nation building which made people aware about national goals and ambitions. The ideologies and principles of national movements shaped the conscience of the new nation and its citizens. The founding principles of India were the same for which freedom struggle was carried.

Q.CriticallyanalysetheDelhiPactonMinoritiessignedbyIndiaandPakistanafterpartitionwiththeaimofrestoringcommunalpeaceinbothcountries.

Model Answer

Introduction

The partition of India resulted into widespread exodus and violence. Minorities were targeted and bru-tally butchered on both the sides of the border. Women, in particu-lar, became the main target. The

Key Points

• To prevent migration from east Pakistan

• Lack of political will• Impractical provisions• Opposition by Hindu

nationalists

Model India 91

minorities became foreigners and were treated as enemy in their own homeland. In this backdrop of large scale migration and immigration from both West and East Pakistan, on 8 April, 1950 Delhi Pact was signed between Jawaharlal Nehru and his Pakistani counterpart Liaquat Ali Khan.

DelhiPact

The main aim of the pact was to restore communal peace in both coun-tries through appointment of ministers from minority communities at both central and provincial level. Minority commissions were to be established in West Bengal, Assam and East Bengal. Commission of Inquiry was set up with the mandate to enquire into the reasons of re-cent riots and recommend measures to prevent such riots in future. An agency was established to find and rehabilitate abducted women. The refugees were to be encouraged to return to their original homes and their properties would be returned to them.

Criticism

It is argued that for the Government of India, the pact was aimed to pre-vent fresh migration from East Pakistan. The Indian government never believed that violence in East Pakistan was serious enough to warrant such large-scale migration. One of the main aims of the pact was to re-store confidence of minorities in the Bengal and Assam. But minorities in these areas were subjected to prolonged violence even after the pact – more so due to ignorance and insensitivity on the part of Pakistani gov-ernment. There were provisions like finding abducted women, which were not only untenable but also impractical. Refugees could never re-gain confidence to cross borders once again to reclaim their properties. Even when some went back, they found their properties already taken over as enemy property. In India, Hindu nationalists severely attacked the pact. They demanded transfer of population, seizure of certain ter-ritories from Pakistan for rehabilitation or outright reversal of partition.

Delhi pact remained an unfulfilled wish due to lack of political will on both the sides of the border.

Q.DescribethemergerofJunagarh,KashmirandHyderabadinIndiaafterIndependence.


Model Answer

Introduction

At the time of independence, there were 565 princely states other than India and Pakistan. The willing states signed Instrument of Accession to join Indian union and in return surrendered their right over defense, foreign affairs and communications. Though they retained some residu-ary power for sometime, they were made to surrender all powers and fully amalgamate into India. However three states resisted such moves by Indian Governmnet.

Junagarh

The Junagarh state was surrounded by Indian territory. But the King disregarded Mountbatten’s rule of territorial contiguity and signed Instrument of Accession with Pakistan. This angered the people of the state and they resorted to revolt. In the meanwhile Indian government blockaded his territory, which forced him to flee to Pakistan. Indian army took over the state. Later in 1948, referendum was held in which people unanimously chose to be part of India.

Kashmir

Accession of Kashmir was one of the trickiest issues. Kashmir was ruled by a Dogra Hindu King Hari Singh, while majority of the population was Muslim. Due to geographical proximity, there was strong trade links with Pakistan. However situation deteriorated when communal trouble from neighbouring Punjab spilled over to Kashmir. To counter and avenge the atrocities, Pakistani administration sent tribal militants to West Kashmir in October, 1947. The army of Hari Singh could put up little resistance. Having left with no choice, he asked military help from India. India freed Srinagar from militants but only after the King signed Instrument of Accession.

Hyderabad

The case of Hyderabad was just opposite to Kashmir. Hyderabad was ruled by a Muslim ruler (Nizam) where the majority of subjects were Hindus. The Nizam decided not to join India and be an independent country. Hyderabad was geographically landlocked, economically de-pendent on India and surrounded by Indian territory. In the meanwhile a movement of the people of Hyderabad against Nizam’s rule gathered force. The para-military force of Nizam brutally repressed the protes-

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tors. The Indian government was left with no choice but to intervene. By September 1948, the Indian army moved to Hyderabad and took control over it.

