Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 65

Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping With Contemplation on Technology and Industrialization

Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping With contemplation on Technology and Industrialization

Young Lee

Young Lee

Uppsala University, Department of Earth SciencesMaster Thesis E, in Sustainable Development, 30 creditsPrinted at Department of Earth Sciences,Geotryckeriet, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 2012.

Master’s ThesisE, 30 credits

Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 65

Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping With Contemplation on Technology and Industrialization

Young Lee

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Content

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Summary …………………………………………………………...…………………………... 4

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5

2. Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................ 5

3. Methodology …………….…................................................................................................... 6

4. Motivation and Backgrounds ................................................................................................. 6 4.1 The history of prison, Panopticon, and modern surveillance …………………………….. 6 4.2 Scientific and technological advancement, industrialization and bureaucracy ...…............ 8

5. Analysis of Current Surveillance Technology ………………………………….................. 9

5.1 Biometrics ………………………………………………………………………………... 9 5.2 Internet ………………………………………………………………………………….... 12 5.3 Big Data, Data Centralization and the Use of it ……………………………….................. 13

6. Analysis of Social Condition for Surveillance and the Impact …………..……................. 15

6.1 Terrorism, crime, nation-state and the need for surveillance …...……………………….. 16 6.2 Industrialization, institution, bureaucracy and the need for surveillance ……...……….... 16 6.3 Impact of Science/Technology on power and industrialization, and the very Development

of Surveillance Technology ……………………………………………………………... 18 6.4 Surveillance, Dependence on Production and Machine Culture ...………………………. 19

7. Conclusion & Discussion …………………………………………………………. ………. 21

References ……………………………………………………………………………………... 26

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Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping With contemplation on Technology and Industrialization

Young Lee Lee, Y., 2012: Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping – With contemplation on Technology and Industrialization. Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University

Abstract This thesis explores how power relations are reflected on society in the act of surveillance based on Michel Foucault’s discourse in the light that events that happen in the arrangement of certain time and place reveal the context in situation in history and things happen as a consequence of such situational events even at the time when technology advances at a remarkable pace and state-of-the-art technologies do not rest to surprise us. In that regard, I start by presenting motivation and historical background of surveillance. Then I describe current surveillance technology and state in three aspect; biometrics which is a dominating off-line surveillance methodology, internet which is a dominating on-line surveillance frameset, and the centralization of big data for the utilization of these all. Then I analyze social condition for surveillance by investigating current and recent history, the impact of science/technology on society, and how the mindset and culture of contemporary times has formed itself. In the conclusion and discussion, I analyze what will happen if such trend of machine culture continues and present suggestion about what can be done. Key words: surveillance, totalitarian society, technology, progress, industrialization, machine, sustainability, bureaucracy, panopticon, centralization of power

Young Lee, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

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Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping With contemplation on Technology and Industrialization

Young Lee Lee, Y., 2012: Modern Surveillance and Social Shaping – With contemplation on Technology and Industrialization. Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University

Summary Nowadays, we do not feel sensitive about “being surveiled” contrary to the ever enhancing scope and scale that the surveillance equipments are installed and surveillance personnels are put into. “Surveillance Industry” is already huge and expanding remarkably. The problem is that this phenomena function to suffocate our freedom and autonomy. Technology is advancing and the society needs more surveillance as industrialization or modernization process goes on. The advancement in science and technology enables surveilling act so stealthy and subtle that it is difficult for you to be conscious of the existence of surveillance around you. Most lamentably, even if you are, you tend not to care. That will just allow “the subject” surveil more and more – whoever, whatever, wherever, whenever, and however. If we continue to be indifferent, our society will change into something that we would never want to live in. Would you want a future where your freedom and autonomy is maneuvered by someone else? Key words: surveillance, totalitarian society, technology, progress, industrialization, machine, sustainability, bureaucracy, panopticon, centralization of power

Young Lee, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE- 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

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1. Introduction The advancement in science and technology is remarkable in recent years and is even more so as time goes by as a consequence of obtaining the momentum from the previous advancement. Especially the fields of nano-, bio-, and information technology are the ones whose speed of advancement is so dazzlingly fast that one layman can hardly ever catch up with what is going on in those fields. However, although it may well kept under the bustle of ordinary daily routine of contemporary life style, biometrics is one conspicuous field in greater or lesser degree where combined with state-of-the-art technologies of such that takes into effect of our daily lives either unwittingly or straightforwardly. Surveillance cameras that can be found all over the street, in the buildings, in the offices, in school classes, and many other public places are one simple example of it. Surveillance technologies such as biometrics are used to protect self and property nominally against the threat of crimes and terrors not only on national level but also on personal level. However, regarding if it would only serve such means, there follows significant concern with regard to the negative social impact it would bring about, e.g., loss of individual freedom, autonomy and even human dignity. Overall, degradation of the quality of life of individuals seems to be inevitable with the massive exposure to surveillances unless one benefits from such situation. Therefore, in this thesis, I investigate which aspect of surveillance technology contributes to lowering the quality of human life, how advancement in science and technology becomes an integral trigger to the improvement of surveillance technologies, how such tendency of surveiling individuals has been and shall affect the society with the presence of day-to-day evidences, and eventually how it would jeopardize social sustainability if such tendency continues. Lastly, I conclude the thesis with possible suggestion with discussions on what to do to prevent a society from becoming unsustainable which calls for a novel definition on “sustainability.”

2. Hypothesis For the development of my notion, I stand on the point that advancement in science and technology inevitably contributes to more surveillance which is a significant link for putting the society under even greater influence of surveillance. There also underlies a mechanism that boosts the trend of surveillance in industrialized societies which depends on bureaucracy in many ways. Although surveillance is supposed to serve for enhance security, it serves well for other purposes as well such as easing and automating bureaucratic procedures to accommodate running of systems of all sorts and scales. Such need is on ever increasing demand with time, which ends up feeding another cycle of even more advancement in the field of surveillance technologies. It should be noticed that dependence on production plays significant part in there in the industrialized society. From these standpoints, it is not difficult to see that most of the industrialized societies are and shall fall under the growing influence of surveillance for inherent reason geared with such need. Massive surveillance entails massive control over human and their surroundings and history shows that human are not supposed to thrive under such condition. Even though human are entering an era that has never been before with the advancement in science and technology, it still holds the same and I would like to cast this as my main hypothesis; society is not sustainable where surveillance dominates.

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3. Methodology In this thesis, I review the contemporary situation of surveillance in general, mostly in developed or industrialized countries including those in developing or industrializing phase where better access to information is provided, via literature review including books, academic articles and diverse authoritative news media. Collective experience which does not necessarily exclude personal experience is utilized in the sense that it reflects the reality more vividly. Although this thesis deals with the state-of-the-art technologies of modern times, for the analysis of the problems that these are causing, I find it is extremely important to see how these play in empirical and historical context in the light that the nature of surveillance stays the same in all history. To investigate this further, referring to the work of Michel Foucault seems to be inevitable, where he shows a deep insight gained by thorough reviewing of Western history on the subject that this thesis deals with in his book <Discipline and Punish: the Birth of Prison>. In that regard, I find adopting Faucauldian approach integral. Also, I believe Faucauldian approach, which is genealogy, is especially suitable for the analysis of society of digital age in terms that an “event” explains the hidden context that surrounds the event and such approach can be timelessly applied to any event. Jensen and Draffan’s book <Welcome to the machine> is also referred to in significant degree in that the book extends and develops the notion of Foucault on surveillance and society as a machine in the contemporary sense.

