n25 waterford bypass, contract 3. final report on archaeological investigations at site 34 in the...

Project Code: NWB 03 Client: Waterford Co. Council Date: May 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Volume 3 Appendix 9: Palaeoenvironmental Analyses Report, Site 34, Newrath Townland, Co. Kilkenny By: Dr Scott Timpany (With contributions by Prof Simon Haslett, Dr Sue Dawson and Dr Jason Jordan) Excavated under Licence: 04E0319 Director: Brendon Wilkins Chainage: 670 NGR: 25921 11446

Headland Archaeology (Ireland) Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 3

2

Contents Abstract 3 Introduction 3 Methods 3 Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs 3 Microscopic charcoal analyses 4 Plant macrofossil analyses 4

Wood identification analyses 4 Loss on Ignition 5 Foraminifera 5

Diatoms 5 Results 6 Radiocarbon dating 6

Stratigraphy 9 Loss on Ignition 10 Pollen 11 Plant macrofossils 15 Foraminifera 19 Diatoms 19

Discussion 20 Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise 20 Vegetational History and Human agency 23 Conclusion 34 References 35 Appendices 41 Figures and Tables

Figure 1 – Loss on Ignition Results 10 Figure 2 – Monolith1 pollen diagram 12 Figure 3 – Monolith 2 pollen diagram, 13 Figure 4 – Monolith 1 plant macrofossil diagram 16 Figure 5 – Monolith 2 plant macrofossil diagram 17 Figure 6 – Reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath 22 Table 1 – Radiocarbon results from SUERC 6 Table 2 – Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1 9 Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the 28 Waterford Area


3

Abstract The excavation of a former wetland area at Newrath, Co. Kilkenny as part of construction of the new N25 Waterford Bypass has shown it to be an important multi‐period site with finds ranging from Bann flakes of the Later Mesolithic, to scatters of brushwood from the medieval period. Here the palaeoenvironmental evidence from the site is presented, where a multi‐proxy approach was taken using pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph, plant macrofossil, foraminifera and diatom analyses. Results show Newrath was an increasingly wet environment from the Neolithic onwards with a successional sequence of dry land surface ‐ carr‐woodland – reedswamp – saltmarsh. Analyses also show evidence for agricultural practice in both the Neolithic and Bronze Age, with the former taking place during a period of increased storminess. Evidence has also been found for the presence of Trichuris sp, which may be the first archaeological find within Ireland.

Introduction This report is a continuation of palaeoenvironmental work previously undertaken at Site 34 (NGR 14485/59125 and Chainage 600‐710, see Timpany, 2006) and is a progression of the work from that assessment phase, based on the recommendations that were made. Work presented here is concentrated on the sedimentary sequences contained within Monoliths 1 and 2 taken from Area 1 of the site. Following on from results gained during the assessment it was decided that the analyses should focus on the bottom 1m part of the sequence, which consists of primarily peat layers. This conclusion was reached after pollen and stratigraphic assessments showed high potential of sediment mixing and disturbance in the upper 1m part of the sequence, which is dominated by estuarine silts. The lower half of the sequence also contains the stratigraphic layers where the majority of the archaeological features from the site have been found within. The Monoliths were subject to a suite of multi‐proxy analyses that included pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph, microscopic charcoal, plant macrofossil, wood identification, loss on ignition (LOI), diatom and foraminifera analyses together with further accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) dating. This report aims to not only present that data, which has been collected from this study but also to relate this back to the multi‐period archaeology present at the site (see Wilkins, main report). In particular discussion will be focused on the changing environment of Newrath and the Waterford area, palaeoenvironmental evidence for the presence of people in the landscape, interaction of people with the landscape and other disturbance factors that can be identified in the palaeoenvironmental record, in particular those relating to tidal influence in relation to sea‐level rise.

Methods Pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs Pollen analysis was undertaken on samples of 1cm3 from the two monoliths. Samples were taken at intervals of approximately 2cm to 8cm from both monoliths. Pollen samples were prepared using standard preparation methods (cf. Barber, 1976). A counting method of recording 500 pollen grains excluding spores and obligate aquatics was employed for the assessment of the pollen. Plant taxonomic nomenclature follows the order of Stace (1997). Cereal‐type pollen grains have been identified using the criteria given by Faegri et al (1989) and take into account suggestions of Moore et al (1991). Non‐pollen palynomorphs (e.g.


4

fungal spores and testate amoeba) were identified using illustrations and descriptions in publications including van Geel (1978, 1986), van Geel et al (2003) and Ellis and Ellis (1997). All rare types are shown as a cross, where one cross denotes one grain/spore. Pollen diagrams were constructed using the TILIA and TG view; versions 2.0.2 packages (Grimm 2004), and have been zoned using the CONISS package. The pollen diagrams are given in Figures 2 and 3. Microscopic charcoal analyses During pollen counting microscopic charcoal was identified as either grass‐type (to include Poaceae and Cyperaceae charcoal) or wood microscopic charcoal, where enough of the structure was complete to identify. These counts have been added to the pollen diagrams as total number counted and are not intended to show all microscopic charcoal present, only that which can be safely identified. These counts have been added to aid in sighting trends between the vegetational and microscopic charcoal records. The microscopic charcoal area using the point count method (Clark, 1982) is also given in each pollen diagram, as this shows more clearly the fire history of the site. Microscopic charcoal was counted using the points of the graticule (200 points), with those pieces “touching” the graticule point being added to the count. Generally 10 fields of view were recorded per traverse of the slide, at a magnification of x100. Microscopic charcoal was counted until 50 Lycopodium spores were recorded. This data is presented in the pollen diagrams shown in Figures 2 and 3. Plant macrofossil analyses The monoliths were sub‐sampled for plant macrofossil analysis at intervals of 4cm. All of the remaining sediment from each level (c. 50ml in volume) was removed for analyses following sub‐sampling for other analyses such as pollen. A glass vial was also filled with sediment from each level of approximately 10g, in case any further study is warranted. Samples were washed through a small stack of sieves with 1mm and 500μm meshes. The remains were sorted and identified using a binocular microscope at magnification of x10, and x40 where greater magnification was needed for identification. Identifications were confirmed using modern reference material and seed atlases including Cappers et al (2006). Plant taxonomic nomenclature used in the table follows the order of Stace (1997). Data is presented in diagram form using the TILIA package outlined above and are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Wood identification analyses Samples were thin sliced along radial, tangential and transverse sections using a razor blade and then stained using bleach before being mounted on a slide in glycerol and examined under a microscope at x100 and x400 when required. Wood sections were identified using features described by Schweingruber (1978, 1990) and IAWA (1989). The identified wood fragments form part of the plant macrofossil analyses and are included within the diagrams for each monolith. Radiocarbon dating Samples were washed and sorted using the same method as for the plant macrofossil analysis, with the exception of distilled water being used to wash the samples through the sieves to avoid contamination. Identified plant material was used for dating and was stored in glass vials in distilled water in a refrigerator, again to avoid contamination before being


5

sent for AMS radiocarbon dating at SUERC (Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre). A further eight samples were sent for dating and the results of these and the previous five (see Timpany, 2006) are presented in Table 1. Loss on Ignition Loss on ignition is used to assess the relative organic content of the samples, and thus detect mineral inwash levels through the peat profile. Dry samples are weighed before and after prolonged heating: the difference in mass being taken as a measure of organic content. The method employed for this analysis was high temperature (800+° C) ignition, to allow full ignition of the relatively high organic content of the peat. The samples were not thought to contain a significant carbonate component, so it was not necessary to use low temperature ignition to avoid the decomposition of carbonates (Rowell 1994). Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett) Twelve foraminifera samples were sub‐sampled from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Professor Simon Haslett at Bath University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on foraminifera given in Appendix I. Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan) Twelve diatom samples were taken from Monoliths 1 and 2 and sent to Dr Jason Jordan at Coventry University for analysis. For details on method see separate report on diatoms given in Appendix II.


6

Results Radiocarbon dating The radiocarbon dating results are presented in Table 1. Radiocarbon dates have been calibrated using OxCal version 3.10 (Bronk Ramsay, 2005) to 95.4% probability. Table 1 Radiocarbon results from SUERC Monolith no

Sample depth (cm)

Dating material

Date BP Date Calibrated

Radiocarbon determination

1 84‐85 Monocotyledon plant tissue

1870±35 (SUERC‐10124)

Cal AD 60‐240

Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob usp[chron]

200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date

1600BP

1700BP

1800BP

1900BP

2000BP

2100BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

1870±35BP 68.2% probability 80AD (57.5%) 170AD 190AD (10.7%) 210AD 95.4% probability 60AD (95.4%) 240AD


1665±35 (SUERC‐14680)

Cal AD 250‐530


CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD 600CalAD

Calibrated date

1300BP

1400BP

1500BP

1600BP

1700BP

1800BP

1900BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

1665±35BP 68.2% probability 340AD (68.2%) 425AD 95.4% probability 250AD (91.1%) 440AD 480AD ( 4.3%) 530AD


1965±35 (SUERC‐14681)

50 Cal BC to Cal AD

50


200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date

1700BP

1800BP

1900BP

2000BP

2100BP

2200BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

1965±35BP 68.2% probability 20BC ( 0.9%) 10BC AD (67.3%) 75AD 95.4% probability 50BC (91.0%) 90AD 100AD ( 4.4%) 130AD


2045±40 (SUERC‐14682)

170 Cal BC to Cal AD

60


400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD 400CalAD

Calibrated date

1800BP

1900BP

2000BP

2100BP

2200BP

2300BP

2400BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

2045±40BP 68.2% probability 150BC ( 1.9%) 140BC 110BC (66.3%) 10AD 95.4% probability 170BC (95.4%) 60AD

1 168‐169 Rubus sp. Seeds 4150±35 (SUERC‐10125)

2880‐2620 Cal BC


3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC

Calibrated date

3900BP

4000BP

4100BP

4200BP

4300BP

4400BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

4150±35BP 68.2% probability 2870BC (14.7%) 2830BC 2820BC ( 5.7%) 2800BC 2780BC (47.8%) 2660BC 95.4% probability 2880BC (95.4%) 2620BC


7

1 209‐210 Prunus spinosa fruit stone

4505±35 (SUERC‐14687)

3360‐3090 Cal BC


3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC 3000CalBC 2800CalBC

Calibrated date

4100BP

4200BP

4300BP

4400BP

4500BP

4600BP

4700BP

4800BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion


1 233‐234 Quercus and Betula buds and bud scales.

4850±35 (SUERC‐10126)

3710‐3620 Cal BC


4000CalBC 3800CalBC 3600CalBC 3400CalBC 3200CalBC

Calibrated date

4500BP

4600BP

4700BP

4800BP

4900BP

5000BP

5100BP

5200BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

4850±35BP 68.2% probability 3700BC ( 7.0%) 3680BC 3670BC (51.2%) 3630BC 3560BC ( 9.9%) 3540BC 95.4% probability 3710BC (73.7%) 3620BC 3580BC (21.7%) 3530BC


2360±35 (SUERC‐10127)

540‐370 Cal BC



Calibrated date

2100BP

2200BP

2300BP

2400BP

2500BP

2600BP

2700BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

2360±35BP 68.2% probability 510BC (31.0%) 430BC 420BC (37.2%) 380BC 95.4% probability 720BC ( 2.1%) 690BC 540BC (93.3%) 370BC


2210±40 (SUERC‐14688)

390‐180 Cal BC


600CalBC 400CalBC 200CalBC CalBC/CalAD 200CalAD

Calibrated date

1900BP

2000BP

2100BP

2200BP

2300BP

2400BP

2500BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

2210±40BP 68.2% probability 360BC ( 8.5%) 340BC 330BC (59.7%) 200BC 95.4% probability 390BC (95.4%) 180BC

2 157‐158 Rubus fruticosus fruits

3935±35 (SUERC‐14689)

2500‐2290 Cal BC


3000CalBC 2800CalBC 2600CalBC 2400CalBC 2200CalBC 2000CalBC

Calibrated date

3700BP

3800BP

3900BP

4000BP

4100BP

4200BP

4300BP

Radi

ocar

bon

dete

rmin

atio

n

3935±35BP 68.2% probability 2490BC (68.2%) 2340BC 95.4% probability 2570BC ( 7.7%) 2520BC 2500BC (87.7%) 2290BC

2 189‐190 Alnus and Betula buds and bud scales

4540±40 (SUERC‐14690)

3370‐3090 Cal BC



Calibrated date

4200BP

4400BP

4600BP

4800BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion



8

2 200‐201 Quercus and Betula buds and bud scales

4580±40 (SUERC‐14691)

3380‐3260 Cal BC



Calibrated date

4200BP

4400BP

4600BP

4800BP

Radi

ocar

bon

dete

rmin

atio

n

4580±40BP 68.2% probability 3500BC (12.5%) 3460BC 3380BC (32.3%) 3330BC 3220BC (12.3%) 3180BC 3160BC (11.1%) 3120BC 95.4% probability 3500BC (18.8%) 3430BC 3380BC (39.7%) 3260BC 3240BC (36.9%) 3100BC

2 211‐212 Quercus and Betula buds and bud scales.

