morphology peter ackema [email protected]. word classes “verbs express an action, process or...
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Word classesWord classes
““Verbs express an action, process or Verbs express an action, process or state”state”
““Nouns are the name of a person, Nouns are the name of a person, place, or thing”place, or thing”
““Adjectives are words which express Adjectives are words which express a property”a property”
But...But...
Jane was upset because an unexpected problem Jane was upset because an unexpected problem with the manual’s availability implied that the with the manual’s availability implied that the risk in case of a fire was very high.risk in case of a fire was very high.
upset upset = a state, but not a verb= a state, but not a verb
availabilityavailability = not a ‘person, place or thing’, but is a = not a ‘person, place or thing’, but is a nounnoun
impliedimplied = not an ‘action, process or state’, but is a = not an ‘action, process or state’, but is a verbverb
fire = fire = process or state, but not a verbprocess or state, but not a verb
etc.etc.
Lexical Categories and Lexical Categories and Functional CategoriesFunctional Categories
A builder claimed that the houses of A builder claimed that the houses of those people are almost crumbling.those people are almost crumbling.
Builder claimed houses people almost Builder claimed houses people almost crumbling.crumbling.
A that the of those are.A that the of those are.
Functional categories form a Functional categories form a closed class.closed class.
What are the determiners of English?What are the determiners of English?thethe (definite), (definite), a/ana/an (indefinite), (indefinite), this, that, this, that,
these, thosethese, those (demonstrative) (plus a few (demonstrative) (plus a few others)others)
Lexical categories form an Lexical categories form an open class.open class.
What are the verbs or nouns of English?What are the verbs or nouns of English?impossible to make a complete list (despite impossible to make a complete list (despite
dictionaries)dictionaries)
VerbsVerbs
FiniteFinite verb: indicates tense of the verb: indicates tense of the sentence.sentence.
Paula Paula dreamsdreams of a nice holiday. of a nice holiday.
That woman always That woman always playsplays a Ligeti cd a Ligeti cd on her birthday.on her birthday.
Yesterday I Yesterday I walkedwalked home. home.
Past tense forms for the verb Past tense forms for the verb plénopléno ‘to ‘to wash’ in modern Greek:wash’ in modern Greek:
1sg1sg é-plen-aé-plen-a 1pl1pl plén-ameplén-ame
2sg2sg é-plen-esé-plen-es 2pl2pl plén-ateplén-ate
3sg3sg é-plen-eé-plen-e 3pl3pl é-plen-ané-plen-an
AbsenceAbsence of an ending can also give of an ending can also give information about information about tense/person/number on a finite verb.tense/person/number on a finite verb.
I I dreamdream of a nice holiday as well. of a nice holiday as well.
You never You never playplay the piano on your the piano on your birthday, do you?birthday, do you?
Today they all Today they all walkwalk home, I believe. home, I believe.
When something fits into a frame like the When something fits into a frame like the following, it will be a finite verb.following, it will be a finite verb.
When I come home, the dogs usually ___ .When I come home, the dogs usually ___ .The dogs ___ it.The dogs ___ it.Mary ___ her dog yesterday.Mary ___ her dog yesterday.
But not vice versa:But not vice versa:??When I come home the dogs usually ??When I come home the dogs usually sing.sing.
The The infinitiveinfinitive
Harry wants Harry wants to leaveto leave the country. the country.The shop expects The shop expects to deliverto deliver the goods on the goods on
Friday.Friday.Luckily the weather seems Luckily the weather seems to improveto improve..
In the future tense, accompanied by auxiliaryIn the future tense, accompanied by auxiliary verb verb will:will:
Gerald will Gerald will gogo to Paris tomorrow. to Paris tomorrow.Davina would Davina would dancedance the tango. the tango.
The The past participlepast participle
She has never She has never travelledtravelled for so long for so long before.before.
He has He has gonegone..
Our cat has never Our cat has never sleptslept for so long. for so long.
That soprano has never That soprano has never sungsung in a in a Verdi opera.Verdi opera.
The The present participlepresent participle
The train is The train is leavingleaving the station. the station.
Laura is Laura is readingreading a book. a book.
Larry was Larry was feedingfeeding the cats when the cats when Laura came in.Laura came in.
Complete sentences in English need a verb, Complete sentences in English need a verb, even if this has to be a ‘dummy’ verb: the even if this has to be a ‘dummy’ verb: the copula.copula.
She is a dentist.She is a dentist.He is ill.He is ill.Clark Kent is Superman.Clark Kent is Superman.
Compare with main verb Compare with main verb be: be: I think therefore I am.I think therefore I am.To be or not to be, that is the question.To be or not to be, that is the question.
The need for a copula is not universal:The need for a copula is not universal:
Vasja poxož na otca.Vasja poxož na otca. (Russian)(Russian)Vasja alike to fatherVasja alike to father‘‘Vasja looks like his father.’Vasja looks like his father.’
Takie predrassudki očen’ rasprostraneny.Takie predrassudki očen’ rasprostraneny.such prejudices very spreadsuch prejudices very spread‘‘Such prejudices are very widespread.’Such prejudices are very widespread.’
NounsNouns
Pluralization indicates that a word is a Pluralization indicates that a word is a nounnoun
house – houseshouse – houses
chair – chairschair – chairs
cat – catscat – cats
street – streetsstreet – streets
iguana – iguanas iguana – iguanas
Mass nounsMass nouns do not readily pluralize do not readily pluralize
water – ?waterswater – ?waters
sand – ?sandssand – ?sands
gold – ?goldsgold – ?golds
glue – ?gluesglue – ?glues
coffee – ?coffees coffee – ?coffees
But it is possible to pluralize even mass nouns But it is possible to pluralize even mass nouns when you ‘individuate’ them:when you ‘individuate’ them:
The ship sank in the territorial The ship sank in the territorial waterswaters of of Ireland.Ireland.