4. Motivation and Backgrounds

4.1 The history of prison, Panopticon, and modern surveillance

Abuse of power and surveillance that goes with it has been there in the history since its beginning. In his book <Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison>, Michel Foucault recognized power as a technology and strategy that operates in complicated and sophisticated manner to control and manipulate people in a society and saw its strategic goal in human body [Foucault, 1979]. According to him, in the times of royal authority, if power showed off the existence of power through brutal violence and torture towards human body, power in modern times developed the technology to control and dominate human body smoothly through the “prison system” through which power could hides itself without using visible violence, which he describes as the system of “micro-power.” He sees this change of punishment method has occurred not on the intention to improve the malicious treatment towards prisoners but due to the modernization of the technology of power. According to Foucault, modern prison appeared in late 18th century around the Age of Enlightenment in the form of imprisonment instead of corporal punishment accompanied by cruel violence or torture and Jeremy Bentham was the catalyst for it. Jeremy Bentham who was an ardent advocate of utilitarianism designed and suggested this type of modern prison called “Panopticon.” In Latin, “Pan” means all and “opticon” means observe, yielding the meaning of “seeing all” – a prison that an observer can observe all inmates without them being able to tell whether or not they are being watched. According to Bentham’s philosophy, the prison was designed to pursue “the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers” and therefore, was designed to surveil prisoners as economically as possible at the same time as efficiently as possible. Panopticon is structured to surveil all prisoners while the surveillant in the center does not reveal one’s existence. According to Foucault, the Panopticon is an ultimate realization of a modern disciplinary institution, which discloses the effect of micro-power. Foucault argues that Bentham’s idea of Panopticon as an architectural design for modern prison which is extremely

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efficient and economical was expanded to outside prison in terms that the relations between the surveillant and prisoners in prison has the same structure of power relations between power and individuals outside prison, and hence became a metaphor for the power relations that undergird modern civilization [Jensen and Draffan, 2004]. Foucault describes Panopticon as below:

The major effect of Panopticon: to induce in the inmate a state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power. So to arrange things that the surveillance is permanent in its effect, even if it is discontinuous in its action; that the perfection of power should tend to render its actual exercise unnecessary; that this architectural apparatus should be a machine for creating and sustaining a power relation independent of the person who exercise it; in short, that the inmates should be caught up in a power situation of which they are themselves the bearers. [Foucault, 1979, pp. 201-202]

Foucault saw the mechanic nature of the architecture of Panopticon that not only functions but also creates and sustains power relations perfectly for power to surveil and subject the inmates regardless who the power is. He continues.

To achieve this, it is at once too much and too little that the prisoner should be constantly observed by an inspector: too little, for what matters is that he knows himself to be observed; too much, because he has no need in fact of being so. In view of this, Bentham laid down the principle that power should be visible and unverifiable. Visible: the inmate will constantly have before his eyes the tall outline of the central tower from which he is spied upon. Unverifiable: the inmate must never know whether he is being looked at any one moment; but he must be sure that he may always be so. In order to make the presence or absence of the inspector unverifiable, so that the prisoners, in the cells, cannot even see a shadow, Bentham envisaged not only venetian blinds on the windows of the central observation hall, but, on the inside, partitions that intersected the hall at right angles and, in order to pass from one quarter to the other, not doors but zig-zag openings; for the slightest noise, a gleam of light, a brightness in a half-opened door would betray the presence of the guardian. [Foucault, 1979, pp. 201-202]

This well explains how thorough and shrewd the design of Panopticon was. He continues to state what are achieved by such design.

The Panopticon is a machine for dissociating the seeing/being seen dyad: in the peripheric ring, one is totally seen, without ever seeing; in the central tower, one sees everything without ever being seen. It is an important mechanism, for it automizes and disindividualizes power. Power has its principle not so much in a person as in a certain concerted distribution of bodies, surfaces, lights, gazes; in an arrangement whose internal mechanisms produce the relation in which individuals are caught up…. There is a machinery that assures dissymmetry, disequilibrium, difference. Consequently, it does not matter who exercises power. [Foucault, 1979, pp. 201-202]

Foucault asserts Panopticon has an effect that prisoners internalize the rule and become disciplined by surveiling self due to the fear and anxiety that comes from the fact that they cannot see the surveilant. In current information age where science and technology is advancing fast, Panopticon effect seems to be maximized without being noticed by the general public. For example, one is careful in behaving where there are CCTVs (Closed Circuit TV) - where she/he feels watched. One is more careful when posting something on the internet when his/her name, face, IP address (Internet Protocol address), or any kind of information that can identify the person is exposed. And the list goes on and on.

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4.2 Scientific and technological advancement, industrialization and bureaucracy

None will doubt that now is the time that revolutionary advancement in science and technology is actualized in our daily lives on from high-technology gadgets and home appliances to satellites and space ships. From the fact that those things did not exist before, one can draw the fact that the change that the advancement in science and technology brought about to human and society is enormous especially from the fact that the influence of those is massive and widely affecting. Also by seeing all commodities and modern conveniences which are the results of modern industrialization that did not exist several decades ago, one may find that industrialization caused changes of physical foundation of human existence that is society or environment. One may carefully assume human spirit or mentality that is formed within a society or environment has changed over time accordingly with industrialization process. None will deny that commodities are flooding everywhere, mostly in industrialized/industrializing or developed/developing countries nowadays. However, one is missing a lot if one does not notice that there is the dark side behind this seemingly triumphant and lucrative façade of the “progress1” or “development” of our civilization that owes mainly to the technological advancement and systematization for production. Information technology combined with other technologies or alone operating to serve power to conduct more surveillance is one of them that majority of us have to face in our daily lives. Although of course one should not miss the purpose why surveillance is there, which is bureaucratic efficiency. Just imagine employees surveiled in their work places to check, measure, and heighten their work performance. Horkheim and Adorno who were members of Frankfurt school already warned about this in their book <Dialectic of Enlightenment> that were published in 1944 that blind trust and pursuit of science/technology guided by scientists and bureaucrats leads to the domination by the technocrats and such technocracy uses material abundance to numb the critical consciousness of the public and isolates human being. They continue that humans become weaker because of the labor that is dependent on the use of machine and are exposed to diverse diseases and threats to health caused by environmental change and contamination due to the industrialization process without realizing what is happening to them. They conclude that despite the suffering accompanying the labor, the advantage that comes from it mostly goes to power [Horkheim and Adorno, 1944]. Frankfurt school including Horkheim and Adorno could see the malaise of industrialization process as early as early 20th century. Regardless of such critics, we all see with our bear eyes or through media that so-called “progress” or “development” continues in every society on global level including under-developed or undeveloped countries and areas. It is not difficult to realize that the society is heading to somewhere as it “progresses” unless humans stop producing something. One would agree that while the progress goes on, the next phase of industrialization or development already came with the name of “the age of information.” I would claim that for the industrialization process to further proceed, technological advancement plays a role of engine and accelerator, while bureaucracy do the rest of the work, where both of which end up serving the purpose of efficiency. Not only many including Foucault, Jensen and Max Weber2, I see bureaucratic efficiency is required for the eventual outcome of the “module” which can be defined as a unit part for the production. I suggest such module can be organization, system, institution, or the society as a machine of all scope, where each module is put together, it becomes

1 I discuss “progress” in more detail in the later part of this thesis with the reference of <Dialectic of Enlightenment> which views it in critical frame. In this thesis, progress mostly refers to scientific and/or technological progress. 2 The author of <The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism>.

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one big machine which can again be a part of a bigger machine. In that regard, bureaucracy can be deemed as an administrative tool or an apparatus to run such module. Jensen and Draffan describe bureaucracy in their book <Welcome to the machine> as below.

Bureaucracy is the administration of production and efficiency. It is nothing less than this, but it is more. Bureaucracy is the administrative means to eliminate feelings, ambivalence, and anything else that might interfere with production. [Jensen and Draffan, 2004, p. 79]

They also say bureaucracy becomes perfect screen to mask culpability where everyone works as a cog for the machine. I find that since the raison d’etre of bureaucracy is for the efficiency of certain purpose, human tends to be used as a means to meet the end and to be isolated from self, which is the isolation of labor and self. It is not unnatural to anticipate that as the society becomes more developed and industrialized, the need for the organization of such “modules” grows leading to requiring even more bureaucracy, therefore leading to requiring even more surveillance, where advanced science and technology leads to accelerating even more advancement in modern surveillance technology. Under such circumstance, I reckon bureaucracy is evolving to technocracy at its finest form as “progress” or development in the society proceeds fueled with scientific and technological advancement. It may not be unreasonable to say that under such structure where there is no other way than bureaucracy and technology marry in order to serve power, it only boosts the centralization of power and power will ever more thrive, which will eventually overshadow the future of democracy.