4765±35 (SUERC‐10128)

3640‐3380 Cal BC



Calibrated date

4500BP

4600BP

4700BP

4800BP

4900BP

5000BP

Rad

ioca

rbon

det

erm

inat

ion

4765±35BP 68.2% probability 3640BC ( 8.7%) 3620BC 3610BC (59.5%) 3520BC 95.4% probability 3640BC (86.0%) 3500BC 3430BC ( 9.4%) 3380BC


9

Stratigraphy The stratigraphic units from within the monoliths have been previously discussed during the assessment stage but are returned to here briefly to present an addendum of that information, particularly in regard to the added radiocarbon dates (see Table 1). The radiocarbon dated levels have been used as index points in the construction of a sea‐level curve for the site and this is presented in Figure 6. Table 2 Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1. Unit Stratigraphy description Context

numbers Dates Depth

(cm) Relevant pollen zone

IX Topsoil 34008 Modern 0‐10 ‐ VIII Series of estuarine silts –

base of which is probable erosion surface

34001 34002 34003 34045 34035

10‐100 ‐

VII Estuarine silt/reed peat transition

34034 34013 34038

Top: c. 1870±35 BP (GU‐13996; 60‐240 cal AD)

100‐125/150

NWB1f NWB1e NWB2f NWB2e

VI Reed peat 34033 B Top; 2045±40 (SUERC‐14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60) to 2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐370 cal BC)

125/150‐160

NWB1e NWB1d NWB2d

V Reed/wood peat transition (possible non‐sequence here)

34004 B 34031

Top: 3935±35 (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC)

160‐170 NWB1c NWB2c

IV Wood peat – with intercalated silts*

34004 A 34003 A 34021* 34046

Top: 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) Silt layer: 4540±40 (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) to 4580±40 (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐3260 cal BC) Base: 4765±35 BP (GU‐14000; 3430‐3380 cal BC) to 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 cal BC)

170‐230 NWB1c NWB1b NWB1a NWB2c NWB2b NWB2a

III Dryland surface 34100 Late Mesolithic ‐ ‐ II Glacial till 34021 235‐? ‐ I Bedrock? Not seen ‐ ‐


10

Loss on Ignition Results for the Loss on Ignition study are provided below in Figure 1. Figure 1 ‐ Loss on Ignition Results

%L.O.I. NWB Monolith 1

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

100.00

226 210 194 162 154 138 132 123 114 106 94 80

Depth (cm)

% L

.O.I.

%L.O.I.

%L.O.I. NWB Monolith 2

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

100.00

208 198 196 193 176 160 148 130 122

Depth (cm)

% L

.O.I.

%L.O.I.


11

The Loss on Ignition study shows a general increase in organic content following the initiation of peat. The curve for Monolith 1 increases sharply from 20% to 51% as peat develops and then begins to level out with organic content remaining high within the 50% margin throughout the wood peat (Unit IV) and wood peat‐reed peat transition stage (Unit V). The curve for Monolith 1 shows an initial dip after peat develops, falling from 30% to 22%. This dip ties in with a layer of silt being present within the wood peat and highlights the high minerogenic content of this layer. Following this initial deposition of silts organic content begins to rise as peat accumulation increases, with values increasing to over 70% within Unit V. Organic content values are then seen to decline in both Monoliths as sediments change from being predominantly peat based to minerogenic based signalled by a change in the stratigraphic record from reedswamp (Unit VI) to eventual estuarine conditions (Unit VIII) as the site becomes inundated. In Monolith 1 this change can be seen by a rapid fall in values from 50‐20% and then levels out at around 10% as the site is submerged. Monolith 2 also shows a rapid decline in values of organic content from 72‐28%, however, values then rise to 54% within the reedswamp‐estuarine silts transition stage (Unit (VII), highlighting a period within this stage of high organic content, possibly of renewed peat development. Pollen Results of pollen analysis for both monoliths are shown in the pollen diagrams given in Figures 2 and 3. Monolith 1 Zone NWB1a (234‐210cm) The pollen assemblage indicates that Quercus (oak) woodland dominated the landscape with values of 40‐60% TLP (Total Land Pollen). Along with Quercus, pollen values for Alnus glutinosa (alder) and Corylus avellana (hazel) are also high at 10‐20% TLP indicating they formed significant parts of the wooded landscape. Poaceae (grasses) and Cyperaceae (sedges) are present at around 10% TLP suggesting they formed the dominant field layer. Small peaks in herbaceous species such as Aster‐type (michaelmas daisies) and Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain) can be seen together with the appearance of Hordeum group (barely) pollen. Some background micro‐charcoal can also be seen Zone NWB1b (210‐185cm) Quercus pollen values remain high in this zone although fall slightly from the previous zone to c.40% TLP. Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana values gradually rise in this zone to form approximately 20% TLP by the end of the zone. A small peak in Ilex (holly) pollen occurs in this zone. Poaceae pollen values fall slightly to the end of the zone from around 10‐5% TLP. A large peak can be seen in Filipendula (meadow sweet) pollen values of up to 15% TLP, while smaller peaks occur in Aster‐type and Galium‐type (bedstraws). Micro‐charcoal is again present at low values. No pollen was recorded on slides from 206‐208cm indicating high minerogenic content of these levels. Zone NWB1c (185‐160cm) Alnus glutinosa, Quercus and Corylus avellana pollen continue to dominate the arboreal assemblage at between 17‐40% TLP. There are small rises in the pollen of Salix (willow) and Fraxinus excelsior (ash) within this zone. There is a small rise also in Cyperaceae pollen to c.17% TLP, Poaceae values remain consistent at around 10% TLP, while Filipendula pollen declines. Micro‐charcoal levels increase slightly during this zone.

95100

105110

115120

125130

135140

145150

155160

165170

175180

185190

195200

205210

215220

225230

235

Depth

(cm

)

4850±35

4505±35

4150±35

2045±40

1965±35

1665±35

Date

s (

BP

)

Pinu

sUlm

us

20 40 60

Quercus

Betul

a

20

Alnu

s glut

inosa

Tilia

Ilex aq

uifoli

um

Frax

inus e

xcelsio

r

20

Corylu

s ave

llana

Salix

Sorbus

-type

Punu

s sp.

Prun

us spin

osa-typ

e

Prun

us pad

us-ty

pe

Crataeg

us sp

.

Vibu

rnum

opu

lus

Vibu

rnum

lanta

na

Hedera h

elix

Lonic

era pe

riclym

enum

Callun

a vulg

aris

Ranun

culac

eae

Urt icaMyri

ca ga

le

Cheno

podiac

eae

Caryo

phyll

acea

e ind

et.

Lych

nis-ty

pe

Dianthus

-type

Polyg

onum

-type

Rumex

obtus

ifoliu

s-typ

e

Hypericu

m sp.

Ribes-typ

e

Rosac

eae s

p.

Chrys

osplen

ium o

fficina

le-typ

e

20

Filip

endu

la

Poten

tilla

Faba

ceae

inde

t.

Lotus-t

ype

Trifo

lium-ty

pe

Lythrum sp

.

Apiac

eae

Eryn

gium

-type

Anthr

iscus

-type

Apium

inun

datum-ty

pe

Cicuta vi

rosa

-type

Peuc

edan

um palu

stre-ty

pe

Herac

leum

spho

ndyli

um-ty

pe

Plan

tago

inde

t.

Plan

tago

corono

pus

Plan

tago

mar

it ima

Plan

tago

lanc

eolat

a

Mela

mpy

rum-ty

pe

Galium

-type

Valer

iana dio

ica-ty

pe

Succ

isa praten

sis

Aster-t

ype

Lactu

cae

Lactu

ca sa

tiva-typ

e

Taraxa

cum-ty

pe

Artemisi

a-typ

e

Anthe

mis-

type

20

Cyperac

eae

20

Poac

eae

Poac

eae >3

5um

Horde

um group

10

Micr

o-ch

arco

al

20 40 60 80 100

trees

shru

bs

dwarf s

hrub

s

herbs

Zone

NWB1a

NWB1b

NWB1c

NWB1d

NWB1e

NWB1f

Trees Shrubs Dwarf shrubs HerbsNWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts)

Lithology

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130135

140

145

150

155

160

165

170

175

180185

190

195

200

205

210

215

220

225230

235

Depth

(cm

)

4850±35

4505±35

4150±35

2045±40

1965±35

1665±35

Date

s (

BP

)

Nymph

aea a

lba

Nupha

r sp.

Myri

ophy

llum a

lterniflo

rum

Men

yanthe

s trifoli

ata

Stratio

tes a

loide

s

Potamog

eton

Typh

a lat

ifolia

Equis

etum

20

Pterop

sida (m

onole

te) in

det.

Osmun

da re

galis

Adian

tum ca

pillus

-vene

ris

Pilul

aria

globu

lifera

Hymen

ophy

llum

Polyp

odium

20

Pteridi

um

Thely

pteris

palus

tris

Dryopteris

Spha

gnum

Type

2 (G

elasin

ospo

ra re

ticuli

spora)

Type

3B (P

leosp

ora s

pp)

Type

4 (A

nthros

tomell

a fue

giana

)

Type

7A (C

haeto

mium

sp.)

Type

8 (A

-G)

Type

10 (

Conidi

a)

Type

11

Type

14`(M

eliola

cf. n

iessle

ana)

Type

16

Type

19

Type

20

Type

22 (

Herpo

trichie

lla sp

p)

Type

25 (

cf. C

lasterosp

orium

caric

inum)

Type

27 (

Tille

tia sp

hagn

i)

Type

28 (

Spermato

phores

of C

oped

poda

)

Type

44 (

Ustulin

a deu

sta)

Type

47

Type

55A/

B (S

orda

ria sp

p)

Typp

e 72

(Alon

a rusti

ca)

Type

90

Type

112

(Cerco

phera sp

.)

Type

116

(Cym

atios

phae

ra)

Type

121

Type

125

Type

140

Type

143

(Dipo

rothe

ca rh

izoph

ilia)

Type

169

Type

170

(Rivu

laria-

type)

Type

207

(Glom

us cf

. fasc

iculat

um)

Type

262

Type

357

(Puc

cinia-

type)

Type

359

d (Ba

ctrod

esmium

betulicola

)

Type

406

Type

494

Type

527

Type

707

(Culc

italna

achras

pora)

Type

708

a

Type

708

b

Type

729

Type

930

c

Ampa

lliferina

lauri

Bactr

odes

mium ob

ovatu

m

Bactr

odes

mium ab

ruptum

Sporos

chism

a mira

bile

Trich

uris-

type

10

Micr

o-ch

arco

al

Foramini

fera

5

Woo

d micr

o-ch

arco

al

5

Grass

micr

o-ch

arco

al

20 40 60 80 100

trees

shrubs

dwarf s

hrub

s

herbs

Zone

NWB1a

NWB1b

NWB1c

NWB1d

NWB1e

NWB1f

Aquatics Spores NPP'sNWB03 Monolith1 pollen diagram (500 counts)

Lithology

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

135

140

145

150

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

195

200

205

210

215

De

pth

(c

m)

4765±35

4580±40

4540±40

3935±35

2210±40

2360±35

Da

tes

BP

Pinu

s

Ulmu

s

20 40 60

Quercus

Betula

20 40

Alnu

s glutinos

a

Carpinus betulu

s

Tilia

Ilex aq

uifolium

Fraxinu

s excelsior

20

Corylus

avellana

Salix

Sorbus-ty

pe

Malu

s-typ

e

Punus sp.

Prun

us spin

osa-type

Prun

us pad

us-ty

pe

Cratae

gus s

p.

Vibu

rnum

sp.

Vibu

rnum

opulus

Vibu

rnum

lantan

a

Hede

ra helix

Calluna

vulga

ris

Empetru

m

Ranu

nculacea

e

Urtica

Myrica

gale

Chen

opod

iaceae

Caryop

hyllaceae

inde

t.

Scleranthus-type

Lych

nis-type

Rumex acetosa

-type

Hyperic

um sp.

Rosace

ae sp.

Chrysosp

lenium

offic

inale-type

Filipen

dula

Rubu

s-typ

e

Poten

tilla

Faba

ceae

inde

t.

Lotus-typ

e

Vicia

-type

Trifolium-ty

pe

Lythrum sp.