Q.“India after independence retained continuity with itscolonialpast”.Criticallyanalyse.

Model Answer

Introduction

Soon after independence, the leaders of new nations set out to lay the foundations of a modern India. They began by framing a new constitu-

tion for India. Constituent Assembly deliberated for over 3 years before delivering the consti-tution.

Continuity

The new constitution drew heavily from various acts of colonial time. Constitution was derived from an Anglo-American model. The big-gest contributor was Government of India Act, 1935. As much as 250

clauses were directly lifted from this act and put in the new constitu-tion. Even certain provisions of Acts of 1909 and 1919 were included. Only those provisions were incorporated which concurred to realities of Indian politics. For example, principle of federalism, which was part of 1935 Act, was retained. But it was tailored to suit the demands of the new nation where integration was more important than federalism. The emergency provisions acted as a tool to keep threads of pluralism intact without jeopardizing the fragile unity of the nascent state.

The constituent assembly was concerned about the unity of the nation, need for social engineering and ensuring India’s place in the world. These concerns formed the ideological principles – nationalism, and democracy and sovereighntiy - on which the new nation would chart its course. These were also the ideological legacies of the nationalist movement.

CriticalAnalysis

Though India retained some continuity with its past, it did not compro-mise on the principles of sovereignty, social goals and democratic ethos.

Key Points

• Borrowings from colonial laws

• Influence of mass movements

• Part of commonwealth• Guiding principles• Tailored according to local

needs


The new constitution was based on the principles of popular sovereignty that was envisaged and practiced during mass mobilisation during the British rule. Mass participation legitimised these guiding principles. India remained a member of the Commonwealth but only after London agreed to bend the rules to accommodate a “Sovereign Democratic Republican India”.

Q.Theemergencyof1975wastheoutcomeofasystematicfailureinthetimeofsocial,economicandpoliticalcrisisthatprevailedinIndia.Discuss.

Model Answer

Introduction

The period after Bangladesh war of 1971 was marked by a series of events, which put Indian economy and polity in turmoil. Due to heavy

expenditure, there was immense strain on the Indian economy. There was massive immigration from Bangladesh. About 8 million people had crossed over to India till then. Such movements were resented in West Bengal and Assam. The aid from US had also stopped due to India’s military adventure in 1971. Internally the relation between the

government and judiciary had soured and hit a new low. The public was outraged as the government had announced new welfare schemes but could not fulfill them.

Social,EconomicandPoliticalcrisis

The rural economy was stagnant due to failed monsoons. The agricul-tural productivity was on decline. The years of 1973 and 1974 were the years of very high inflation – 23 % and 30 % respectively. To cut expen-ditures, government stopped the salaries of the employees. However the most damaging of all was strike by railway worker union. 3 weeks of strike by railways brought the whole country to a standstill.

In this hour of crisis, opposition parties mounted pressure on the government by organising popular protests. The Marxist groups took up arms and indulged in insurgent activities. There was massive student

Key Points

• Strain on economy • Populist anti-government

movements• Tussle with judiciary• Strengthening of public

institutions

Model India 95

protests in Gujarat and Bihar under the leadership of Morarji Desai and Jaiprakash Narayan. The call for Total Revolution by Jaiprakash Narayan was a telling blow for the government.

However the conflict between the government and judiciary proved to be the catalyst for the crisis in making. The Allahabad High court had held the election of Prime Minister as Member of Parliament to Lok Sabha invalid. Though the Supreme Court imposed partial stay on the High Court order, the Prime Minister could see the impending threats in Nav Niram Movement in Gujarat, Total revolution and JP revolution in North India which could topple her government.

Conclusion

Emergency was the darkest day for the democracy. Never before such high handedness of state power was in show. But it also helped the re-juvenation of democratic values of the country. Public Institutions like Supreme Court emerged more agile and vigilant authority. The parlia-ment had a deep and insightful look at the constitution which resulted in 44th Constitution Amendment Act. For the political parties it was a lesson that populism and protests can’t be a tool to dictate the govern-ment functioning.