5. Analysis of Current Surveillance Technology I investigate present state of surveillance technologies largely in three technological areas; first two are the two major area of surveillance technology that are used in contemporary world which are biometrics and internet, and the third contemporary data storage technology which plays an integral part to support and maintain the actual surveillance systems. Without doubt, biometrics and internet are the most influencing technologies on our daily lives. The former is used where security is required and where there is a need to accommodate bureaucratic procedures, namely which can be said to dominate large part of our off-line public activities. In contrast, the latter involves most of on-line activities such as web browsing, web searching, on-line banking, on-line trading, on-line registration, social network services, and so on. The third technology that is to be introduced in this thesis is that of the contemporary data storage that is connected to the former systems whose capacity to hold data is immense, which shows massive data transfer and storing is happening.

5.1 Biometrics

Biometrics is at an emerging state in its application nowadays. Unlike other token based identification such as ID card people do not need to carry anything around with them to prove their ID, which provide enormous convenience. Biometrics (or biometric identification) refers to identifying an individual based on his or her distinguishing physiological and/or behavioral characteristics (biometric identifiers). It associates/disassociates an individual with a previously determined identity/identities that is usually stored in database set based on how one is or what one does [Jain et al., 2000]. Table 1 is the illustration of biometrics technologies based on physiological and behavioral characteristics.

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Table 1. Biometrics based on physiological and behavioral characteristics

Biometrics based on physiological characteristics

Biometrics based on behavioral characteristics

Face detection/recognition

Finger print recognition

Iris/retina recognition

DNA recognition

Hand geometry recognition

Odor/scent recognition

Vein recognition

Palm recognition

Gait recognition

Gaze recognition

Voice recognition

Signature recognition

CCTV(closed-circuit television) can also be considered as biometrics in terms that the data collected through it can not only be transferred for further biometric analysis but also contains biometric information such as human face and movements although there are much more information included than only that of biometric nature. Most of its use is for security purpose to identify a person in the public service sector. Including CCTV, many are used in law enforcement sector as well. Techniques such as face detection and CCTV whose devices are usually installed in hidden and non-intrusive manner, are used in public spaces, e.g., at the airports, on the street, at malls, in the buildings and offices, and even at some schools nowadays. As the speed of technological development is accelerated by obtaining the momentum from the previous work, biometrics chips are spreading its use as well in variety of fields including biometric passport that contains biometric information such as machine readable facial images, fingerprint scan, and so on. Currently biometric passport is or will soon be available to the public in almost all EU countries3 and in almost all countries in other continents such as America, Asia-Pacific, Africa including United States, Canada, Venezuela, China, South Korea, Russia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Iraq, India and so on4. Chips that are used for such application are in most of the cases RFID (radio-frequency identification) chips, which are gaining application potential rapidly in wide variety of area nowadays. Its applications include biometric passport mentioned above, electronic vehicle registration [Wessel, 2007], payment by mobile phone [Swedberg, 2009], parking tickets [Tay, 2007], public transit [Collins, 2007], baggage tracing at the airport [World Airline News, 2008], animal ID tracking [The Nation, 2007], in libraries as a replacement of the traditional barcode system and so many other areas. The technology can be used as a next-

3 SecureIDNews (2009) announces that Members of the European Parliament passed new rules that all EU countries, as well as in Iceland, Norway and Switzerland, should start issuing passports containing biometric elements, such as facial images and fingerprints, as of June 29 2009. Some EU states, Germany, France and the Netherlands, have already stated issuing the new passports. 4 Reference regarding the enforcement of biometric passport for each country other than EU is omitted due to the time constraints in this thesis.

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generation barcode, automating inventory levels, and thus cutting costs for manufacturers and retailers [Mclver, 2005]. RFID is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data from an electronic tag, called RFID tag or label, attached to an object, through a reader for the purpose of identifying and tracking the object [Hitachi, 2011]. It is well known that the data on the RFID chip is relatively easy to read or decode, which invokes security concern. Such feature arouses vast controversy about privacy as well. RFID chip can contain sensitive information about one person and such information can be sold or traded. For example, when one goes to a store, the store can create personal log of past purchase, one’s shopping pattern, and ultimately one’s behavior pattern. Also, since the purchaser of an item does not necessarily know the presence of an RFID tag and the tag can be read from the distance without letting the individual know, it becomes possible to gather sensitive data about the purchaser without agreement or consent that can endanger the person regardless it will actually be used or not [Mclver, 2005]. Most concerns arise from that RFID tags attached to products remain functional even after the products have been bought and brought home. Thus the RFID tags can be used for surveillance and other purposes that are not elated to their commercial and inventory functions [Hansen and Meissner, 2008]. Nowadays, the size, form, material and other kinds of characteristics of RFID chip are becoming much more highly technological according to the usage so that it can be applied to wherever and everywhere and such improvement in its applicability raises its privacy concern to the highest level. The Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. has approved the use of RFID chips in humans [The register, 2004]. Some business establishments such as the Baja Beach nightclub in Barcelona give the option of implanting RFID-based microchip to their VIP members to pay for service [BBC, 2004]. This has raised concerns into privacy of individuals it is possible that they are tracked wherever they are by the chips that work as an identifier unique to them. Further concerns are that this would lead to abuse by an authoritarian regime/government and remove freedoms of individuals [Torin and Wall, 2007]. Some conceptualize a future where every movement of individuals is tracked by the government [Kanellos, 2004]. In the book <SpyChips: How Major Corporations and Government Plan to Track Your Every Move with RFID>, one is encouraged to “imagine a world of no privacy. Where your every purchase is monitored and recorded in a database and your every belonging is numbered. Where someone many states away or perhaps in another country has a record of everything you have ever bought. What's more, they can be tracked and monitored remotely” [Albrecht and McIntyre, 2005]. India is proceeding electronic national identification project that aims to provide a unique identification number called UID to all Indians and plans to maintain and operate a centralized database of residents containing biometric and other data [UIDAI, 2009]. Biometric information includes photograph, ten fingerprints, and iris of each individual and is easily verifiable in on-line. The authority concerned to this project claims that biometrics is reliable enough to guarantee that there is a one-to-one correspondence between real people and electronic identities on the database saying that the figures published show error rate at .01% using finger print and iris only, this low rate combined with photograph match can achieve the desired unique identification. There have been concerns expressed in some quarters that the biometrics data is not reliable enough, and that the identification scheme might be drown in a sea of false positives. However, false positive is not significant enough problem compared to privacy concern. A centralized identification system that is associated with many other crucial data about individuals, once the data is leaked for some reason, reveals too much and might possibly endanger the individual(s). In some countries, biometric data is not contained in their identification system as of yet. For example, Belgium has introduced the Electronic identity card or eID card from 2004 and by 2012 every citizen in Belgium must have an e-ID card for identity purposes. From 2012, in order to enhance security, biometric information will be collected [eID, 2009].