Apiac

eae

Eryngium

-type

Apium

inun

datum-

type

Cicuta virosa-ty

pe

Peuced

anum

palu

stre-ty

pe

Heracle

um sp

hond

ylium

-type

Litho

spermum

-type

Symph

ytum offic

inale-

type

Plan

tago

inde

t.

Plan

tago

corono

pus

Plan

tago

maritim

a

Plan

tago

lanceo

lata

Scroph

ularia-

type

Galium-ty

pe

Valeriana

dioic

a-typ

e

Scab

iosa columb

aria

Succisa

prate

nsis

Serra

tula-

type

Aster-type

Lactu

cae

Cichorium inchub

us-ty

pe

Lactu

ca sativa

-type

Taraxa

cum-ty

pe

Artemisia-type

20

Cyperaceae

20 40

Poacea

e

Poacea

e >35u

m

Aven

a-Tritic

um group

Hordeu

m group

Secale ce

reale

group

10

Micro-ch

arcoal

20 40 60 80 100

trees

shrubs

dwarf s

hrubs

herbs

Zone

NWB2a

NWB2b

NWB2c

NWB2d

NWB2e

NWB2f

Trees Shrubs Dwarf shrubs HerbsNWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)

Lithology

95

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

135

140

145

150

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

195

200

205

210

215

Depth

(cm

)

4765±35

4580±40

4540±40

3935±35

2210±40

2360±35

Date

s B

P

Nupha

r sp.

Hydroco

tyle v

ulga

ris-ty

pe

Calitric

he-ty

pe

Alism

a-typ

e

Stratio

tes a

loide

s

Potam

ogeton

Typh

a latifo

lia

Equis

etum

20

Pterop

sida (

mon

olete) ind

et.

Osmun

da re

galis

Adian

tum ca

pillu

s-ven

eris

Polyp

odium

20

Pteridi

um

Thelyp

teris

palu

stris

Dryopteris

Spha

gnum

Type

1 (G

elass

inosp

ora sp

p)

Type

2 (G

elasin

ospo

ra re

t iculi

spora)

Type

3B (P

leosp

ora sp

p)

Type

4 (A

nthrosto

mella

fueg

iana)

Type

7A (C

haetom

ium sp

.)

Type

8 (A

-G)

Type

10 (C

onidia)

Type

11

Type

14`(M

eliola

cf. n

iessle

ana)

Type

16

Type

19

Type

20

Type

22 (H

erpo

trichie

lla sp

p)

Type

25 (c

f. Clas

teros

poriu

m ca

ricinu

m)

Type

27 (T

illet ia

spha

gni)

Type

28 (S

perm

atop

hores o

f Cop

edpo

da)

Type

44 (U

stulin

a de

usta)

Type

47

Type

55A/B (S

orda

ria sp

p)

Type

61 (Z

ygmatac

ea cf

. gracil

lima)

Type

72 (A

lona r

ustic

a)

Type

90

Type

112 (C

erco

pher

a sp.)

Type

116 (C

ymati

osph

aera)

Type

121

Type

125

Type

140

Type

143 (D

iporothe

ca rh

izoph

ilia)

Type

169

Type

170 (R

ivular

ia-typ

e)

Type

207 (G

lomus

cf. fas

cicula

tum)

Type

262

Type

353A

Type

357 (P

uccin

ia-typ

e)

Type

359d

(Bac

trode

smium b

etuli

cola)

Type

406

Type

494

Type

527

Type

569

Type

707 (C

ulcita

lna ach

rasp

ora)

Type

708a

Type

708b

Type

729

Type

930c

Antho

stomell

a form

osa

Ampa

llifer

ina la

uri

Bactr

odes

mium

obov

atum

Bactr

odes

mium

abruptum

Pezic

ula liv

idea

Protoc

rea farin

osa

Sporos

chism

a mira

bile

Trich

uris-

type

10

Micr

o-ch

arco

al

20

Foramini

fera

Woo

d micr

o-ch

arco

al

Grass

micr

o-ch

arco

al

50 100

trees

shru

bs

dwarf s

hrub

s

herbs

Zone

NWB2a

NWB2b

NWB2c

NWB2d

NWB2e

NWB2f

Aqautics Spores NPPsNWB03 Monolith 2 pollen diagram (500 counts)

Lithology


14

Zone NWB1d (160‐144cm) Quercus pollen values begin to fall during this zone to c.20% TLP, while pollen values of Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana rise slightly from the previous zone. Cyperaceae pollen values remain at around 10‐20% within this zone, with Poaceae pollen rising to around 15% TLP by the end of the zone. Plantago lanceolata pollen values begins to rise towards the end of this zone as do Pteridium (bracken), Pteropsida (monolete) indet (ferns) and micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB1e (144‐114cm) Pollen values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa decline slightly through this zone to around 17% TLP and 15% TLP, respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent through this zone, while small increases are seen in the pollen values of Salix, Fraxinus excelsior and Betula. Poaceae pollen now dominates the herbaceous assemblage at over 20%, while Cyperaceae pollen remains level at around 10% TLP before gradually declining to the end of the zone. Hordeum‐group pollen appears in this zone, wile Plantago lanceolata and Lactuca sativa‐type (lettuces) become more consistent through the zone. A large increase in Pteridium values takes place as do micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB1f (114‐96cm) A slight rise occurs in pollen values of Corylus avellana and Salix, while there is a very slight decline in the values of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa to around 15% and 10% TLP, respectively. Cyperaceae values also slightly fall to around 7% TLP, while Poaceae pollen remains high at around 20% TLP. Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot) pollen values rise slightly in this zone, while Lactuca sativa‐type pollen also remains at around 2.5% TLP. Hordeum‐group pollen is again present. Pteropsida (monolete) indet and Pteridium values decline during this zone while there is a large increase in micro‐charcoal. Monolith 2 Zone NWB2a (211‐205cm) Quercus pollen dominates this zone with values of up to 50% TLP, while Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana pollen values are also high at around 20% TLP. Pinus (pine) pollen is also present at around 5% TLP. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values dominate the herbaceous assemblage at around 10% TLP. Micro‐charcoal is present in low values. Zone NWB2b (205‐184cm) Pollen values of Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa remain consistent at around 15‐20% TLP during this zone, while Quercus pollen continues to dominate the assemblage at around 40% TLP. There are peaks in Ilex pollen during this zone at up to 10% TLP, together with smaller peaks in Ulmus (elm). Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values are around 10% TLP, while cereal type pollen is present with the appearance of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group (oat‐wheat). Peaks in Filipendula, Plantago lanceolata and Cicuta virosa‐type (cowbane) pollen also occur in this zone. There is a peak in micro‐charcoal in this zone. Zone NWB2c (184‐160cm) There is large increase in Alnus glutinosa pollen values in this zone, peaking at over 40% TLP, while Quercus pollen values remain high at around 40% TLP, as do Corylus avellana values at c.15% TLP. Cyperaceae pollen values increase slightly in this zone to just over 10% TLP, while Poaceae values remain consistent at around 5‐10% TLP. There is an appearance of Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in this zone, with small peaks in Ranunculaceae (buttercup) and


15

Potentilla‐type (cinquefoils) pollen, while Filipendula pollen is consistently present. Micro‐charcoal values also rise slightly towards the end of this zone. Zone NWB2d (160‐146cm) Alnus glutinosa and Quercus pollen values dominate the arboreal assemblage both at around 35% TLP. Corylus avellana values continue to increase slightly up to around 17%, while there are small peaks in Ulmus, Fraxinus excelsior and Salix. Cyperaceae and Poaceae pollen values rise towards the end of the zone, while there are appearances of Avena‐Triticum‐group and Secale cereale‐group (rye) pollen. There are also small peaks of Plantago lanceolata and Heracleum sphondylium‐type (hogweed) towards the end of this zone. Pteropsida (monolete) indet values rise towards the end of the zone as do micro‐charcoal values. Zone NWB2e (146‐120cm) Quercus pollen values begin to decline slightly in this zone to around 20% TLP, while values of Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana pollen continue to gradually rise to 40% and 20% TLP respectively. Pinus values also rise slightly in this zone. Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen values continue to rise during this zone peaking at around 15% TLP; Hordeum‐group pollen also appears. Pteridium values rise rapidly in this zone, while there is also an increase in Pteropsida (monolete) indet and micro‐charcoal values remain high. Zone NWB2f (120‐96cm) There is a decline in the pollen of Quercus and Alnus glutinosa in this zone as they fall to around 15% and 10% respectively. Corylus avellana values remain consistent at around 15% TLP. Poaceae values rise sharply in this zone up to around 35% TLP, while Cyperaceae pollen values also rise to around 15% TLP. There is a more consistent presence of Hordeum‐group pollen in this zone, together with rises in the pollen of Plantago lanceolata, Aster‐type (michaelmas daisies), Filipendula and Plantago coronopus (buck’s horn plantain). Pteridium values and Pteropsida (monolete) indet values remain high, while there is significant increase in micro‐charcoal values. Plant macrofossils The plant macrofossil results are presented in Figures 4 and 5 and have been zoned using the corresponding zones given in the pollen diagrams. Monolith 1 Zone NWB1a (234‐210cm) Plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula buds and scales dominate this zone with buds and scales of Crataegus (hawthorn) also present. A fruit stone of Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) was also recovered alongside herbaceous plant macrofossils from species including Rubus fruticosus (bramble), Schoenoplectus lacustris (common club‐rush) and Ranunculus flammula (lesser spearwort). Some charcoal fragments are also present within this zone. Zone NWB1b (210‐185cm) There is a decline in the number of plant macrofossils of Quercus and Betula in this zone compared to that previous. Alnus glutinosa seeds ands buds appear in this zone as do seeds of Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). Fruit stones of Prunus spinosa and Prunus padus (bird cherry) are more prominent within this zone, while there are also increases in the abundance of Ranunculus flammula and Rubus fruticosus.


18

Zone NWB1c (185‐160cm) Plant macrofossils from arboreal species are seen to decline within this zone as do indeterminate wood fragments. There is a general decline to in herbaceous macrofossils, although there is an increase in the fruits of Rubus fruticosus and Rubus sp. (bramble sp.) during this zone and appearances from species such as Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass) and Carex sylvatica (wood sedge). Zone NWB1d (160‐144cm) There is a virtual absence of plant macrofossils during this zone with only fungal sclerotia present in any numbers and a single Betula sp seed. Monocotyledon fragments remain at high numbers with some small number of wood fragments indet also present. Zone NWB1e (144‐114cm) There is a significant increase in the numbers of plant macrofossil present within this zone with particularly high representation of herbaceous species. Ranunculaceae species are well represented with high numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus (celery‐leaved buttercup) present together with Ranunculus flammula and Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crow‐foot). Small number of other herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata (bottle sedge), Schoenoplectus lacustris and Persicaria minor (small water pepper) are also present. Some arboreal taxa are also represented with small numbers of Betula and Alnus glutinosa seeds also recovered. Some charcoal fragments are also present in this zone. Zone NWB1f (114‐96cm) Herbaceous macrofossils continue to dominate this zone, in particular the fruits of Ranunculus sceleratus with Ranunculus lingua (greater spearwort) and Ranunculus aquatilis fruits also present from this family. Smaller numbers of other taxa such as Persicaria minor, Carex aquatilis and Eleocharis sp (spike rushes) are also present, together with a small number of Alnus glutinosa seeds. Monolith 2 Zone NWB2a (211‐205cm) High numbers of Betula buds and bud scales dominate this zone, particularly towards the base of the zone. Other arboreal species are also evidenced as being present with the recovery of Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Viburnum sp (viburnums) wood fragments. A limited number of herbaceous species are present in the form of Rubus fruticosus fruits and nutlets of Carex sp (sedges) and Carex aquatilis (water sedge). Charcoal fragments are also present in this zone. Zone NWB2b (205‐184cm) This zone sees an increase in the numbers of plant macrofossils present particularly those relating to arboreal species with Quercus, Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Carpinus betulus and Crataegus among those represented. There is an increase to in the numbers of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits, with smaller numbers of herbaceous taxa such as Carex rostrata, Carex acuta (slender tufted sedge) and Schoenoplectus lacustris present. Zone NWB2c (184‐160cm) Arboreal taxa continue to be well represented in this zone with a high presence of Quercus, Betula and Alnus glutinosa in particular. Other arboreal species represented include Viburnum sp, Crataegus monogyna (midlands hawthorn), Prunus padus and Corylus avellana. Herbaceous species are also well represented in this zone with Rubus fruticosus fruits present in significant


