motivation theory and practic1 (nsbm)

7/27/2019 Motivation Theory and Practic1 (Nsbm)

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MOTIVATION THEORY AND PRACTICE

Motivation is a widely used, and equally abused, concept inManagement Theory and Practice. Purpose of the theory is to help

the practitioner develop reliable and comprehensive practices basedon causal relationships. Thus the theory has two basic purposes,one being the examination and establishment of causalrelationships between or among relevant variables andunderstanding the nature and effects of such relationships; theother is the development of a knowledge system based on suchtheory building which could be used by others to practise or performbetter.

There is still a wide gap between the theoretician and thepractitioner. This is a universal phenomenon. However, the width ofthe gap is in varying degrees. In the west, it is less, but in our; partof the world, it is relatively more. This is due to number of basicfactors as shown below:

State of Economic Development

Social and Cultural Environment

State of the Technology

Management Philosophy and Style

The above, by no means, is considered an exhaustive list. Itacknowledges the most dominant factors, which constitute themacro environment in which people work.

DEFINITION

Motivation is an inner state that energizes, activates ormoves and that directs or channels behavior towards goals.

Motivation is a psychological process that gives behavior

purpose and direction.

motivation is the arousal, direction and persistence ofbehavior.

Motivation is the process that accounts for the individualsintensity , direction , and persistence of effort towardattaining a goal.

Motivation Theory is based on the following assumptions on humanbehavior:

Behavior is caused


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Behavior is Goal Oriented

Behavior that is not directly observable (thinking andperceiving) is also important in achieving goals

Behavior is motivated

THE BASIC MOTIVATIONAL FRAMEWORK

The model explains basic assumption of the motivation theory. Itexplains that human behavior is triggered by NEEDS(1). When anindividual experiences a need, it causes unrest or tension, which

DRIVES him/her to look for ways to satisfy such need. ThisPROCESS is shown in boxes (2, 3 and 4) Boxes 5 &6 showevaluation of his behavior in terms of the consequences, wherehe/she evaluates and decides on his/her subsequent behavior. Thisphase refers to satisfaction / frustration of the need andreinforcement of behavior. Accordingly, the model explain basictheoretical framework of motivation, which could be classified asfollows:

Need / content theoriesProcess theories

Reinforcement theories

(1)UNSATISFIED

NEED/ GOAL

SEARCH FOR NEED (2)

SATISFACTION

STRATEGIES

GOAL ORIENTEDBEHAVIOR (3)

PERFORMANCE

(4)

REWARD OR

PUNISHMENT

(5)

EVALUATION

(6)


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NEED/CONTENT THEORIES:Content theories / need theories emphasize the needs that motivate

people. At any point in time people have basic needs such as thosefor food, achievement, or monetary reward. These needs translateinto an internal drive that triggers off a specific behavior patterndirected toward goal satisfaction.Among the content theories the following have been widely used bypractitioners/theorist to understand and design motivationalprograms:`Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory proposes that humanneeds are constituted in a hierarchy of prepotency, in which theindividual moves upward in the hierarchy constituting 05 needlevels. The theory emphasizes that at a given time an individual isinterested in satisfaction of a given need level. Thus the needsatisfaction is tightly compartmentalized and only moves upwards(satisfaction progression). This is considered one of the mainshortcomings of the theory. It is believed that human behavior istoo complex to be frozen into such simple framework.

Alderfer's ERG Theory is a modification of the needs hierarchy

theory but only identifies 03 need levels as indicated by the lettersERG. The 03 need levels are (E) existence (R) Relatedness (G).However, this theory does not emphasize backward movement asagainst strict upward movement suggested by Maslow. Accordinglyif an individual fails to meet a higher level need he may revert backto a lower level need. This is known as frustration regression

Herzbergs Two Factor Theory distinguishes between HygieneFactors and Motivators. The theory suggests that the factors knownas Hygiene Factors are those relate to dissatisfaction at work.Removal of dissatisfaction will not lead to satisfaction of the

employee but it wii bring him to less-dissatisfaction or nodissatisfaction state. In other words, factors that lead to employeemotivation are separate from those leading to dissatisfaction.Absence or inadequacy of satisfaction of extrinsic needs(hygienefactors) make the worker dissatisfied, but improvement of them willonly make him satisfied, but not motivated. Motivation depends onfulfillment or satisfaction of intrinsic needs or motivating factors.