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5.2 Internet

Internet is another technological area where surveillance activities are immensely happening on diverse and broad level. Other than PC (Personal Computer), devices and peripherals such as smart phone, cell phone, laptop, tablet, and so on are using satellite based GPS (Global Positioning System) as many other internet services and can be easily connected to the internet. Such system enables access to the position and time information of a certain individual that is targeted and reveals much more about the target on top of it. Internet map service providers such as google street view (http://maps.google.com/), mapQuest (http://www.mapquest.com/), BingMaps (http://www.bing.com/maps/), NokiaMaps (http://maps.nokia.com/), and so on use GPS (Global Positioning System) technology and arouse controversy about privacy. The technology enables to photograph the 3-dimensional view in significant detail and such photographed map not only shows rivers, mountains, parks, buildings, cars and streets but also shows and publishes individuals on-line engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be photographed. Some European countries have laws prohibiting the filming without consent of an individual on public property for the purpose of public display [Out-Law.com, 2007] although of course this is the case with many non-European countries as well [Thinkdigit, 2011]. Social network services such as Facebook (http://www.Facebook.com/), twitter (http://twitter.com/), mySpace (http://www.myspace.com/), linkedin (http://www.linkedin.com/), etc is gaining popularity nowadays for its sophisticated services for building and reflecting of social networks or social relations among people, who, for example, share interests and/or activities. As the increase in popularity of social networking is on a constant rise [Google Trend, 2011], potential for new business model based on it is arising and therefore issues related to such services are standing out more and more. Privacy concerns with social networking services have been raised growing concerns amongst users on the dangers of giving out too much personal information and the threat of sexual predators. Users of these services also need to be aware of data theft or viruses. In addition, there is a perceived privacy threat in relation to placing too much personal information in the hands of large corporations or governmental bodies, allowing a profile to be produced on an individual's behavior on which decisions, detrimental to an individual, may be taken. Furthermore, there is an issue over the control of data—information that was altered or removed by the user may in fact be retained and/or passed to third parties [Hansell, 2007]. Privacy on social networking sites can be undermined by many factors. For example, users may disclose personal information, sites may not take adequate steps to protect user privacy, and third parties frequently use information posted on social networks for a variety of purposes. “For the Net generation, social networking sites have become the preferred forum for social interactions, from posturing and role playing to simply sounding off. However, because such forums are relatively easy to access, posted content can be reviewed by anyone with an interest in the users' personal information” [Rosenblum, 2007]. The cited example about a man who was murdered in his home after having posted on Facebook that he was ill and had lost mobility in his leg shows how it can go extreme when personal information is exposed in Facebook: “Bed-ridden man killed after Facebook post” [The Local, 2011]. The most basic problem with the internet when it comes to surveillance is that there is no anonymity; all your activities are traceable wherever you browse through the internet through technical means, which implies that there is virtually no privacy in cyber world. Tracing a person’s on-line activities is made possible by network surveillance which involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the internet. Surveiling the record when the user is not on-line is also possible via cookies or other malicious software designed to sneak into the user’s hard drive.

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Following examples show that the main actors of such deed are government agencies or big corporations to surveil their citizens or employees. In the United States, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies [Electronic Frontier Foundation, 2004]. According to CNN’s article, Germany legislated government surveillance law in 2001 and rushing to enact similar rules seems to be world wide trend among Western governments since the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States [CNN, 2001]. In Sweden, the FRA law authorizes the state to warrantlessly wiretap all telephone and Internet traffic that crosses Sweden's borders in 2009. In an article of BBC news, it says that “by introducing these new measures, the Swedish government is following the examples set by governments ranging from China and Saudi Arabia to the US government's highly criticised eavesdropping programme” [BBC, 2008]. This law invoked massive protest among Swedish people [Torrentfreak, 2008]. In Germany, there was a scandal that spying software was allegedly used by German authorities. According to Der Spiegel, “so-called Trojan horse software can be surreptitiously delivered by a harmless-looking e-mail and installed on a user's computer without their knowledge, where it can be used to, for example, scan the contents of a hard drive.” [Spiegel, 2011] The computer program can remotely control someone's computer without their knowledge, search its complete contents and use it to conduct audio-visual surveillance via the microphone or webcam, whose functions go way beyond those allowed by German law. These examples with the last extreme depict the scene described in George Orwell’s novel <1984>, which arouses the fact that we are already living in a Big Brother society.

5.3 Big Data, Data Centralization and the Use of it

All surveillance systems need storage and other data management tools to handle the data that the system has gathered with diverse means. The data gathered grows so large that conventional sense of data management tools does not suit. The following quotes illustrate at least a bit of what is happening nowadays.5

“Data sets grow in size because they are increasingly being gathered by ubiquitous information-sensing mobile devices, aerial sensory technologies (remote sensing), software logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency identification readers, wireless sensor networks and so on.” [Hellerstein, 2008] “Every day, 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are created and 90% of the data in the world today was created within the past two years.” [IBM, 2012] “IDC has just released estimates that this year which is 2010, the Digital Universe — meaning every electronically stored piece of data or file out there — will reach 1.2 million petabytes, or 1.2 zettabytes this year. (A zettabyte is a trillion gigabytes; that’s a 1 with 21 zeros trailing behind it.)” [McKendrick, 2010]

5 Of course only the amount of data in itself does not bear the significance of what is happening. What can be done with the gathered data can be deemed more important and about that, this thesis introduces about how those can be analyzed, processed and used although not many are explained due to time constrains. However, I find the description in this section is enough to ring a bell about what can be done with “big data” in its usage.

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The type of data gathered through diverse means includes text, video, image, sound, and so on. In a world where everything can be digitalized, literally ‘everything’ can be gathered as data. As described in the quotes, the enhanced use of personal device such as smart phone, tablet, and digital camera seems to have instigated the quantitative expansion of data. Cisco predicted that traffic from wireless devices would exceed traffic from wired devices by 2015 [Fox, 2011]. Twitter where people communicate using text under 140 characters is a very example that shows the development of big data. As of Feb 2010, the number of tweets (messages) a day exceeded 50 million. It used to be 300,000 tweets a day in 2008 after its launch in 2007 [Beaumont, 2010]. Data that consumes data space most is images or videos. When it comes to Facebook, according to the website of Facebook’s infrastructure engineers [Facebook, 2009], the current growth rate as of December 2011 is 220 million new photos per week, which translates to 25TB (Terabyte: 1012) of additional storage consumed weekly and at the peak there are 550,000 images served per second. They add that these numbers pose a significant challenge for the Facebook photo storage infrastructure. Examples of Twitter and Facebook demonstrate that big corporations or government agencies are not the sole providers of big data. Indeed, IDC report [2007] shows that among all digital data created or replicated, more than 75% is estimated to be from individuals instead of enterprises or government agencies as of 2006. Such data that is mostly gained from individuals has enormous usage by any means to big corporations and government agencies. In McKinsey global institute’s report, it is estimated that right analysis of big data in bio-medical sector would result in huge cost saving. [McKinsey, 2011] In the same report, it is mentioned that National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in the U.K. has pioneered the use of large clinical datasets to investigate the clinical and cost effectiveness of new drugs and expensive existing treatments and is already using the findings in practice. Marketing and advertisement agencies expect accurate demand forecast through the analysis of big data on behavior patterns of internet users. Marketing optimal to the time and place through the analysis of real time position information of the consumer is also available. A company called “Recorded Future (https://www.recordedfuture.com/)” which Google and CIA both have invested analyzes big data to predict the “future” [Shachtman, 2010]. It seems to be inevitable that the need to enhance the capacity for such “big data” arises. Without exception, there has been technological advancement in storage system and process system that goes along with the former up to the level that challenges physical limitation, that is, up to the level that implements virtual limitlessness. Smart grid6 and cloud computing7 are the ones that perfect actualization of such goal seamlessly and thoroughly. In order to cope with the demand to handle ever increasing amount of data, technological breakthroughs are expected to be achieved in fields combined with nano, and bio technology [Schadt, et al., 2010]. According to an article in Popular Science magazine, all digital data can be coded into life-forms, and all life-forms can be coded as digital data [Enriquez, 2011]. In theory, this means you can eventually store, and copy huge amount of data as small as in the gene code of a few bacteria.

6 A smart grid is an electrical grid that gathers, distributes, and acts on information about the behavior of all participants (suppliers and consumers) in order to improve the efficiency, importance, reliability, economics, and sustainability of electricity services [UNECE, 2012]. 7 Cloud computing is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software, and information are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network (typically the Internet) [FIU, 2011].