19

numbers together with smaller numbers of Lychnis flos‐cuculi (ragged robin) seeds, Persicaria minor fruits and Carex acuta nutlets. Wood fragments are also prominent within this zone. Zone NWB2d (160‐146cm) There is a gradual decrease in the number of arboreal macrofossils during this zone, with only Alnus glutinosa, Betula sp and Quercus sp present in any number. Outside of these species Prunus spinosa and Salix are also represented. There is a large increase in the fruits of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus during this zone, together with nutlets of Carex species. This zone also sees a large peak in moss fragments. Zone NWB2e (146‐120cm) Arboreal species are now near absent in the plant macrofossil record during this zone, with only Betula, Alnus glutinosa, Viburnum and Crataegus monogyna present in small numbers. Other plant macrofossils are also sparse throughout this zone with small numbers of herbaceous species such as Carex rostrata and Ranunculus lingua present. A significant decline is also seen in the numbers of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits. A large peak in fungal sclerotia, however, does take place in this zone. Zone NWB2f (120‐96cm) Plant macrofossils from arboreal taxa are again sparse during this zone with only buds of Salix present in any volume. There is a large increase in the numbers of Ranunculus sceleratus during this zone and herbaceous species as a whole are better represented, with species such as Schoenoplectus lacustris, Carex aquatilis and Ranunculus flammula also present. There is an increase in the number of monocotyledon plant fragments also during this zone. Foraminifera (Prof Simon Haslett) An additional 12 samples were sent for foraminiferal analyses, following the results garnered from the assessment report (see Haslett, 2006). Only seven of all the samples sent for analyses were found to contain foraminifera, all from Monolith 1 (samples 70, 82, 98, 110, 112, 142 and 190cm); no samples from Monolith 2 were found to contain foraminifera. Samples 70, 82, 110 and 142cm contained only Jadamina marascens, which represents the monospecific assemblage of Haslett et al, (2001), which inhabits the lower part of the tidal zone between MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) and HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide). Samples 98, 122 and 190cm contained the most diverse range of foraminifera containing Trochammina inflata, Miliammina fusca and Jadamina marascens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around MHWST. Although containing no foraminifera, samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm (all from Monolith 1) did contain sponge spicules, which may represent a non‐marine depositional environment. For further details see Appendix I. Diatoms (Dr Jason Jordan and Dr Sue Dawson) Twelve additional diatom samples were prepared for analysis from Monoliths 1 and 2 by Dr Jason Jordan. Unfortunately only two of the additional samples were found to yield any diatoms; Sample 110cm from Monolith1 and Sample 128cm from Monolith 2. Sample 110cm contained only two diatoms both of which were Paralia sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of storm deposits. Sample 128 was fund to contain only a single diatom, identified as Gramatophora serpentine a marine diatom indicative of marine waters and coastal deposits. Of the first twelve samples analysed by Dr Sue Dawson, from Monolith1 only one sample (230cm) was found to contain no diatoms, while three samples (98, 118 and 122cm) were found to contain abundant numbers, where full counts of 300 diatom valves could be obtained. The remaining seven samples (18, 34, 50, 70, 82, 142, 158 and 190cm) contained


20

sparse numbers of diatoms. The diatoms indicate deposition within an initial freshwater environment through species such as Fragilaria construens, which then changes to a high intertidal environment highlighted by the presence of species including Diploneis interrupta. There is then a gradual increase in marine waters, from freshwater through to brackish and finally deep, marine waters by the upper sediments sampled, signalled by the presence of species such as Podosira stelliger and Cocconeis scutellum. For further details on both sets of analyses see Appendix II.

Discussion Stratigraphy, Loss on Ignition and Sea‐level rise Below is a discussion of the stratigraphic sequence outlined in Table 2, together with the Loss on Ignition data and the reconstructed sea‐level curve for Newrath based on radiocarbon dated index points from within the monolith sequences. It is important to understand the sedimentary history of the site in order to be able to interpret the vegetational and anthropogenic history of the site. The deepest parts of the stratigraphic sequence (Units I to III) are not present within the studied monoliths and have been included here from recorded section drawings taken during excavation in the field. The dryland surface has been dated from the finding Bann flakes indicating this surface was present until at least the later Mesolithic (Woodman et al, 1999). This report focuses on those organic layers overlying these units, following the initiation of peat development (Units IV to VII), the more minerogenic and modern units (VIII to IX) have been omitted from this study due to the problems of sediment mixing and disturbance outlined in Timpany (2006). At approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 Cal BC) wood peat (Unit IV) developed on the dryland surface indicating a rise in ground water occurred at this time. This elevation in ground water would have been caused by rising sea‐level, which can be seen in the reconstructed sea‐level curve shown in Figure 6. Pollen and plant macrofossil evidence show that this peat was soon colonised by woodland species including Quercus and Betula with Alnus glutinosa colonising at around 4500 BP. This local woodland period lasts for c. 600 years to approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 Cal BC). Within this unit there is evidence for a possible marine incursion with a band of silt within Monolith 2 at 190‐200cm. This band has been radiocarbon dated to have been deposited between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 Cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐3260 Cal BC). This narrow date range suggests a rapid period of deposition likely to have been caused by a short‐lived event such as a tidal surge. Unfortunately foraminifera and diatoms proved to be absent from samples sent to specialists from these levels (see above), however, some foraminifera were observed on pollen slides from corresponding depths, suggesting some evidence of tidal deposition (see Figures 2 and 3). Although no corresponding silt band has been observed in Monolith 1 it is suggested from pollen preservation as at around 4500 BP within this monolith pollen becomes sparse (between 208‐206cm pollen is absent from the slides) indicating increased minerogenic content. This increase in minerogenic content is likely to be part of the same event as that, which can be witnessed in Monolith 1. Unfortunately this has not been picked up in the Loss on Ignition results for Monolith 1, with this area of the monolith not having been sampled. However, the Loss on Ignition curve for Monolith 2 (see Figure 1) does show a decrease in the amount of organic content from the level of peat initiation (211cm) to when the minerogenic silt began to


21

be deposited (c. 198cm) from 30% to 22%. Organic content then begins to increase again suggesting that the main period of deposition was at the base of this silt layer with organic content remaining high for the rest of this unit at between 42‐58% (see Figure 1). There is some foraminifera evidence for the site being affected by tidal events during this period with species indicative of MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) being found in Monolith 1 at 190cm. From approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) a retrogressive succession begins to take place with the stratigraphic evidence from wood peat (Unit IV) to a wood‐reed peat transition (Unit V). This is signalled in the sequence by a change within the peat as wood fragments decrease within this layer, which is also shown in the plant macrofossil records (see below). This change is once more thought to have been brought on by rising sea‐level causing the backing up of water along the growing estuarine environment and heightening the watertable. This does not seem to have affected the organic content of the deposits, however, as it remains high at between 51‐72% (see Figure 1). This change to reedswamp is shown in Unit VI and lasts from around 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) to between 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60) and 2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐370 cal BC). The sea‐level curve together with foraminifera and diatom evidence shows that the site had now become truly intertidal within this period, placing it in the MHWST tidal window (see Figure 6). The corresponding increase in minerogenic sediments being brought in by the tide can be seen in the Loss on Ignition results, where in Monolith 1 organic content can be seen to rapidly decline from 50% to 20% (see Figure 1). There is some evidence of sediment mixing within this layer seen from the radiocarbon dates from this unit in Monolith 2, where a date from monocotyledon plant tissue from below the date from the top of this unit (also dated from monocotyledon plant tissue) has provided a younger date; 2210±40 BP (SUERC‐14688; 390‐180 cal BC). Further concern is raised by the short depth of sediment for this unit in Monolith 1, where approximately 10cm of sediment is banded by dates of 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC) to 2045±40 BP (SUERC‐14682; 170 cal BC to cal AD 60); in Monolith 2 where this unit has a depth of 35cm. Despite some mixing of sediments it appears likely that this short depth of sediment for this layer represents a period where sediment deposition/accumulation was in equilibrium with tidal action thus the sea‐level curve can be seen to almost “flat‐line” during this period (see Figure 6), leading to relatively stable conditions for the area. This period of stability also sees the greatest period of anthropogenic activity at Newrath as preserved in the archaeological record, with people accessing and utilising this reedswamp environment, evidenced by the construction of trackways and platforms (see below). Following the period of relative stability a significant environmental change takes place, evidenced in the stratigraphic record from a change from reed peat (Unit VI) to estuarine silt/reed peat (Unit VII) as a rapid rise in sea‐level (see Figure 6) occurs, which inundated the site. This is shown in the Loss on Ignition data for Monolith 1 where organic content drops further to 11‐10% (see Figure 1). Again there is further evidence of sediment mixing within this layer, likely to have been caused by tidal action. This is shown in the radiocarbon dates in Monolith 1, where again a younger date lies below an older date (again dated material was monocotyledon plant tissue); 1665±35 BP (SUERC‐14680; cal AD 250‐530) underlying 1870±35 BP (SUERC‐10124; 60‐240 cal AD). It is likely that this rapid increase in sea‐level led to the abandonment of the area by people as the tidal action destroyed structures such as trackways

Freshwater

Alti

tude

m O

D

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

Radiocarbon Years BP (Uncalibrated)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Diatom Study

ForaminiferaStudy

1870

+-35

4150

+-35

4850

+-35

2360

+-35

4765

+-35

4580

+-40

4540

+-40

3935

+-35

2210

+-40

4505

+-35

2045

+-40

1965

+-3516

65+-

35

Terrestrial

MHWST

Terrestrial

Intertidal

EstuarineIntertidal

MHWST

MHWST to HAT

Saltmarsh(Barren Zone)


23

as the site was submerged. The submergence of the site was complete by the deposition of Unit VIII an estuarine silt layer, overlying this unit. There is some Loss on Ignition data for this unit within Monolith 1, which again shows low organic content at around 12‐10% (see Figure 1). Vegetational history and human agency The following part of the discussion focuses on the vegetational history of the site as reconstructed through the pollen, non‐pollen palynomorph and plant macrofossil analyses. It will also focus on evidence for human agency discovered within these records together with looking at the archaeological evidence from the site and those other sites, which have been excavated from this part of the road scheme around Newrath and Waterford. The discussion will take place chronologically covering those periods represented in the study levels, namely the Neolithic through to the Iron Age. The Neolithic period ‐ 4500‐2300 cal BC (Pollen Zones: NWB1a‐c, NWB2a‐c) The palaeovegetational record for Newrath begins with the initiation of peat development at approximately 4850±35 BP (SUERC‐10126; 3710‐3620 cal BC) (see Zones NWB1a and NWB2a). The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages show that the peat was soon colonised by vegetation. Local growth of plants on this peat surface is shown in the plant macrofossil record with trees such as Betula and Quercus being early invaders into this forming wetland environment. Although the plant macrofossil data has been unable to define these taxa to species level it is likely that they represent the more damp tolerant taxons of Betula pubescens (downy birch) and Quercus robur (sessile oak), which are the more common species found in wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) . The plant macrofossil assemblage also shows other wet‐tolerant tree types as being present with the occurrence of Crataegus monogyna buds, together with wood fragments of Salix and Alnus glutinosa. The plant macrofossil assemblage suggests that this zone depicts the beginnings of carr‐woodland formation with Betula, Alnus and Salix often among the first arboreal species to invade such developing wetlands (Rodwell, 1991). This is also reflected in the pollen record, albeit in low values for Salix and Betula. Salix is commonly underrepresented in pollen diagrams due to it being insect pollinated (Faegri et al, 1989), therefore having its pollen dispersed by insects rather than being wind dispersed. The low value of Betula pollen, however, is likely to be a result of the location of the sampling site. The location of Area 1 on the intermediate area between the dryland and wetland (see Wilkins, main report) places it in a catchment where pollen within the sediments will be recruited from both the local wetland environment and the surrounding dryland environment. Therefore, the pollen record contains information about both environments, with the plant macrofossil record aiding in distinguishing one from another. The wooded environment of the Neolithic shown in both the pollen and plant macrofossil record also has implications for the taphonomy of the site and interpretation of the pollen record. The density of the woodland canopy will have an impact on the size of catchment from which pollen can be expected to represent. Dense woodland, with only minor interruptions in the canopy space will provide a very local pollen signal (Mitchell, 1988, Brown 1997a), dominated by local source components, often leading to high representation of arboreal taxa and low representation of herbaceous taxa (Tauber, 1965; Delcourt and Delcourt, 1991; Odgaard, 1999). It is this high arboreal woodland signal that can be seen in the pollen diagrams. For Zones NWB1a and NWB2a it is the dryland woodland signal, which dominates the