Q. Rabindranath Tagore’s educational model had a uniquesensitivityandaptnessforeducationwithinmulti-racial,multi-lingualandmulti-culturalsituations.Comment.

Model Answer

Introduction

He was born in 1861 in a prominent Bengali family known for its so-cio-religious and cultural innovations during the 19th Century Bengal

Renaissance. The profound so-cial and cultural environment of the family significantly shaped his educational philosophies. His grandfather and father were active socio-religious reform-ers, which encouraged a multi-cultural exchange in the fam-ily. The cultural richness of his

Key Points

• Facilitative method• Focus on cultural and natural

environment• Flexible curriculum• Subconscious learning


extended family permitted young Rabindranath to absorb and learn subconsciously at his own pace, giving him a dynamic open model of education, which he later tried to recreate in his school at Shantiniketan.

EducationalModel

He was convinced of the importance of freedom in education. He also realised the importance of the arts for developing empathy and sensitiv-ity, and the necessity for an intimate relationship with one’s cultural and natural environment. Influenced by the cosmopolitan exchange in the family, he rejected the narrowness, particularly those which separated one human from another human. For him, education was a tool to ap-preciate richness of other’s culture while maintaining one’s own culture.

He also rejected the existing system of education and initiated an al-ternative model of education at Shantiniketan in 1901. He envisioned a form of education that was rooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected to other cultures of the world. In his school, he invited schol-ars and philosophers from all over the world. He felt that a curriculum should revolve organically around nature with classes held in the open air under the trees to provide for a spontaneous appreciation of the sur-rounding. Nature walks and excursions were a part of the curriculum and class schedules were made flexible to allow for shifts in the weather or special attention to natural phenomena, and seasonal festivals were created for the children by Tagore.

Conclusion

His idea of education was based on his theory of subconscious learning. The students were not given lectures or made totake notes. The teach-ing method was more facilitative than instructive. Tagore’s educational efforts were ground-breaking in many areas. He was one of the first in India to argue for a humane educational system that was in touch with the environment and aimed at overall development of the personality.

Q.DiscusstheroleplayedbyDr.RajendraPrasadinIndia’sfree-domstruggleandinlayingthefoundationofamodernIndia.

Model Answer

Introduction

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of independent India. He was born in Ziradei village of Siwan district of Bihar in 1884. His father was an educationist and this had profound impact on the young Rajendra

Model India 97

Prasad. At an early age he learnt, Persian, Hindi and arithmetic. Later he joined the famous Calcutta Presidency College in 1902. His teachers included the great scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose. His first in-volvement in nationalist movement was through Swadeshi Movement.

FreedomStruggle

Rajendra Prasad was greatly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and it was the arrival of Gandhi on the national scene, which drew him to the free-dom struggle. During the Champaran Satyagraha, he played an active role in mobilizing the volunteers. He also participated vigorously in the non-cooperation movement. He was arrested in 1930 while participat-ing in the salt satygraha. After the devastating earthquake struck Bihar in 1934, he was released from jail. He immediately set himself for the task of raising funds and providing relief to the victims. It showed his administrative acumen as he collected thrice the amount of what the Viceroy could collect. Soon after, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Bombay session of the Indian National Congress. He was elected as Congress President again in 1939 after the resignation of Netaji Subash Chandra Bose.

MakerofModernIndia

When the Constituent Assembly was established in July 1946, Rajendra Prasad was elected as its President. When in 1950 the constitution was ratified, he was elected as first President of India. He was one of the architects of the Indian Republic, having drafted its first constitution and serving as the first President of independent India. He is the only President in India to have been elected twice for the post. He did not act as a paper President and countered the government when he felt necessary.

Conclusion

During his foreign visits to many countries after independence, he played a crucial role in establishing bilateral ties and shaped India’s for-eign policies. He was honoured with the highest civil award – Bharat Ratna – for his untiring service to the country. He died in Sadaqat Ashram in Patna in 1964.

Key Points

• Role in Champaran Satyagraha

• NCM & Earthquake relief• President of CA• Role as first president

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