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The biggest concern that arises with big data is privacy. 365 days a year, 7 days a week, 24 hours a day, each second an individual’s every move is monitored and recorded as data on corporate servers. Every words and every behavior is used for marketing. On Social Network Service, not only texts, photos, videos that one uploads, but also those from others are left in the server as “permanent records” on that certain individual8. When data is gleaned from everywhere, it forms big data. After the raw data is processed, it turns into meaningful information or knowledge for those who gather data. Data is more centralized for those who need to use it. As the data increases, such trend intensifies. Unprecedentedly accurate forecast is becoming available due to the vast amount of data created each split second on-line. Information asymmetry is not suitable to explain the unbalance between haves and have-nots of information. Such state where one sees and knows everything about the other whereas the other not even aware about being monitored is exactly that of Panopticon and it seems obvious that centralization of information leads to it. Moreover, the cost for procurement is overwhelmingly sinking which would only increase the capacity for surveillance. Recent Brooking’s report shows this well.

Over the past three decades, storage costs have declined by a factor of 10 approximately every 4 years, reducing the per-gigabyte cost from approximately $85,000 (in 2011 dollars) in mid-1984 to about five cents today. In other words, storage costs have dropped by a factor of well over one million since 1984. Not surprisingly, that fundamentally changes the scale of what can be stored. For a country like Syria, which has a population of 15 million people over the age of 14, the current cost to purchase storage sufficient to hold one year’s worth of phone calls for the entire country would be about $2.5 million – a high number but certainly not beyond governmental reach. If historical cost trends continue, the annual cost in 2011 dollars to purchase enough storage for Syria’s government to record all calls made in that country will fall to about $250,000 by 2016 and to about $25,000 by 2020. [Brookings, 2011]

This shows very well how surveillance becomes inexpensive and therefore is easy to be implemented on individuals on national scope or wider than that with close to perfect surveillance capacity.

6. Analysis of Social Condition for Surveillance and the Impact So far was the investigation of how surveillance is conducted nowadays. In this section, I analyze social impact and influence of surveillance on society on a worldwide scope in a world where globalization is going on at a rapid pace. For the analysis, I investigate what motivates surveillance - who or what requires and enables it. The need for surveillance comes from two prominent requirements; one is to prevent crimes including terrorism and the other is to accommodate bureaucratic practices that have long history in Western culture, where I base my analysis on Foucault’s perspective. Since surveillance is conducted in top-down manner and goes hand in hand with culture, how one receives surveillance becomes very important for it sets the next phase of how the society will shape itself. Oddly or naturally, it seems to be a tendency that individuals are willing to compromise freedom for security, which will even more welcome

8 Even if the user updates or modifies the data she/he uploaded, it is kept permanent in the server of Social Network Service providers [Tipton and Krause, 2004].

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surveillance culture. Therefore, lastly, I investigate the pretext of individual’s pursuit of surveillance and the culture that enables it.

6.1 Terrorism, crime, nation-state and the need for surveillance

Many times “terror” is the culprit for the surveillance of nation-wide scope. Nation-state takes measures for it and sometimes mobilizes police or even military. As already reviewed in an article from CNN [CNN, 2001], most of the Western countries legislated government surveillance law and it is well explained in the article that the trigger was the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States. Crimes are next to blame for the rise of surveillance - terrorism can be considered another form of crime against nation-state. Criminals wear GPS tracking bracelet so that they could be chased any time whenever they commit crimes again. Nowadays, implantable subdermal RFID chip is about to replace GPS bracelet which has the limitation of being easily cut off and sometimes being lost track in certain locations [Brady, 2008]. Nano-technology is making these devices even more robust [Grunwald, 2005]. The subject of enforcement of surveillance system is “nation-state” in either case – terrorism or crime. Surveillance is supposed to be or believed to be preventive measures of possible terrorist acts or crimes. General public feel more secure when there is surveillance while at the same time being wary and feel controlled. Fear of threat from outside home, work place, nation-state, etc., conjures more surveillance by the state and makes people more dependent on authority. Such state eventually contributes to increase the gap between power and individuals since such deed will grant more power to authority, which constitutes power. According to Jensen and Draffan [2004], surveillance industry is laying golden eggs and becoming even bigger. They claim that terrorism, war and crime boost surveillance industry and brought huge profit to the government, thus state-nation. At least, one thing is clear that one must question where the profit goes that came from all these surveillance hustle-and-bustle against terror/war/crime nation-wide and world-wide.

6.2 Industrialization, institution, bureaucracy and the need for surveillance

I argue that if terror and crime is direct and visible cause for surveillance, institution and bureaucracy that is needed for administration which is deemed to have grown with industrialization process in modern era is another rather fundamental cause that is less visible. According to Foucault [1979], modern prison appeared in late 18th century around the Age of Enlightenment in the form of imprisonment instead of corporal punishment accompanied by cruel violence or torture. He is saying that this was not only the time of enlightenment but also the quickening period of modern era where industrialization starts to emerge during and in the century following the Industrial Revolution in the U.K. and other rapidly developing nation-states9 in Europe. According to North [1990], during this period these countries (or nation-states) went through a period of “institutionalization10.” which saw a large expansion and development

9 The idea of a nation-state is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, usually dated to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterizes that system, depends for its effectiveness on clearly-defined, centrally controlled, independent powers, whether empires or nation-states [Tilly, 1994]. 10 The term “institutionalization” is widely used in social theory to refer to the process of embedding something (for example a concept, a social role, a particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole.

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of the role of government within society, particularly into areas seen previously as the private sphere. According to him, one of a major scholars in new institutional econimics11, “institution” is defined in strict sense that is associated with rule, code that has certain goal compared to “organization” and is considered to be the underlying structure that have brought the hegemony to Western economy [North, 1990; North and Thomas, 1973]. North continues that public and civic institutions start to be significantly in demand acquiring great authority and wealth. He is saying that the era called for institutions such as factory, previously known as workhouse, which can provide labors and demands for other types of institutions such as schools, hospitals and armies also emerged concurrently. This is the backdrop where Foucault argues that all the institution resembles that of Panopticon; he proposes that not only prisons but also all institutions such as factories, schools, hospitals and armies have evolved through history to take after Bentham's Panopticon and such resemblance extends to the whole Western culture and civilization. Foucault suggests that surveillance is a pre-condition for bureaucracy. Considering that bureaucracy is a means to administer production and efficiency of institution, it is reasonable to draw the connection such that where there is institution, there is bureaucracy, and therefore surveillance. The surveillance that Foucault argued in his book <Discipline and Punish : The birth of Prison> is to construct “docile” bodies that performs best for the society in political and economic context in the industrial age of modern times. Therefore, the disciplinary institutions such as factories, school classrooms, military regiments and hospitals12 must be able to observe, supervise and record the bodies that are under control in constant manner and make sure that the discipline is internalized within the bodies being controlled. That is, discipline must arise without immoderate force with the use of careful observation, and transform and improve the bodies so that they can be used and manipulated based on this observation. According to Jensen and Draffan [2004], surveillance is described as below.

Surveillance is more than spying, and it’s more than torturing people until they “regress.” Emil Durkheim and others have redefined surveillance as the “gathering of information about and the supervision of subject populations in organizations,” and they regards surveillance and bureaucracy as a “rational response to the size and complexity of administrative tasks posed by science and technology.” In his book The end of privacy, Reg Whitaker defines surveillance as the collection and analysis of information for the purpose of control. In either case, the surveillance is done by the main institutions of major: the central state and the business corporation. [Jensen and Draffan, 2004, p. 132]

According to Lewis [2003], industrialization has performed major transformation on society and continues incessantly on global level boosting the globalization process on earthly scale with increasing trade volume in almost every trade in virtually every industry since the Industrial Revolution. Mowery and Rosenberg [1989] suggests that industrialization inevitably brings about mass production due to its enhanced productivity owing to the advanced means - most of all, technology. Fine and Leopold [1993] suggests mass production leads to mass trade in search of more profit for the providers of goods – corporations in contemporary times, which result in contributing to globalization process. They continues that by goods, it includes not only food and commodities, but also capital and labor such as services as the globalization process expands its scope and scale .

11 Institutional economics focuses on understanding the role of the evolutionary process and the role of institutions in shaping economic behaviour and “new institutional economics” is a significant variant of it. 12 Although hospitals are not generally regarded as “disciplinary” institution, it can function as one with its binding power.