24

assemblage. This is due to the woodland on the wetland only beginning to develop at this time, in comparison to the well‐established woodland of the dryland. This later begins to change as woodland on the wetland further develops. The dryland woodland can then be seen to be dominated by Quercus and Corylus, a trend, which has been suggested from palaeoenvironmental evidence from other sites in the area such as Rathpatrick (Site 17), Granny (Site 27) and the pollen study at Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). This woodland‐type also ties in well with that suggested by Bennett (1989) for this part of the southeast of Ireland at c.5000 BP from collated pollen studies. Together with these two taxa a number of other arboreal species can be seen in the pollen evidence to have been part of the composition of this woodland including Pinus, Ulmus, Prunus spinosa and Prunus padus, together with other canopy component such as Hedera helix (ivy). The variety in species type within this woodland shows that it had a mosaic character with these taxa either growing as integrated components of the woodland or as individual stands within the canopy. It is likely that this dryland woodland would have had a dense canopy, investigations by other authors into the character of this woodland, that authors such as Rackham (2003) and Peterson (1996) have termed “Wildwood” or “Primeval”, respectively have leaned towards this view (e.g. Mitchell, 2005; Timpany, 2005; Bell, 2007), despite recent posturing that it was a more open environment (e.g. Vera, 200). Openings, within this woodland would have existed though, created through anthropogenic mechanisms, such as woodland clearance together with natural mechanisms, such as storm damage, allowing periods where more shade‐intolerant species could flourish and there is evidence for this in the pollen record (see below). In comparison to the dense nature of the dryland, the emerging woodland environment of the wetland would have been much more open at this time as trees begin to colonise the forming peat surface. The wet and boggy nature of this surface is illustrated by the presence of a number of taxa in the plant macrofossil and pollen assemblages that inhabit wet places such as Ranunculus flammula fruits together with Lotus‐type (birds‐foot trefoil), Hypericum sp (St John’s wort), Potentilla, and Galium‐type pollen (Clapham et al, 1962) (see Zones NWB1a and NWB2a). These taxa, together with Poaceae and Cyperaceae pollen are indicative of the formation of tall‐herb fen communities spreading across the wetland, which are likely to have been similar to modern communities such as the S26 Phragmites australis‐Urtica dioica tall‐herb fen (Rodwell, 1995). Previous plant macrofossil analyses by Lyons (2006) also recovered taxa indicative of tall herb fen such as Wahlenbergia hederaceae (ivy campanula). Such communities remain as field layer vegetation to present day carr‐woodland (Rodwell, 1991). There are also indicators of a stream nearby, which are likely to reflect the early River Suir, which as Carter (2007) has observed would have been smaller in nature than the modern channel seen today. Such indicators include Schoenoplectus lacustris and Carex aquatilis nutlets, which grow at the margins of rivers and streams, respectively (Clapham et al, 1962). Pooling of water on the peat surface is also indicated by species such as Apium inundatum (lesser marshwort), Potomegeton (pond weed) and Typha latifolia (bulrush) together with Type 72 (zoological remains of Alona rustica) (Clapham et al, 1962; van Geel, 1986). At around 4500 BP (c.3240‐3100 Cal BC) Alnus glutinosa can be seen to spread across the wetland, leading to the formation of Alnus carr‐woodland (see Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐c). This rise can be viewed in Alnus pollen values and the increased representation of this species in the plant macrofossil assemblages with numbers of seeds, buds and wood fragments all increasing. The succession to Alnus carr‐woodland across wetland areas from initial tall‐herb fen communities is a common transition and has been observed in the palaeoenvironmental records of a number of wetland sites (e.g. Walker, 1970; Smith and


25

Morgan, 1989). Other arboreal taxa are also present within this woodland with the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages showing the continued presence of Betula, Salix and Crataegus monogyna, while other trees such as Viburnum opulus (guilder rose) and Fraxinus excelsior, which will also grow in wet woodlands (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 1991) may have been part of this community. The plant macrofossil diagram indicates that Quercus and Corylus avellana were both present locally from the occurrence of buds, wood fragments and even an acorn. Rodwell (1991) notes that both of these species may grow within wet woodland; their presence within Neolithic carr‐woodlands has been evidenced in places such as the Severn Estuary (Timpany, 2005). There is evidence also of the field layer component of the vegetation, which is likely to have remained as a tall‐herb fen community through species such as Lychnis flos‐cuculi, Urtica dioica (common nettle), Veronica sp (speedwell), Cicuta virosa‐type, Valeriana dioica‐type (marsh valerian) and Ribes‐type (black current). These species together with NPPs (Non‐Pollen Palynomorphs) such as Types 8 and 61 (Zygnamataceae cf. gracillima) show that the ground within this woodland was boggy and wet with pooling of water occurring on the pea surface (van Geel, 1986). While the high number of Rubus futicosus fruits in the macrofossil assemblage indicate its local abundance, sprawling across the mire surface. It is suggested that this Alnus dominated carr‐woodland would have been somewhat similar to today’s W5 Alnus glutinosa‐Carex paniculata community, with many of the taxa present within the palaeovegetational assemblages occurring in these woodlands still today. This woodland type is known to succeed fen vegetation and develop across areas of tall‐herb fen (Rodwell, 1991). This period of Alnus carr‐woodland domination of the wetland is seen to last some 400 years until declining at approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC ‐10125; 2880‐2620 cal BC). This phase of Alnus carr‐woodland is also seen at Woodstown, where Farrell and Coxon (2004) record a similar period of such wet woodland, which is seen to decline at 4300±35 BP (Beta‐19584; 3100‐2880 cal BC). During this period (Zones NWB1b‐c and NWB2b‐c) the dryland woodland remains dominated by Quercus and Corylus avellana and is seen to change little in composition from that described above, although additional species are more represented such as Sorbus‐type (whitebeam), Ilex aquifolium (holly) and Carpinus betulus (hornbeam). The local presence of hornbeam during this period shown by the presence not only in the pollen record but also in the plant macrofossil record with the finding of seeds and buds of this taxon is of particular interest. Carpinus has been thought of as not migrating into Ireland during the early Holocene (Huntley and Birks, 1983). Its representation in palaeoecological records from across Ireland is so low that it is not even mentioned in recent studies of tree migration and expansion (e.g. Mitchell, 2006). However, pollen grains of Carpinus have been recorded in studies from the early Holocene in the south of Ireland (Timpany, 2001) and in the Waterford area (Branch and Batchelor, 2007), suggesting it was present in southern Ireland. The Carpinus seeds in the plant macrofossil assemblage of Monolith 1 clearly vindicate the pollen evidence that it was growing in southern Ireland during the Neolithic. Rackham (2003) has noted that Carpinus is likely to have been present in the British Isles during the Neolithic, from its presence in pollen diagrams at sites such as Hockham in Norfolk (Godwin, 1975), expanding in distribution during this period, becoming widespread but not abundant. In terms of ecology it is likely that Carpinus would have been growing in pure stands within the dryland woodland (Rackham, 2003). Rodwell (1991) observes that Carpinus occurs in modern Quercus woodland communities, such as the W10 Quercus robur‐Pteridium aquilinium‐Rubus fruticosus woodland. This woodland is common in the lowlands of England and Wales and may be the closest present day comparative to the prehistoric Quercus woodlands (Timpany, 2005). Openings in the canopy can be seen to have taken place, particularly in Zone NWB2b indicating some disturbance to the woodland (see below), with fluctuations in the pollen of


26

Quercus, Alnus glutinosa and Corylus avellana and small peaks in the pollen of Ilex aquilinium and Ulmus. It is also during this period where cereal pollen appears in the pollen record. This disturbance event seen in the pollen records takes place at levels in the sediment column where a layer of silt can be seen to have been deposited in the Monolith 2 sequence. This deposit has been interpreted as representing deposition of estuarine sediments during an event of marine transgression such as a storm surge (see stratigraphic discussion above). Foraminifera, although absent in the samples sent for specialist analysis have been observed on pollen slides from the Monolith 2 sequence (see Figure 3), indicating some maritime element to the deposit. Radiocarbon dates from plant macrofossils within the peat stratified above and below the silt deposit show deposition took place between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐3260 cal BC). While LOI data indicates initial inwash of minerogenic silt took place at the earliest date of the two (see above). The absence of pollen on the slide from Monolith 1 from around 4500 BP also point to high minerogenic content of sediments during this period. There is also NPP evidence for minerogenic sediment deposition, in particular Type 707 (Culcitalna achraspora) has been linked to mudflat and saltmarsh environs, with en Bakker and van Sneerdyke (1981) noting its presence on dead wood fragments found in such locations. It is interesting to note that the curve for Type 707 closely follows that for Foraminifera seen in Monolith 2 and may further indicate re‐deposition of sediments from this environment onto the wetland. A rise in Type 207 (Glomus cf. fasciculatum), is also seen, which has been linked to show increases in inwashed minerogenic sediments in lake deposits (van Geel et al, 1989). Here it is suggested that it further represents minerogenic sediments being deposited on to the wetland. It is following this initial deposition of silts in Monolith 2 that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group begins to appear at 198cm (Zone NWB2b). The appearance of cereal pollen in Monolith 2 at this level follows a sharp decline in Quercus pollen at 200cm when silts begin to be deposited. It is noticeable that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group appears consistently during the phase of silt deposition but disappear as [wood] peat again begins to accumulate. It is suggested that this period of agricultural activity and marine transgression are linked. The transgression appears to have made an impact on both the wetland and dryland woodlands, which can be seen in the fluctuating values of Alnus, Quercus and Corylus pollen. Dips in the pollen of dryland arboreal taxa (e.g. Quercus) are accompanied by peaks in lesser represented species, such as Ulmus and Ilex aquilinium signalling an increase in trunk space allowing for a rise in the representation of species further from the sampling location. Declines in the pollen of Alnus, Salix and Betula during this phase signal the loss of trees within the wetland woodland. These falls in tree pollen of the wetland are accompanied by peaks in herbaceous taxa such as Filipendula and Cicuta virosa‐type, indicating an increase in openness within the woodland and a decrease in shade. It is suggested this transgression phase represents a period of increased storminess, which caused the potential storm surge that deposited the silts and would have been accompanied by high winds leading to tree fall. The role of storms in palaeoenvironmental records is often underplayed but as Allen (1996, 1998) observes high winds can have a significant impact on woodlands causing the felling of trees, which can often have a domino‐effect; the felling of one tree causing the felling of those around it (Blackburn et al, 1988; Denslow et al, 1998). It is such events, which are believed to be being witnessed in this initial period of declines in arboreal taxa. The opening of the woodland particularly on the dryland is soon taken advantage of by Neolithic people as space for agricultural activity to commence. This is seen in the pollen


27

diagram of Monolith 2, with the presence of cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group, together with a rise in Plantago lanceolata pollen, which is often linked with arable activity in the pollen record (e.g. Mighall et al, 2007). Following the decline in arboreal pollen and the appearance of cereal pollen, a peak can be seen in the micro‐charcoal curve, some of which had enough surviving structure to be identified as wood micro‐charcoal (shown in the pollen diagram). The increase in micro‐charcoal following the dip in arboreal pollen is suggested to represent the burning of deadwood on the ground and dead standing trees damaged by the storm by people in order to maintain the clearing, which was being used for arable land. The burning of deadwood is indicated by the NPP assemblage, which shows declines in fungal spores associated with decaying wood at this level, such as Types 55 A/B (Sordaria spp.), and 359d (Bactrodesmium betullicola), together with Bactrodesmium obovatum and Bactrodesmium abruptum (van Geel, 1978; van Geel et al, 1981 Ellis and Ellis, 1997). Similar trends in dips in tree pollen followed by increase in burning (micro‐charcoal) in prehistoric contexts have been noted elsewhere (e.g. Brown, 1997b). Such activities are often more strongly linked to Mesolithic clearance episodes (e.g. Simmons and Innes, 1996) where opportunistic openings in the tree canopy enabled people to maintain the space through burning to promote open areas for the grazing and hunting of wild animals (Simmons, 1996). The evidence at Newrath suggests that such opportunism was also seized upon in the Neolithic. However, it is debatable as to whether this should be looked upon as simple opportunism or as people using their knowledge of the environment and the area to capitalise on natural clearings. The effort needed to use and maintain such clearings being less than that to create the clearing in the first place, especially given the absence of metallic tools during this period (Brown, 1997b). With the initiation of wood peat once more at the site, this phase of agricultural activity is seen to end. The steady increase in arboreal pollen also seen is likely to indicate the regeneration of woodland and abandonment of this part of the Newrath area for arable use. This phase of use and abandonment is similar to that seen during the Neolithic in other parts of Ireland (O’Connell and Molloy, 2001) and also draws comparisons with the traditional “landnam” clearance models. Other periods of possible agricultural activity may be seen earlier and later in the pollen records from Newrath. Hordeum‐group pollen can be seen to occur in Monolith 1 at approximately 4700 BP (c.3440‐3370 Cal BC) within pollen Zone NWB1a, again during a period where Quercus, Corylus avellana and Alnus glutinosa pollen is seen to decline. This dip in arboreal pollen is also preceded by a peak in Foraminifera seen on the pollen slides, which again could indicate a period of storminess, leading to openings used for agriculture. There is also a further appearance of Avena‐Triticum‐group pollen in Monolith 2 at around 4400 BP (c.3696‐3523 cal BC). However, at this level arboreal pollen is rising and this together with the absence of increases in pollen types indicative of arable activity, suggests this pollen may represent the remnants of previous agricultural crops still growing around the site. The presence of cereal‐type pollen is frequently challenged as to whether on its own it should be representative of agricultural activity taking place (e.g. O’Connell, 1987; Behre, 2007; Brown, 2007). This is largely based around the difficulty of separating wild grass pollen from cereal pollen (Edwards et al, 2005; Tweddle et al, 2005) and to the poor distribution of cereal pollen; it’s large size being non‐conducive to travelling large distances (Hall et al, 1993). However, the separation of cereal from wild grass pollen is possible through careful measurement of the grain and its annulus (Faegri et al, 1989) allowing the ability to distinguish the two groups and this is shown in the pollen diagrams. Recent work has also questioned the long held paradigm of short distance of cereal pollen, suggesting it may travel