PROCESS THEORIES


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Process theories are a group of theories, which explain howemployees select behaviors with which to meet their needs anddetermine whether their choices were successful. There are twoBasic Theories in this category. They are:

Equity Theory focuses on individuals perception of how fairly he/she is treated compared with others. The main focus of the theoryis in perceived equity. Equity involves at two levels: Personal Equityand Social Equity Social Equity is defined as a situation that existswhen the ratio of one persons outcomes to inputs equals those ofanother. Personal equity is the perceived fairness of the outcome forthe input at an individual level without making reference to anoutside party.

Expectancy theory is one of the most widely acceptedexplanations of motivation. Victor Vrooms expectancy theory hasits critics but most of the research is supportive.

Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in acertain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the actwill be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness ofthat outcome to the individual.

It says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level ofeffort when he/she believes that:

Effort will lead to good performance. That a good Performance will lead to rewards. That the rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals.

Reinforcement theory

This is a motivation theory based on the relationship between agiven behavior and its consequences. This approach sidesteps theissues of employee needs and thinking process described in thecontent and process theories.

This approach is based on a theoretical assumption known as theLaw of effect. Law of effect states that positively reinforcedbehavior tends to be repeated and unreinforced or negativelyreinforced behavior tend to be inhibited .In other words behaviors,which result in pleasant consequences, are likely to be repeated,and behaviors, which result in unpleasant consequences, are likelyto be avoided.Manager's motivation 'toolkit'

There is no universal theory or approach to motivation Motivation is a complex process


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Organizational Reward System is a powerful motivationmechanism

Manager is the key element in the motivation process

Recognize individual differences

Match people to jobs

Use goals

Ensure that Goals are Perceived as Attainable

Individual Rewards

Link Rewards to Performance

Check the System for Equity

Do not ignore monetary rewards

The manager's main task is to motivate his or her team, bothindividually and collectively so that they can deliver the 'goods' andalso derive satisfaction from it.

This may appear somewhat contradictory, but it seems to work. Themain tools in the manager's kitbag for motivating the team are:

approval, praise and recognition; trust, respect and high expectations; loyalty, given that it may be received; job enrichment; good communications; financial incentives.

Don't coerce - persuade!

Persuasion is far more powerful than coercion, just as the pen ismightier than the sword. Managers have a much better chance ofsuccess if they use persuasion rather than coercion. The formerbuilds morale, initiative and motivation, whilst the latter quiteeffectively kills such qualities. The three basic components inpersuasion are:

suggest; play on the person's sentiments; and appeal to logic.

Cultural Impacts

Motivation Theories Are Culture Bound Many Theories WereDeveloped in the United States


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Most theories are based on the cultural characteristics inherent inthe country of origin. Therefore, there is the strong emphasis thepeople of those societies with their values, norms and ethics. Forinstance the Northern culture bases a strong emphasis on

Individualism, which is in contrast to collective orientationprominent in the Asian countries like Japan, India and Sri Lanka.

This will, understanbly, have a great impact on their needs, drive,goals and goal seeking behavior. Both goal-setting and expectancytheories emphasize goal accomplishment as well as rational andindividual thought.

Maslows need hierarchy

People start at the physiological level and then moveprogressively up the hierarchy in this order: physiological, safety,social, esteem, and self-actualization. This hierarchy aligns withAmerican culture.

In countries where uncertainty avoidance characteristics arestrong, Japan, Greece and Mexico, security needs would be on top ofthe need hierarchy. Countries like the Netherlands and Denmarkwho score high on quality of life characteristics would have socialneeds at the top.

The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal

motivator presupposes two cultural characteristicsa willingness toaccept a moderate degree of risk and a concern with performance.

Equity theory It is based on the assumption that workers are highly sensitiveto equity in reward allocations. In the United States, equity is meantto be closely tying pay to performance.

However, in collectivist cultures such as the former socialistcountries, employees expect rewards to reflect their individualneeds as well as their performance. Moreover, consistent with a

legacy of communism and centrally planned economies, employeesexhibited an entitlement attitude.

4. There are cross-cultural consistencies. The desire for interesting work seems important to almost allworkers.

Growth, achievement, and responsibility were rated the topthree and had identical rankings in another study of severalcountries.


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(Further reading: Organization Behavior , Robbins, S (9thEdition) Chapter7

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