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I find North’s notion on “institutionalization” can be applied or extended to modern industrialization and globalization; with industrialization as a major engine for globalization process, “institutionalization” of trading system has been performing as another major booster. Institutions such as World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor the World Trade Organization (WTO) laid the foundations of the explosive growth of the phonomena in the post-cold war era and recent Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is giving an impetus to it. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001 [Global Policy Forum, 2008]. Institutionalization plays major role for globalization to open a fire and in the backdrop afterwards once the gate is open [North, 1990]. From these scenes, I find it is not unnatural to infer that in the globalization age where the world is governed by institutions, the need for surveillance grows more and more as time goes by. As described above, bureaucracy is a necessary sufficient condition for institutions to operate. One can say that a particular institution where massive and comprehensive bureaucracy is involved is “nation-state.” According to Lyon [1994], modern surveillance has evolved into having two faces in nation-state; one a means of “social control” and the other of “guaranteeing rights of social participation”, where the rise of the “surveillance society” is “inextricably bound up with the growth of the modern nation-state.” I find this is what Foucault explained is applied to nation-state; “disciplining” of the population as the basic bureaucratic method of governance and surveillance as a precondition for disciplining.

6.3 Impact of Science/Technology on power and industrialization, and the very

Development of Surveillance Technology

I find behind this scene of industrialization on global scope, one must not overlook there has been scientific and technological advancement. As Moweryand Rosenberg [1989] argues, I find scientific and technological advancement has been major driving force for industrialization and more fundamentally, Western civilization. When one takes it back to the era of Roman Empire, architecture and infrastructure shows they used civil engineering and construction technology. Historians argue that among infrastructure, especially transportation networks such as waterway, canal, road, etc. shows how the Romans extended their influence via war and trade13. I find such technology is not necessarily inferior compared to current technology. Historians also argue that the time of Roman Empire, European continent underwent the Dark Ages where God in Christianity dominated the culture and human spirit and after that, the period of the Renaissance of which era is considered as more enlightened, artful and human-centered as an inevitable consequence of passing through the previous one14. After Renaissance, the trend to philosophize human reasoning was emphasized and it would only help boost the tradition of cherishing scientific achievement in Western culture [Shanin, 1996]. Historians argue during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires.15 Envious of the great wealth these empires bestowed, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia [Ferguson, 2004]. According to Ferguson [2004], British Empire that began to rise in England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power [Ferguson, 2004]. Colonialism and imperialism was the dominating mind-set of the European people in these era and science

13 I do not find references for this remark which is received as shared knowledge by majority of contemporary people due to time constraints. I assume this remark is based on fact and mostly truthful. 14 The same with footnote 12. 15 The same with footnote 12.

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contributed tremendously to colonize the land in other continents with armed forces and then exploit the natural resources in the colonized land [Ferguson, 2004]. Such exploitation brought enormous wealth to the European conquerors bolstering even more colonialism and trade among countries, which is the beginning of globalization era [Ferguson, 2004]. I find it is natural to infer that such might have provided the soil for the Industrial Revolution to break out in the U.K. in the late 18th century although of course the technological advancement in the means to manufacture goods served as an engine and further industrial development later on. Who or what is the subject of power in the industrial age? That would be the subject of trade who sells the result of mass production, which is corporation. Those are the ones who seek every opportunity to maximize their profit. The more their goods are consumed, the more profit they earn. Mass production and mass commerce is enabled through mass consumption and new markets that they can sell their goods are their new colonies. Henceforth it has been the time of global consumption, which became a dominating culture of contemporary times. Such culture replaces the community culture that had been there before and sets human to be driven by consumer greed for their every activity. This is more boosted with the support of merchant greed through advertisement and every kind of marketing strategies. Now is the age of information and technology in all spectrums to sell goods has been advancing from creating the need to purchase the goods to taking care of it until it reaches to the hands of a customer or even afterwards. So far has been the consumer side. When it comes to the producer side, the third world takes the major part in producing goods that are consumed worldwide including agricultural products and the first world is mainly the consumer. However, that is out of scope of this thesis, so I continue the notion on the working environment in industrialized countries. In the industrialized countries, surveiling becomes the norm; if the employee is late or lazy, or doing something else other than work, or working against their employer, or leaking important information are all watched and surveiled. All the emails and on-line activities are checked and there are CCTVs everywhere in the offices and buildings. At this time of information, it is needless to mention that the surveillance technology has brought about enormous development in the field of surveillance as was described in the above section. Current surveillance technology originated from military use, e.g., computers and the internet were first designed by the military16 [Jensen and Draffan, 2004]. The use of such devices has broadened its scope of usage to civilians for security purpose. Nowadays, surveillance technology marks as state-of-the-art due to recent remarkable advancement in science and technology as was already reviewed in some articles [Brady, 2008; Grunwald, 2005]. Indeed, the kind of technology that is the work of combination of bio, nano, and information technology is unprecedented and where it will lead human, society and eco-system to, Ray Kurzweil, a well-known futurist, views optimistically with grand expectation of brave new world that the future will bring [Kurzweil, 2005] while many including environmental activists and scientists agree the consequence will be catastrophic once the technology goes out of control although of course, industrialization on global scope, that is globalization itself, is making the earth uninhabitable gradually.

6.4 Surveillance, Dependence on Production and Machine Culture

According to Jensen and Draffan [2004], surveillance is part of a current culture of our society, which is a machine culture. On top of their claim that surveillance is needed as an administrative means to efficiently pursue the goal, I find surveillance is a goal of the institution and accompanying bureaucracy. That is because I find one is exposed to surveillance in the process of

16 According to Jensen and Draffan [2004], half the scientists and engineers are engaged in military related research. They argue that many of the technologies used for surveillance, tracking, detaining, and destroying were developed or funded by the military, or quickly adopted to police or military uses.

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producing an end product as an employee, worker, service provider, school attendee, hospital patient, etc as a producer. Also as a consumer, one goes through the same or more exposure to surveillance as already reviewed in the above section in the case of utilizing big data for corporations and governments for diverse or unknown purposes. We all know there is no need to mention customers are always under watch as well in shops, malls, stores, etc. I find the division of a person as a producer and a consumer seems to be natural in a world where most of human activities are tightly entangled with money. There is no need even to mention struggling for economic gain is deemed as human destiny nowadays. Consequently, I find our culture is dominated by competitiveness which is supposed to enhance productivity on employer’s perspective with higher performance that can lead to higher gain and position on employee’s perspective in hierarchical institutional settings such as big corporations and government agencies which are hierarchical since its inception, which are two most highly affecting institutions on human activities among all. I find it is a well received notion that money gained from long terms of hard struggle including the period of education which is a preparation period for work is used to make a living including purchasing goods and services. Money can buy almost everything, and it seems like it has opened the door for consumerism to flourish. Generally speaking, it is deemed that people struggle to make money not only to make a living but also to fulfill the sense of happiness. I find pursuit of material wealth on personal level turns into that of economic growth on collective level which leads to even more dependence on “production.” According to <Dialectics of enlightenment> [Horkheim and Adorno, 1944], fulfillment as a liberated human being is blocked in modern citizen society; individuals pull an oar again and again incessantly to increase economic productivity according to the logic implied in modernity and therefore, modern citizen society would only “regress” to a barbaric state where life as a liberated human being is devastated rather than “progress.” In the book, they find internal principle that a barbaric state is to be caused is from instrumental rationality that focuses on the most efficient or cost-effective means to achieve a specific end rather than the value of that end; there is no other way than the instrumental rationality that is being reinforced more and more in modern citizen society for the enhancement of economic wealth is only to cost devastation of society and life as a liberated human being as an expense. The authors continue that the reinforcement of instrumental rationality would only to bring about destruction of environment in the relationship of human with nature, degeneration of human being into production slaves that suppress mortal desire and are used to improve economic efficiency, and corruption of society into bureaucratic totalitarian system and such reinforcement of instrumental rationality caused the barbaric state of early 20th century as is evidenced in modern history. An image of individuals pulling an oar again and again incessantly to increase “economic productivity” depicts modern citizen society well. Individuals who are engaged in economic activities are serving in a module, system, institution, organization, society as a machine in any way. Lewis Mumford refers to large hierarchical organizations as megamachines - a machine using humans as its components in his book <The Myth of the Machine> [Mumford, 1967]. In the book, he also argues the reality of the megamachine as the convergence of science, techniques and political power as a unified community of interpretation rendering useless and eccentric life-enhancing values and subversion of this authoritarian kingdom begins with that area of human contact with the world that cannot be successfully repressed - one’s feelings about one’s self. Such state, circumstance and response of people form a culture and Jensen and Draffan calls it machine culture in their book <Welcome to the machine>. In addition to Mumford’s perspective on megamachine that uses human as its component, he sees machine as non-life that will eventually destroy.