28

further than was previously thought (e.g. Behre, 2007). Thus the cereal pollen signal present here could come from the dryland. Perhaps the best and more readily accepted evidence of agriculture around Newrath during the Neolithic is the presence of charred cereal grain dating to this period found at Newrath (Site 35) and Granny (Site27). The presence of both cereal pollen and charred grain therefore provides definitive evidence for agricultural activity at Newrath during the Neolithic. The dates and species of the pollen and cereal grains are shown in Table 3. Table 3 – Evidence for Neolithic Agriculture in the Waterford Area Site Name Evidence Date BP Date Cal BCSite 27 Granny

Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum, Hordeum vulgare var nudum and cf. Avena sp

5054±38 (UB‐6315) to 4776±39 (UB‐6634)

3977‐3728 to 3645‐3383

Site 35 Newrath

Charred grain of Triticum dicoccum 4827±39 (UB‐6639) 3695‐3523

Site 34 Newrath

Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group in Monolith 1

c.4700 c.3440‐3370

Site 34 Newrath

Pollen grain of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group in Monolith 2

4580±40 (SUERC‐14691) to 4540±40 (SUERC‐14690)

3380‐3260 to 3370‐3090

Site 34 Newrath

Pollen grain of Avena‐Triticum‐group in Monolith 2

c.4400 c.3696‐3523

The earliest evidence of agriculture can be seen to come from Granny (Site 27), where charred grain of Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat), Hordeum vulgare var nudum (naked barley) and cf. Avena sp (possible oat) have been identified from samples taken within two buildings a possible dwelling (Structure 1) and the second (Structure 2), a potential animal shelter (Gleeson, 2006a). Although no radiocarbon dates are available for the grain their association with the buildings, which have been dated from charcoal to between 5054±38 BP (UB‐6315; 3977‐3728 cal BC) and 4776±39 BP (UB‐6634; 3645‐3383 cal BC) indicates an early Neolithic date for the adoption of agriculture. At Newrath (Site 35) charred grains of Triticum dicoccum were recovered from a small sub‐circular pit, which also contained charred Corylus avellana nutshell and charcoal fragments (unidentified) suggesting the pit was used for the disposal of domestic food waste. The charred grain here was radiocarbon dated to 4827±39 BP (UB‐6639; 3695‐3523 cal BC), while the charred nutshell fragments, also from the pit produced a near identical date of 4821±38 BP (UB‐6640; 3694‐3521 cal BC) indicating the contemporaneity of the material (Hughes, 2006a). The finding of charred grain from Neolithic sites at and around Newrath helps to put the cereal pollen grains in context. The identification of the majority of the charred cereal grains as Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var nudum suggests it is likely it is these species that are being represented in the pollen record as Avena‐Triticum‐group and Hordeum‐group. The finding of possible Avena sp in the charred grain assemblage at Granny is of interest as oat is more readily associated with a later prehistoric date, although oat from Balbridie in Scotland has been dated to the Neolithic (Fairweather and Ralston, 1989), whereas Hordeum vulgare var nudum and Triticum dicoccum are known from Neolithic assemblages (e.g. Monk, 1985/86). The charred grain together with the pollen evidence indicate agricultural activity took place throughout the Neolithic in this area of southeast Ireland, with pollen evidence indicating the exploitation and maintaining of natural clearings used for agricultural land. The dates of the grain, when placed in comparison with recent surveys for the start of agriculture in the


29

Neolithic (e.g. Brown, 2007) shows them to be among the earliest dated sites in Britain and Ireland. Thus adding to the debate of where agriculture actually began in the British Isles and Ireland. The presence of Neolithic people at Site 34 is also evidenced by the presence of the remains of a trackway (Structure 341512), which has been dated to 4068±35 BP (UB‐6909; 2855‐2488 cal BC). Identifications of the wood used to construct the trackway indicate that local wet woodland resources were used, with Alnus glutinosa, Betula, Salix and Fraxinus excelsior among the wood types used in its construction (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The use of a trackway across the wet woodland floor would have enabled easier access to land that would have been wet, boggy and hard to traverse (see above). The presence of fruit bearing plants known to have been growing in this wetland from the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages such as Rubus fruticosus suggests these access ways into the wetland could have been used for gathering of wild food resources as well as means to cross the wetland. The construction of such trackways was soon to become common place across Newrath. The Bronze Age period ‐ 2300‐700 cal BC (Pollen Zones: NWB1c‐d, NWB2d) In comparison to the Neolithic period within the sedimentary record when peat developed at a fairly consistent rate, allowing for a substantial period of palaeobotanical material recruitment, the Bronze Age is somewhat under‐represented. Due to the nature of sea‐level rise and sediment accumulation during this period (see above) there is only around 10‐20cm of sediment containing palaeoenvironmental information relating to this period. Despite this, the record shows the start of a significant change occurring in the local wetland environment during the Bronze Age with the decline of Alnus dominated carr‐woodland and its gradual replacement with a reedswamp environment. The decline of the carr‐woodland on the wetland can be seen more clearly in the plant macrofossil assemblage. In Monolith2 (Zone NWB2d) macrofossils from arboreal species can be seen to decline in abundance, particularly Quercus, with declines also seen in the representation of Betula, Alnus, Crataegus and Viburnum. In Monolith 1 (top of Zone NWB1c to NWB1d) a sharp decline can be seen in all arboreal taxa, with only a small number of Betula seeds present in Zone NWB1d. The decline in local woodland is also shown clearly by the gradual decline in wood fragments within the Monolith 1 sequence and to a lesser degree in the Monolith 2 sequence. These declines witnessed in the plant macrofossil assemblage are not as clear in the pollen assemblages, largely due to trees such as Alnus being such large pollen producers (Waller et al, 1999). However, a small dip in Alnus pollen can be seen towards the top of Zone NWB2d at the same point where macrofossils of Alnus are seen to decline in the Monolith 2 macrofossil assemblage, which is likely to signal some local decline of this taxon on the wetland. A similar dip in Alnus pollen is seen in Monolith 1 toward the top of Zone NWB1c and again corresponds with a decline in Alnus in the plant macrofossil assemblage. Small dips can also be seen in the pollen and plant macrofossils of Quercus in both Monolith 1 and 2 (Zones NWB1d and NWB2d). This decline in local wet woodland is also recorded in the NPP assemblage with a decline in spores’ representative of decaying wood, such as Sporoschima mirabile, Bactrodesmium obovatum, Bactrodesmium abruptum and Types 55 A/B (Sordaria sp) (van Geel, 1978; Ellis and Ellis, 1997). However, peaks can be seen in Type 44 (Ussulina deusta), which has been linked to growing on dead stumps and roots of


30

deciduous trees (van Geel et al, 1986, 1989). It is suggested here, that Type 44 may represent the presence of dead standing trees on the wetland. These changing conditions on the ground are also shown by the herbaceous taxa in the plant macrofossil assemblages. Large increases can be seen in the number of Rubus sp and Rubus fruticosus fruits, Rodwell (1991) notes that R. fruticosus can become locally abundant within Alnus carr‐woodland, particularly on areas of drier ground. At Newrath this increase may signal the colonisation of Rubus over areas once inhabited by trees such as over the raised sedge tussocks as light and space increase across the wetland following the demise of the trees. A large increase can also be seen in the number of fungal sclerotia during this period further indicating changing local conditions as fungi produce large numbers of sclerotia in order to survive. Fungi produce sclerotia (a hardened mass of mycelium stored with reserve food material), which lay dormant within soil until favourable conditions occur in order for the fungi to grow once more. It is suggested this mass of sclerotia production signals the change from a woodland peat to reedswamp peat and this can be seen when comparing the peaks in sclerotia to the lithology column (see Figures 3 and 4). That the ground became wetter during this period can also be seen through the increased appearance of Carex aquatilis, Carex acuta and Carex rostrata nutlets, signaling increasing water level at the site (Clapham et al, 1962). This is also suggested by an increased representation of Potamogeton (pondweed) and Typha latifolia (bulrush) in Zone NWB2d, with the latter in particular suggestive of reedswamp (Clapham at al, 1962). A steady increase can also be seen in the numbers of monocotyledon fragments through these zones suggesting an increase in the local presence of Phragmites australis (common reed) also on the wetland. A peak in Type 121, which is associated with lake deposits (Pals et al, 1980) further indicates the change to a higher water level. The rising water level at Newrath is evidenced by the sea‐level curve, which can be seen to gradually rise during this period (see Figure 6 and above). Diatom evidence from these levels also shows the area is becoming wetter with the deposition of species such Fragalia construens and Pinnularia microstauron (see Dawson, this report). These species are terrestrial in nature and show that although the area had become wetter it had yet to become fully intertidal. This is also shown by the absence of Foraminifera from these levels. The changes seen in the local environment with the dying back of the Alnus carr‐woodland and the emerging reedswamp environment would have led to the wetland becoming much more of an open space. The exploitation and movement of this newly forming wetland environment by early Bronze Age people is witnessed by the construction of a number of wooden platforms and trackways across the wetland (see Wilkins, this report). Radiocarbon dates from wood within the trackways show they were constructed and used between 3702±34 BP (UB‐6908; 2200‐1980 cal BC) and 3119±32 BP (UB‐6905; 1488‐1309 cal BC). These structures were built on the wetland using local, close‐at‐hand resources, which has been shown by wood identification analyses with Alnus glutinosa dominating the make‐up of the construction materials. Other arboreal taxa shown to have been used in their construction include Betula, Corylus avellana, Salix, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus and Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), which is absent in the pollen and plant macrofossil assemblages (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). Analyses of the wood used in the construction of these trackways has also shown that they were largely built using small roundwoods, the majority of which are aged between 6‐15 years old and largely of alder. These narrow age‐ranges of the timbers are suggestive of woodland management through coppicing. The identification also of coppiced heels within the wood assemblages of these trackways provides more substantive evidence for such activities (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The practice of