The caravan crossed the The caravan crossed the sandssands of the desert. of the desert.Britain won three Britain won three goldsgolds and five and five silverssilvers at the at the
event.event.I tried three different I tried three different gluesglues and it still won’t and it still won’t
stick.stick.After she drank six After she drank six coffeescoffees she started shaking. she started shaking.
Abstract nounsAbstract nouns do not always readily pluralize do not always readily pluralize eithereither
luck - ?lucks, hate – ?hates, anger - ?angersluck - ?lucks, hate – ?hates, anger - ?angers
But:But:
One of my pet One of my pet hateshates is the litter in the street. is the litter in the street.
This psychotherapeutic theory distinguishes This psychotherapeutic theory distinguishes between two different between two different angersangers, the suppressed , the suppressed one and the demonstrative one.one and the demonstrative one.
Nouns can be combined with a Nouns can be combined with a determinerdeterminer
the catthe cata housea housethe waterthe waterthat streetthat streetthis sandthis sandthose tablesthose tablesthe anger the anger
Proper nounsProper nouns do not always combine with a do not always combine with a determinerdeterminer
?the Jane, ?the Edinburgh, ?a France, ?this Merlin?the Jane, ?the Edinburgh, ?a France, ?this Merlin
But:But:She is no longer the Jane I knew.She is no longer the Jane I knew.The Edinburgh of the 15th century was very dirty.The Edinburgh of the 15th century was very dirty.In this book the author describes a France that In this book the author describes a France that
tourists do not often see.tourists do not often see.Let me tell you a story about a sorcerer called Let me tell you a story about a sorcerer called
Merlin. This Merlin... Merlin. This Merlin...
Verbs can combine directly with nouns:Verbs can combine directly with nouns:
Jane examines patients.Jane examines patients.Alaric destroyed Rome.Alaric destroyed Rome.
Nouns cannot directly combine with other nouns:Nouns cannot directly combine with other nouns:
*Jane examination patients*Jane examination patientsJane’s examination of patientsJane’s examination of patients
*Alaric destruction Rome*Alaric destruction RomeAlaric’s destruction of RomeAlaric’s destruction of Rome
Are there functional nouns? Maybe: Are there functional nouns? Maybe: pronounspronouns
Personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, Personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her,...her,...
Possessive pronouns: my, your, her, his, our, ...Possessive pronouns: my, your, her, his, our, ...
Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, herself, ...Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, herself, ...
Reciprocal pronoun: each otherReciprocal pronoun: each other
Impersonal pronoun: oneImpersonal pronoun: one
AdjectivesAdjectives
Adjectives have a Adjectives have a comparativecomparative and a and a superlativesuperlative form form
cold – colder – coldestcold – colder – coldest
strange – stranger – strangeststrange – stranger – strangest
dry – drier – driest dry – drier – driest
enthusiasticenthusiastic
*enthusiasticer / *enthusiasticest*enthusiasticer / *enthusiasticest
more enthusiastic / most enthusiasticmore enthusiastic / most enthusiastic
flabbergastedflabbergasted
*flabbergasteder / *flabbergastedest*flabbergasteder / *flabbergastedest
more flabbergasted / most more flabbergasted / most flabbergastedflabbergasted
The comparative or superlative can be The comparative or superlative can be semantically anomalous:semantically anomalous:
pregnant *pregnanter *pregnantestpregnant *pregnanter *pregnantest
dead *deader *deadestdead *deader *deadest
locked *lockeder *lockedestlocked *lockeder *lockedest
closed *closeder *closedestclosed *closeder *closedest
Adjectives can be used Adjectives can be used predicativelypredicativelyJohn is ill.John is ill.Mary is pregnant.Mary is pregnant.That painting is beautiful.That painting is beautiful.The door is locked.The door is locked.
or or attributivelyattributivelyan ill personan ill persona pregnant womana pregnant womana beautiful paintinga beautiful paintingthe locked doorthe locked door
Some adjectives can only be used as Some adjectives can only be used as attributive adjectives:attributive adjectives:
the alleged offenderthe alleged offender*This offender is only alleged.*This offender is only alleged.
a former presidenta former president*This president is former.*This president is former.
AdverbsAdverbs are much like attributive are much like attributive adjectives, but modify a verb rather adjectives, but modify a verb rather than a noun.than a noun.
They can distinguish themselves by a They can distinguish themselves by a special adverbial ending.special adverbial ending.
Susan walked Susan walked quicklyquickly to the store. to the store.
Frank Frank hastilyhastily scribbled it down. scribbled it down.
She She probablyprobably left. left.
Not all adverbs show special adverbial morphology:Not all adverbs show special adverbial morphology:
Harry Harry oftenoften talks about music. talks about music.The baby is eating The baby is eating wellwell..
een een snelsnel spel spel een een grappiggrappig gezicht gezicht (Dutch)(Dutch)a quick gamea quick game a funny facea funny face
Ze schrijft heel Ze schrijft heel snelsnel .. De baby lachte De baby lachte grappig.grappig.she writes very quicklyshe writes very quickly the baby smiled funnilythe baby smiled funnily
PrepositionsPrepositions
inin Amsterdam Amsterdam
withwith Mary Mary
toto France France
afterafter dinner dinner
beforebefore noon noon
off off the wallthe wall
Some languages have Some languages have postpositionspostpositions rather than prepositions.rather than prepositions.
larki kolarki ko larki selarki se larki parlarki pargirl togirl to girl fromgirl from girl aftergirl after‘‘to the girl’to the girl’ ‘from the girl’‘from the girl’
‘after the girl’‘after the girl’
(Hindi)(Hindi)