By definition, machines – and people and cultures that have turned themselves into machines – do not give back. They use. And they use up. This gives them short term

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advantages in power over the ability to determine outcomes. They outcompete. They overwhelm. They destroy. [Jensen and Draffan, 2004, p. 74]

On the other hand, attitude of the general public is changing towards accepting machine culture that is dependent on technology and bureaucracy for convenience where surveillance is a necessity mainly out of the need to adapt to society. About this, Jensen and Draffan explains in <Welcome to the machine> as “what one generation perceives as repression, the next accepts as necessary part of a complex daily life.” However, the cost to pay is huge; loss of privacy, freedom and even autonomy and democracy. Below describes how one immerses into machine culture unconsciously more and more on the internet world and its possible consequence. In the book <The filter bubble>, such an example is described through a phenomenon the author, Eli Pariser, calls “filter bubble” [Pariser, 2011]. The term is given to explain that “websites use algorithms to selectively guess what information a user would like to see, based on information about the user such as location, past click behaviour and search history” [Pariser, 2011]. He says in an interview that “Your filter bubble is the personal universe of information that you live in online — unique and constructed just for you by the array of personalized filters that now power the web. Facebook contributes things to read and friends’ status updates, Google personally tailors your search queries, and Yahoo News and Google News tailor your news. It’s a comfortable place, the filter bubble — by definition, it’s populated by the things that most compel you to click. But it’s also a real problem: the set of things we’re likely to click on (sex, gossip, things that are highly personally relevant) isn’t the same as the set of things we need to know.” [BrainPickings, 2011] In his book, Pariser related an example where a user searched Google for “BP” and obtained British Petroleum investment information while another obtained news about BP oil spill disaster in the Gulf of Mexico, which showed dramatically different search results. Pariser defined filter bubble as “that personal ecosystem of information that’s been catered by these algorithms” in his book [Pariser, 2011]. He regards that the internet is leading to a huge process of disintermediation; the responsibility of selecting news events and reporting them is increasingly being taken away from media professionals and being placed in the hands of machines. He warns that a potential downside to such automated filtered searching is that it closes us off to new ideas, subjects, and important information and creates the impression that our narrow self-interest is all that exists. It is potentially harmful to both individuals and society, in his view. He points out that if the search is continuously customized and the filtering of information is more robust and tailored towards our beliefs, then the very idea of a shared narration vanishes with all its related side effects, at both a civic and democratic level.

7. Conclusion & Discussion Based on the analysis so far, it seems to be reasonable to conclude that in current times productivity is so emphasized that every human activity is focused on it by any means and such trend boosts machine culture where human serves as a cog of machine in order to produce something. One may well guess that focus on “productivity” suggests that there is surveillance regardless of the extent since one’s yield needs to be watched in such society17. Such tendency also caused intensification of globalization process. Although globalization has influenced on social, political, cultural, environmental and other main aspects of life, what it has on economic

17 Since dependence on “productivity” can be considered one direct cause of surveillance, I feel the need to elaborate more what is happening in the economic sphere in the consecutive paragraph.

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sphere is foremost in terms that individuals make a living via economic activities. One of the major economic impact that globalization entails is income inequality; although World Bank figures indicate that the number of people living on less than $1 per day-the international standard for extreme poverty-dropped from 1.25 billion in 1990 to 986 million in 2004 according to World Resource Institute article [World Resources Institute, 2008], globalization has been blamed for everything from growing income inequality to chronic high levels of unemployment and even to the oppression of women according to the New York Times article [NYTimes, 2000]. Nouriel Roubini at New York university explains that “the rich have gotten richer and the poor poorer in the last twenty years” and the class (income) mobility has been lowered [Roubini, 1996]. According to an article in International Monetary Fund [IMF, 2001], incomes in the lower deciles of world income distribution have probably fallen absolutely since the 1980s. In fact, it might be difficult to judge depending on the position that one holds. However, recent, current and with high probability of near future financial crises in Europe and the U.S. [Economist Intelligence Unit, 2011; Eurostat, 2011; Brookings, 2011], unprecedented surge of income of the rich worldwide [Piketty and Saez, 2006], and high unemployment rate in those countries that are under serious financial struggle including other developed and developing countries [CIA, 2012] supports the reality that the world economy is worsening especially for the poorer between and within nations. In that regard, it can be deemed that the gap between the rich and the poor is widening world-wide. There is no doubt that polarization of wealth that goes to extreme is unsustainable; personal helplessness and other desperate conditions lead to hopeless and crime prone society [Andrienko, 2003; Bluestone, 1995]. The rich can be deemed as the powerful and the poor, the powerless in terms that wealth breeds power. Such feedback between wealth and power brings about concentration of wealth for power, which implies that power has more control over powerless as time goes by. Another key factor that makes power even more powerful is concentration of information and knowledge enabled by advanced technology, which also enables surveillance technology to reach to perfection although one might need to speculate on what is “perfect” surveillance or at least “efficient” surveillance if not perfect yet, which only shows that technology leverages power. When power is backed up so strongly by means of wealth and technology, it will only lead to more surveillance and eventually a society of ubiquitous surveillance will arrive. What we need to pay attention here is that technological advancement is playing a role of perfecting the frame of panopticon on social and cultural level as Foucault argued with much reduced cost for its actualization. It would endow power to the powerful, specifically government and huge multi-national corporations. According to the Brookings report [Brookings, 2011], digital storage of big data only is enough to be an enabler of authoritarian government and multi-national corporations are already actively using the data to promote more consumption for profit. Internet itself functions as a huge surveillance machine already where every on-line activity of a person is gathered as data in the ever enhancing world of big data and more importantly, the feedback of such activity or our interaction with internet affects our consciousness in not necessarily desirable way. If surveillance prevails and dominates, it already is a totalitarian and/or authoritarian society under such regime. Regarding whether totalitarian regime is sustainable or not, Germany under Hitler, Russia under Stalin and other similar regime we know provide us some hints although that of modern society will be by the machine in larger sense that is dealt in this paper instead of one dictator. Even if one society is sustainable under such regime, can a human being or a society as a whole be healthy on physical and spiritual level? And still yet, it brings to the same question; can such society be sustainable? Such kind of society will be dark and cold as Stanley Cohen described in his book <Visions of Social Control> on Lewis Mumford on the city.