31

coppicing and exploitation of wet woodland is well known from prehistoric sites across the British Isles and Ireland in trackway construction (e.g. Coles and Coles, 1986; O’Sullivan, 2001) and would have provided people with the raw materials they needed locally rather than tackling the larger trees of the dryland. As Rackham (2003) notes the vast size of these trees would have required considerable effort to fell and cut to size and it may have been the case of using the smallest tree to do the job. This may also explain the low number of Quercus (and Corylus) timbers seen used in trackway construction. The trackways and platforms would have provided access across the wetland, which no doubt would have increased the mobility of people across this wet ground but also gave greater access to the available wetland resources. Fishing and fowling are often referred to in relation to resources offered by wetland sites (e.g. O’Sullivan, 2001; Bell, 2007) and indeed would have been important in terms of getting protein for dietary requirements with fish also a good source of minerals, vitamins A and D, together with essential fatty acids. Often under‐valued though are the rich plant resources these wetlands offer. Phragmites australis for example, can provide both a dietary resource, its rhizomes (below ground root) being edible, and a construction resource for example being used as thatch (Law, 1998). Rodwell (1995) also notes that sedge species such as Cladium mariscus (great fen sedge) may also be used for thatch. Although there is somewhat limited evidence for C. mariscus at Newrath, peaks can be seen in Type 4 (Anthostomella cf. fuegiana) in the NPP assemblage, which grows on this species (van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Other edible plants present in the palaeobotanical record likely to have been growing in the wetland during this period include Menyanthes trifoliata (bog bean), Typha latifolia both of whose rhizomes are also edible, together with Vicia‐type (vetches) whose seeds are edible, Urtica dioica whose leaves are edible and the fruits of Rubus fruticosus (Price, 1989). Together with the wild plant, fish and bird food resources there is also some suggestion that large grazing animals were present. Fungal spores linked to animal dung such as Types 16, 112 (Cercophera sp) and 170 (Rivularia sp) can all be seen to occur during this period (van Geel, 1978; van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). Although it cannot be stated for certain as to whether the presence of these spores represents wild or domesticated animals. Another indicator of dung of particular interest is the appearance of Trichuris‐type (whipworm) eggs in Zone NWB2d during this period. Trichuris‐type is one of the commonest human intestinal parasites that inhabit the large intestine, the eggs of which are passed into the faeces of the host (Dark, 2004). As well as humans Trichuris sp infect a variety of other mammals including cattle, sheep, pigs and dogs. It is possible to differentiate the species of Trichuris from careful measurement of the eggs; however, there is some overlap between the eggs of Trichuris trichiura the species which infects humans and Trichuris suis, which infects pigs (Beer, 1976). Measurement of the eggs from Newrath, indicate they closely resemble those of T. trichiura, being smaller in size than those of T. suis. However, with the problem of the size overlap it may not be possible to completely rule out the possibility of the eggs representing T. suis. Nevertheless, this is the first known recording of Trichuris‐type eggs from archaeological sediments in Ireland. The possibility of the eggs representing human faeces also has social implications. Dark (2004) has suggested the finding of Trichuris‐type eggs from prehistoric wetlands may represent the contamination of food or water from areas where people and animals congregated; indicating the shared nature of resources in such places. Thus this finding serves as a reminder that although abundant in resources wetlands were also complicated landscapes to exploit and hardships endured. The finding of Trichuris eggs at the Mesolithic camp of Goldcliff East was believed to represent a peripheral area of the site used for defecation (Bell, 2007). Within Monolith2 Trichuris‐type can be seen to occur at approximately 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC), indicating its deposition prior to


32

the phase of trackway construction at the site and therefore at a time when this area of Newrath may indeed have been peripheral to other activities. Despite the wetland being perhaps the main focus of activities during the Bronze Age at Newrath, activities were also taking place on the dryland. The pollen assemblage indicates that the dryland is still largely wooded during this period, with Quercus‐Corylus woodland still dominant around Newrath and across the area; evidenced at Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004) and Ballynamona (Branch and Batchelor, 2007). Other arboreal species seen to form lesser constituents of this woodland include Pinus, Ulmus, Ilex aquifolium, Malus sylvestris (crab apple) and Prunus padus. There is some slight evidence of woodland disturbance at around 154cm in Monolith 2 where dips can be seen in the pollen of Ulmus, Pinus and Ilex. At this level there is also an appearance of cereal pollen with grains of Avena‐Triticum‐group and Secale cereale‐group (rye) present, suggesting some perhaps small‐scale agriculture taking place. At Woodstown, there is more definitive evidence of woodland disturbance with larger‐scale clearance of trees taking place indicated by declines in the pollen of both Quercus and Corylus with Quercus in particular becoming virtually absent in the pollen record. This removal of woodland has been to 3440±40 BP (Beta‐195833; 1890‐1680 cal BC). LOI data shows an increase in minerogenic sediments deposited on the sites during this phase, indicating an increase in the volume of colluvium (hillwash) entering the valley basin due to the removal of trees on the valley slopes. Prior to this woodland clearance cereal pollen types begin to appear in the pollen record together with an increased representation of herbaceous taxa associated with arable activity, such as Poaceae sp, Plantago sp and Ranunculaceae sp. Therefore, the assemblage indicates woodland clearance was taking place to obtain land for the cultivation of cereals (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Evidence for agriculture across the Waterford area during the Bronze Age has been recorded from a number of sites where charred grain, including Triticum dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare var nudum. Such sites include Adamstown (Site 3), Granny (sites 1, 21 and 22) together with Newrath (Site 37) itself (Gleeson, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Hughes 2006b; Russell and Ginn, 2007). This increase in the level of agriculture and woodland clearance across the Newrath/Waterford area during the Bronze Age is suggestive of increased population size leading to an increased demand for resources, which saw both the wetland and dryland areas exploited. The Iron Age period (700 cal BC to cal AD 43) (Pollen Zones: NWB1d‐f, NWB2e‐f) It is during this period that dynamic changes are seen in the vegetation records for Site 34 and are seen to be largely driven by sea‐level change. The sea‐level curve for the area, shows that during this period a rapid rise in sea‐level took place, submerging the site, which is likely to have began in the late Bronze Age from the decline in archaeological features dated to this period (see below). The foraminifera and diatom evidence show that the site became intertidal during this time (see above) and by sometime in the following period was a true estuarine saltmarsh environment.

The pollen and plant macrofossil assemblage show this change in sea‐level had a huge impact on the vegetation. On the wetland these local changes can be seen by an increase in the representation of aquatic and submerged vegetation, particularly Ranunculus sceleratus with Ranunculus aquatilis (common water crowfoot), Carex aquatilis, Lycopus europeaus (gypsywort) and Schoenoplectus lacustris also represented (Clapham et al, 1962). This increase in aquatic


33

species is also shown in the pollen assemblages where an increased representation in aquatic (and floating) taxa can be observed, particularly for Potamogeton, while other species including Myriophyllum alterniflorum (alternate water‐milfoil), Nymphaeae alba (white water lily), Callitriche‐type (water starworts) and Hydrocotyle vulagaris (marsh pennywort) also appear. These species are indicative of lake and riverine locations (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace, 1997) and together with the plant macrofossil assemblage show how the site had now become submerged from the enlargement of the River Suir during this period as it became more tidally (marine) influenced. The large increase in Poaceae pollen seen during this period show the domination of reedswamp communities across the wetland, accompanied by declines in arboreal species particularly Alnus glutinosa. Increases can also be seen in the values of Pteridium (bracken) and Pteropsida (ferns), which are again suggestive of more open conditions. This development of reedswamp communities is mirrored in the pollen records from Woodstown (Farrell and Coxon, 2004). Towards the end of the zone developing saltmarsh communities can be seen with the increased representation of species such as Aster‐type, Plantago maritima (sea plantain), Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia‐type (mugworts) (Clapham et al, 1962; Rodwell, 2000). There is sporadic evidence for trees still being present on the wetland with occasional plant macrofossils of Alnus glutinosa, Salix sp and Betula sp present. It is likely these plant remains represent some trees still growing on the wetland edge fringing the reedswamp and from within the reedswamp itself. Rodwell (1995) notes that saplings of Alnus glutinosa and Salix cinerea (grey willow) can occur within Phragmites fen communities, which is probably what is being shown in the macrofossil assemblage. This continued representation of trees in and around the wetland is also noted in the pollen records where although declining, pollen of Alnus glutinosa is still present and again indicates continued carr‐woodland fringing the developing reedswamp. Pollen of Salix, Betula and Fraxinus excelsior also suggest these taxa were growing within this diminishing carr‐woodland environment. The local presence of these species is also shown by their identification within wood identification assemblages from two trackway/platforms, which date to this period. These wooden structures date to between 2116±32 BP (UB‐6901; 210‐40 cal BC) and 2029±33 BP (UB‐6463; 158‐54 cal BC) and include timbers from other species, such as Corylus, Pomoidiaceae, Sambucus and Quercus (see Lyons and O’Donnell, wood report). The limited number of wooden structures dating to this period and indeed the absence of structures dating to the late Bronze Age highlights the impact rising sea‐level had on the wetland, causing the abandonment of the site as rising waters submerged the area. This landscape change was not just confined to the wetland during this period. Pollen evidence shows also a decline in the pollen of Quercus throughout this period suggesting changes occurring in the dryland woodland. There is little doubt that some of the losses in Quercus trees shown in the pollen record would have been due to loss of habitat as the River Suir flooded the area, effectively drowning trees on and near to the wetland. However, this decline coupled with the rise in Corylus avellana pollen suggests that some small‐scale clearances on the dryland were occurring. The rise also seen in the pollen of ruderals such as Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca sativa‐type (lettuces), Taraxacum‐type (dandelions) and Anthriscus‐type (chervils) is also indicative of arable activity (Clapham et al, 1962; Stace, 1997). The presence of Hordeum‐group pollen in Zones NWB1e‐f and NWB2e‐f suggests that such arable activity is the cultivation of Hordeum. Further evidence for agriculture, as in previous periods, comes from the recovery of charred cereal grains from excavated sites; although not as abundant as seen in the previous period. The charred grain assemblage at Mullinabro (Site 4) consists largely of Avena sp (Wren 2006), which differs to the pollen evidence from Newrath. The grains from Mullinabro (Site 4) have been dated from charcoal fragments in


34

the same context to between 2017±36 BP (UB‐6493; 153 cal BC‐cal AD 67) and 1992±35 BP (UB‐6492; 89 cal BC‐cal AD 81). Together with the evidence for arable activity at Site 34, there is again some evidence for grazing within the NPP assemblages. Increases in Types 16 and 170 and the presence of Trichuris‐type during this period indicate dung at the site (van Geel et al, 1983, 1989; Dark, 2004). It is possible much of this represents animals grazing on the reedswamp of the wetland or within the reedswamp/saltmarsh area. The presence again of Trichuris‐type may represent human faeces (see above), but further measurement of these eggs is needed to discriminate against animal faeces. The possibility of using the reedswamp area for grazing during this period is suggested not only by the trackways built across the wetland (see above) allowing access to this area but also from the microscopic charcoal record. Large increases in the amount of micro‐charcoal can be seen occurring in this period indicating local burning taking place (Clark and Hussey, 1996; Clark et al, 1998). The presence on the pollen slides of microscopic charcoal fragments still retaining enough structure to identify them as either deriving from the burning of wood or grasses from these levels adds to the fire information. The diagrams show initial increase in burning was a mixture of wood and grasses being burnt, which then switches to the burning of grasses. This pattern of burning suggests it relates to the burning of the reedswamp environment, which initially would have contained dead and decaying trees, killed by the flooding of the site by the expansion of the River Suir. As the river waters became higher and the site began to change to saltmarsh it would have been largely reeds (grasses) that were being burnt. The management of a reedswamp by people through burning has been evidenced throughout prehistory (e.g. Bell et al, 2002) and can be used to control the height and the density of reed growth, together with limiting the expansion of woody species into the reedswamp (Law, 1998).

Conclusion The palaeoenvironmental analyses from the Monolith sediments have provided evidence of a dynamic environment, which has seen changing patterns of vegetational communities throughout prehistory. This study has provided the backdrop of environmental change which was witnessed by the people who lived and utilised these environments in the past. The archaeological evidence from wooden structures within the wetland have shown people knew how to exploit and traverse these areas, but the environmental evidence has been able to provide some information on the resources they were exploiting. This study has also produced some firsts in the finding of seeds of Carpinus betulus a tree not necessarily thought of a native to Ireland and in the discovery of Trichuris‐type eggs, which are not known to have been discovered in other archaeological sediments in Ireland, although this may be from a lack of not recognising them in pollen studies. The application of non‐pollen palynomorph assessment has been useful in providing data on local environmental conditions together with the possibilities of animals being brought to the site. The use of a multi‐proxy approach has reconstructed a palimpsest of environmental change at Newrath and this together with other studies has shown the importance of this site in relation to changing hypotheses and shifting paradigms on life and settlement within prehistoric Ireland.


35

References Allen J.R.L. (1996) Windblown trees as a palaeoclimate indicator: the character and role of gusts. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 121 1‐12. Allen J.R.L. (1998) Windblown trees as a palaeoclimate indicator: regional consistency of a mid‐Holocene wind field. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 144 175‐181. Allen J.R.L. (2000) Late Flandrian (Holocene) tidal palaeochannels, Gwent Levels (Severn Estuary), SW Britain: character, evolution and relation to shore. Marine Geology 162 353‐380. Barber K.E. (1976) History of vegetation, in Chapman S.B. (ed.) Methods in Plant Ecology (Oxford, Blackwell) 5‐83. Beer R.J.S. (1976) The relationship between Trichuris trichiura (Linneau 1758) of Man and Trichuris suis (Schrank 1788) of the pig. Research in Veterinary Science 20 47‐54. Behre K‐E. (2007) Evidence for Mesolithic agriculture in and around central Europe? Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 16 (203‐219). Bell M. (ed.) (2007) Prehistoric coastal communities; the Mesolithic in western Britain CBA research report 149. Bell M., Allen J.R.L., Buckley S., Dark P. and Haslett S.K. (2002) Mesolithic to Neolithic coastal environmental change: excavations at Goldcliff East, 2002. Archaeology in the Severn Estuary 12 27‐53. Bennett K.D. (1989) A provisional map of forest types for the British Isles 5000 years ago. Journal of Quaternary Science 4, 2 141‐144. Bennett K.D., Whittington G. and Edwards K.J. (1994) Recent plant nomenclature changes and pollen morphology in the British Isles. Quaternary Newsletter 73 1‐6. Blackburn P., Petty J.A. and Miller F. (1988) An assessment of the static and dynamic factors involved in windthrow. Forestry 61 1 29‐43. Branch N.P. and Batchelor C.R. (2007) Ballymona, County Kilkenny, Site 5, N25 Waterford Bypass project: Pollen‐Stratigraphical Assessment. ArchaeoScape, Unpublished client report. Bronk Ramsay C. (2005) Radiocarbon Program OxCal, Version 3.1. Brown A. (2007) Dating the onset of cereal cultivation in Britain and Ireland: the evidence from charred cereal grains. Antiquity 81 1042‐1052. Brown A.G. (1997a) Alluvial Geoarchaeology: Floodplain archaeology and environmental change (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Brown A.G. (1997b) Clearances and clearings: deforestation in Mesolithic/Neolithic Britain. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16 2 133‐146.