The dark shadow of the good city is the collective human machine: the dehumanized routine and suppression of autonomy, first imposed by the despotic monarch and the army, is now

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the “invisible machine” of the modern technocratic state… Mumford described how the utopian ideal of total control from above and absolute obedience below had never passed out of existence, but was reassembled in a different form after kingship by divine right was defeated. [Cohen, 1985, p. 210]

One might argue that this is an overly anxious or pessimistically exaggerated view. However, growing number of CCTVs in almost every public places that has extended its use to school classes, increasing collection of biometric data by the government or big corporations shows it is very much likely that surveillance is becoming even more reinforced as time goes by geared with the need for efficient bureaucracy to govern populace. Surveillance is used for the law enforcement which is part of the bureaucratic process. What if the law enforcement is conducted on wrong person who was mistaken by the error of surveillance system operated by machinery? What is worse is that such kind of error is associated often with mistakes in bureaucratic procedure. No matter where the cause resides, the consequence for all is more fear and less freedom. For the surveilant more control and for the surveiled less autonomy. Science and technology has dramatically developed into a level that once called science fiction becomes scientific reality. Surveillance technology as well accordingly. Scientific/technological advancement is so fast that it is difficult for people to understand what is happening for what. Law and regulations do not follow the speed of advancing technology and the harm and damage done by the latter can never be reversed even if law and regulation compensates for it. Moreover, advancing technology tends to make the society riskier18. In such situation, changing or amending the law is not the solution. Jensen and Draffan assert in <Welcome to the Machine> that “since the foundation of the problem isn’t the invasion by technological means of a legal right to privacy, law and technology are not the solution, and the answer is the fundamental reconfiguring of the power relations.” That seems to be the exact answer to a modern society being overloaded with excessive surveillance as time goes by or as modernization goes on. About where this “machine” is heading, they say it is heading towards “centralization of power.” They explain that we protect such system as if it is our home by going to work and by using our spare time for the financial advantage of our employers, that is working as a cog in a machine, and what we do eventually serves and contributes to the centralization of power. Then, what can one do against the centralization of power? I suggest one can start by seeing what is happening as it is instead of selecting what one wants to see over one’s advantage. Whether totalitarian/authoritarian society arrives or not, it is not difficult to imagine a society where individual freedom and autonomy has diminished (or disappeared) to be happy and fulfilling. How can one feel happy in a society where there is no freedom and autonomy? In a society like that, it may be difficult even to pursue happiness. In current times, it seems that one feels “happy” when one spends money to buy something that does not necessarily need to be purchased. Regarding this “phenomenon”, Herbert Marcuse, a member of the Frankfurt school, wrote in his book <One dimensional man> [Marcuse, 1964] that “The people recognize themselves in their commodities; they find their soul in their automobile, hi-fi set, split-level home, kitchen equipment.” In the book, he argues that the artificial production of false needs generates a false idea of freedom and liberation and this is reinforced by the technological apparatus of capitalism and social control and reinforcement. He documented after observing contemporary Western societies, capitalist and communist, both societies are unfree and repressive and that modern man has become intellectually and spiritually complacent through

18 In <Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity>, Ulrich Beck explains the heightened risks of modern society due to technology and after all, modernization itself.

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his psychological dependence on the blandishments of consumer society, a phenomenon he termed “repressive desublimation.” Marcuse argues.

The distinguishing feature of advanced industrial society is its effective suffocation of those needs which demand liberation - liberation also from that which is tolerable and rewarding and comfortable - while it sustains and absolves the destructive power and repressive function of the affluent society. Here, the social controls exact the overwhelming need for the production and consumption of waste; the need for stupefying work where it is no longer a real necessity; the need for modes of relaxation which soothe and prolong this stupefaction; the need for maintaining such deceptive liberties as free competition at administered prices, a free press which censors itself, free choice between brands and gadgets. [Marcuse, 1964, p. 9]

He argues that such phenomena “reconciles originality, spontaneity, and all the creative aspects of human nature with a prevailing drive to rationality that tends to reduce all varieties of temperament and desire to one universal system of thought and behaviour,” which is “the central problem of Western civilization.” [Marcuse, 1964] This, I find, is exactly what is happening in modern industrialized world and the whole globe is being prevailed by this dangerous spirit of the time – the modern age. Marcuse argues prevailing positivism19 harmful and suggests to promote “negative thinking” criticizing positivism tend to blind people from seeing reality as it is thereby repressing the urge to rebel. I realize that positivism contributes to current machine culture although it might mislead what I try to argue in this thesis. Feeling happy or pursuing happiness is not necessarily one branch of positivism that Marcuse argues. What he argues as a problem is the obsession to be positive. There is no doubt that people pursuing “happiness” is universal regardless of time and space although of course, people tend to pursue happiness more when one feels desperate or miserable. People are supposed to pursue happiness although the degree of wanting it differs from situation to situation and from culture to culture. The problem that I find is that pursuit of happiness in modern times in both developed and developing countries is mainly associated with possession of material wealth for majority of people and their belief to be so. However, research investigating the correlation between wealth and happiness shows differently; research about it shows a link between income and happiness is mainly an illusion [Frey and Stutzer, 2001; Princeton University, 2006]. On collective level, research conclude that on average, richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth when Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) have been used as a measure of successful policy [Wilkinson, 2007]. Nevertheless, GDP is regarded as an inappropriate measure, as the usual ultimate aim of most people is not to be rich, but to be happy and healthy [Sen, 1999] and the Happy Planet Index (HPI)20 was introduced by the New Economics Foundation (NEF) in July 2006 as an index of human well-being and environmental impact. According to them, “the HPI shows that around the world, high levels of resource consumption do not reliably produce high levels of well-being. It also reveals that there are different routes to achieving comparable levels of well-being. The model followed by the West

19 There exist several definitions on this term in sociology, philosophy, natural science and so on including the one that was used in <One dimensional man>. However, in this thesis, it is used in general and universal sense which is in line with Marcuse’s intention to use the term in his book as a trend to forcefully try to be and remain positive for whatever bad thing one faces. 20 It is calculated based on “average years of happy life,” as measured by life satisfaction and life expectancy. That number is then divided by the populace’s “ecological footprint,” as measured by “the amount of land required to provide for all their resource requirements plus the amount of vegetated land required to sequester (absorb) all their CO2 emissions and the CO2 emissions embodied in the products they consume.” [NYTimes, 2009]

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can provide widespread longevity and variable life satisfaction, but it does so only at a vast and ultimately counter-productive cost in terms of resource consumption.” [NEF, 2006] Such model refers to conventional development indices of countries such as GDP and the Human Development Index (HDI), which do not take sustainability into account. Also, a measure of the environmental costs that is required for sustainable development is not considered [Hawken, 1999]. It is not even surprising to see that poor countries such as Bhutan and Cuba that ranks bottom when measured in GDP ranks high in HPI, whereas rich countries like the U.S. and the U.K. ranks the opposite [NEF, 2006]. This also supports the idea that happiness and wealth may not be very much related defying common belief of contemporary people. In <Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh> [Norberg-Hodge, 1991], Helena Norberg-Hodge describes Ladakh21 before it began to be developed by the Western influence in the 1970s, on how everyone is happy and content. Ladakhis had a sustainable traditional economy based on trade and cooperation - not money. One person’s gain was not another person’s loss. There was no poverty, very little sickness, plenty of leisure and no pollution. Nothing was wasted and everyone was valued. Although majority of them are Buddhist, they got along well with their Muslim neighbors. Buddhist monasteries and people had a mutually beneficial relationship economically, socially and spiritually. Ladakhis women enjoyed high social status and Ladakhis are a naturally contemplative people with a great deal of spiritual awareness. However, “development” began with Western greed and the peaceful land of Ladakh changed. Now there is poverty, hunger, unemployment, little leisure and disease caused by stress. The people are ashamed of their left-behind culture and women are devalued. There is heavy pollution and waste as well as dispute between Muslims and Buddhists. The book casts serious questions about the notion of “progress” and Western civilization which is highly industrial and expansion oriented, which is consequently and inevitably destructive. Also, the book exposes how human psyche and relationship with the surroundings has shaped along with the “industrialization” and/or “development” process. I argue surveillance and surveillance culture is the result of modernity, which is where the Western civilization is heading. Consumerism and machine culture is dominating and blinding us from seeing what is happening. We need to realize we face many problems due to “industrialization” and “development.” Excessive surveillance might be one of them. Ubiquitous surveillance society might come soon easily without our knowledge and consciousness when we are blind. We may start by not buying things that are not necessary. Nurturing spirituality might be important to be able to see what industrialization and/or development has done to human and nature. I believe when each and every one of us reaches to this thought, one may be able to have strength to resist consumerism and machine culture, and that way, we may be able to continue our hope for sustainable society where one can live “genuinely” free and happy.

Quis custodiet ipsos custodes? (Who surveils those who surveil?)

-- from Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis’s Satires

21 Ladakh is located in the region of Northern India and strongly influenced by Tibetan culture to be sometimes called “Little Tibet.”

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