36

Carter S.C. (2007) Environmental archaeology: two examples from the N25 Waterford City Bypass and the N7 Limerick Southern Ring Road (Phase II). New Routes to the Past, Archaeology and the National Roads Authority Monograph Series 4 47‐60. Clapham A.R., Tutin T.G. and Warburg E.F. (1962) Flora of the British Isles (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Clark J.S. and Hussey T.C. (1996) Estimating the mass flux of charcoal from sedimentary records: effects of particle size, morphology and orientation. The Holocene 6 2 129‐144. Clark J.S., Lynch J., Stocks B.J., and Goldammer J.G. (1998) Relationships between charcoal particles in air and sediments in west‐central Siberia. The Holocene 8 1 19‐29. Clark R.L. (1982) Point count estimation of charcoal in pollen preparations and thin sections of sediments. Pollen et Spores 24 523‐535. Coles B. and Coles J. (1986) Sweet Track to Glastonbury, the Somerset levels in Prehistory (Butler and Tanner Ltd, London). Dark P (2004) New evidence for the antiquity of the intestinal parasite Trichuris (whipworm) in Europe. Antiquity 78 676‐681. Dark P. And Allen J.R.L. (2005) Seasonal deposition of Holocene banded sediments in the Severn Estuary Levels (southwest Britain): palynological and sedimentological evidence. Quaternary Science Reviews 24 11‐33. Delcourt H.R. and Delcourt P.A. (1991) The palaeoecological perspective, in Delcourt H.R. and Delcourt P.A. (eds.) Quaternary Ecology: A palaeoecological Perspective (Chapman and Hall, London) 3‐22. Denslow J.S., Ellison A.M. and Sanford R.E. (1998) Treefall gap size effects on above‐ and below‐ground processes in a tropical wet forest. Journal of Ecology 86 597‐609. Edwards K.J., Whittington G., Robinson M. and Richter D. (2005) Palaeoenvironments, the archaeological record and cereal detection at Clickimin, Shetland, Scotland. Journal of Archaeological Science 32 1741‐1756. Ellis M.B. and Ellis J.P. (1997) Microfungi on land plants: an identification handbook. (Richmond Publishing Company, Slough). en Bakker M. and van Sneerdyke D.G. (1982) Een palaeoecologische studie van het Ilperveld over de laatste 5000 jaar. Interne rapporten van het Hugo de Vries Laboratorium, Universiteit Amsterdam 100. Faegri K., Kaland P.E. and Krzywinski K. (1989) Textbook of Pollen Analysis (4th Edition). (The Blackburn Press, New Jersey). Fairweather A.D. and Ralston I.B.M. (1993) The Neolithic timber hall at Balbridie, Grampian Region, Scotland: the building, the date, the plant macrofossils. Antiquity 67 313‐323.


37

Farrell and Coxon (2004) N25 Waterford Bypass: Sedimentological and Palaeoenvironmental Investigation of Wetland Area adjacent to Woodstown. Unpublished assessment report, Trinity College Dublin. Gleeson C. (2006a) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 21, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Gleeson C. (2006b) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 22, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Gleeson C. (2006c) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 1, in the townland of Granny, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Godwin H. (1975) History of the British Flora (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Grimm, E. C. (2004): TGView Version 2.0.2, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL. Hall V.A., Pilcher J.R. and Bowler M. (1993) Pre‐elm decline cereal‐size pollen: evaluating its recruitment to fossil deposits using modern pollen rain studies. Bioilogy and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 93B 1 1‐4. Haslett S.K., Strawbridge F., Martin N.A. and Davies C.F.C (2001) Vertical saltmarsh accretion and its relationship to sea‐level in the Severn Estuary, UK: an investigation using foraminifera as tidal indicators. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 52 143‐153. Hughes J. (2006a) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 35, in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Hughes J. (2006b) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Sites 36‐37, in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report. Huntley, B. and Birks, H. J. B. (1983) An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe, 0–13,000 years ago (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). IAWA Committee, EA Wheeler, P Bass and PE Gasson (eds.) 1989, IAWA List of Microscopic Features for Hardwood Identification, Published for the International Association of Wood Anatomists. Law C. (1998) The uses and fire‐ecology of reedswamp vegetation, in Mellars P. and Dark P. (eds.) Star Carr in context: new archaeological and palaeoecological investigations at the early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire McDonald Institute Monographs (Oxbow Books, Oxford) 197‐206. Mighall T.M., Timpany S., Blackford J.J., Innes J.B., O’Brien C.E., O’Brien W.B. and Harrison S.E. (2007) Vegetation change during the Mesolithic and Neolithic on the Mizen Peninsula, Co. Cork, south‐west Ireland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany published first online. Mitchell F.J.G. (1988) The vegetational history of the Killarney oak‐woods, SW Ireland: evidence from fine spatial resolution pollen analysis. Journal of Ecology 76 416‐436.


38

Mitchell F.J.G. (2005) How open were European primeval forests? Hypothesis testing using palaeoecological data. Journal of Ecology 93 168‐177. Mitchell F.J.G. (2006) Where did Ireland’s trees come from? Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 106B 3 251‐259. Monk, M.A (1985/86). Evidence from macroscopic plant remains for crop husbandry in prehistoric and early historic Ireland: A review. Journal of Irish Archaeology III, 31‐36. Moore P.D., Webb J.A. and Collinson M.E. (1991) Pollen Analysis (2nd Edition) (Blackwell Science, Oxford). O’Connell M. (1987) Early cereal‐type pollen records from Connemara, western Ireland and their possible significance. .Pollen et Spores 19 207‐224. O’Connell M. and Molloy K. (2001) Farming and woodland dynamics in Ireland during the Neolithic. Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 101 1‐2 99‐128. Odgaard B.V. (1999) Fossil pollen as a record of past biodiversity. Journal of Biogeography 26 1, 7‐17. Pals J.P., van Geel B. and Delfos A. (1980) Palaeoecological studies in Klokkeweel bog near Hoogkarspel (Noord Holland). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 30 371‐418. Peterken G.F. (1996) Natural woodland ecology and conservation in Northern Temperate regions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Price T.D. (1989) The reconstruction of Mesolithic diets, in Bonsall C. (ed.) The Mesolithic in Europe (john MacDonald, Edinburgh) 48‐59. Rackham O. (2003) Ancient woodland its history, vegetation and uses in England (Arnold, London). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1991) British Plant Communities Volume 1: Woods and scrub (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (1995) British Plant Communities Volume 4: Aquatic communities, swamps and tall‐herb fens (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rodwell J.S. (ed.) (2000) British Plant Communities Volume 5: Maritime communitie and vegetation of open habitats (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Rowell, DL (1994) Soil Science: Methods and Applications (Longman, London). Russell I. and Ginn V. (2007) Preliminary Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 3, in the townland of Adamstown, Co. Waterford Archaeological Consultancy Services Limited Unpublished Client Report. Schweingruber F. H. (1978) Microscopic Wood Anatomy: Structural Variability of Stems and Twigs in Recent and Subfossil Woods from Central Europe. Kommissionsverlag Zücher AG, Zug


39

Schweingruber F.H. (1990) Microscopic wood anatomy (3rd edition) Birmensdorf. Simmons I.G. (1996) The environmental impact of Later Mesolithic cultures: the creation of moorland landscape in England and Wales (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh). Simmons I.G. and Innes J.B. (1996) Disturbances in the Mid‐Holocene vegetation at North Gill, North York Moors: Form and Process. Journal of Archaeological Science 23 183‐191. Smith A.G. and Morgan L.A. (1989) A succession to ombrotrophic bog in the Gwent Levels, and it’s demise: a Welsh parallel to the Somerset Levels. New Phytologist 112 145‐167. Stace C. (1997) New flora of the British Isles (2nd Edition) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Tauber H. (1965) Differential pollen dispersal and the interpretation of pollen diagrams. Danmarks Geologiske. Undersølgelse 89 1‐69. Timpany S. (2001) Palaeoecological changes during the Holocene on the Mizen Peninsula, southwest Ireland. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Coventry University. Timpany S. (2005) A multi‐proxy palaeoecological investigation of submerged forests and intertidal peats, Severn Estuary, UK. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Reading. Tweddle J.C., Edwards K.J. and Fieller N.R.J. (2005) Multivariate statistical and other approaches for the separation of cereal from wild Poaceae pollen using a Holocene dataset. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14 15‐30. van Geel B. (1978) A palynological study of Holocene peat bog section in Germany and the Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 25 1‐120. van Geel B. (1986) A palaeoecological study of Holocene peat bog sections based on the analysis of pollen, spores and macro‐ and microscopic remains of fungi, algae, cormophytes and animals (Gebroen le Amsterdam, Amsterdam). Van Geel, B. and Aptroot A. (2006) Fossil ascomycetes in Quaternary deposits. Nova Hedwigia 82 13‐329. van Geel B., Bohnke S.J.P. and Dee H. (1981) A palaeoecological study of an upper Late Glacial and Holocene sequence from “De Borchet”, the Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 31 367‐448. van Geel B., Hallewas D.P. and Pals J.P. (1983) A late Holocene deposit under the Westfriese Zeedijk, near Enkhuizen (Prov. of N‐Holland, The Netherlands): palaeoecological and archaeological aspects. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 38 269‐335. van Geel B., Coope G.R. and van der Hammen T. (1989) Palaeoecology and stratigraphy of the Late‐glacial type section at Usselo (the Netherlands). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 60 25‐129. van Geel B., Klink A.G., Pals J.P. and Wiegers J. (1986) An Upper Eemian lake deposit from Twente, eastern Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 47 31‐61.


40

van Geel B., Buurman, J. Brinkkemper, O., Schelvis, J., Aptroot, A., van Reenen, G. and Hakbijl, T., (2003) Environmental reconstruction of a Roman Period settlement site in Uitgeest (The Netherlands), with special reference to coprophilous fungi. Journal of Archaeological Science 30 873‐883. Vera F.W.M. (2000) Grazing ecology and forest history (CABI Publishing, Oxon). Walker D. (1970) Direction and rate in some British post‐glacial hydroseres, in Walker D. and West R.G. (eds.) Studies in the vegetation history of the British Isles (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Waller M.P., Long A.J., Long D. and Innes J.B. (1999) Patterns and processes in the development of coastal mire vegetation: multi‐site investigations from Walland Marsh, south‐east England. Quaternary Science Reviews 18 1419‐1444. Woodman P., Anderson E. and N. Finlay (1999) Excavations at Ferriter’s Cove 1983‐1995: last foragers, first farmers in the Dingle Peninsula (Wordwell Ltd, Bray). Wren J. (2006) Final Report on Archaeological Excavations at Site 4, in the townland of Mullinabro, Co. Kilkenny Headland Archaeology Unpublished Client Report.


41

APPENDICES


42

APPENDIX I

(Foraminifera Report)

- - 1

FORAMINIFERAL ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES SUPPLIED BY HEADLAND ARCHAEOLOGY

Professor Simon K. Haslett, Quaternary Research Centre, Dept. of Geography, School of

Science and the Environment, Bath Spa University College, Newton Park, Bath, BA2 9BN,

UK.

August 2007

Introduction

An additional 12 samples were supplied by Headland Archaeology in addition to samples

supplied by the University of Reading to the author in 2006 for analysis of their

foraminifera content, with a view to establish their abundance, preservation and

usefulness as marine palaeoenvironmental indicators in these Holocene sediments. This

report describes the method employed to separate foraminifera from the sediment

samples, presents the integrated results obtained, and suggests an interpretation of the

results. Foraminiferal analysis is now a well-established technique for assigning tidal level

and depositional environment information to Holocene sediments (see Allen and Haslett,

2002, for a review). Haslett et al. (1997) provide distributional data for foraminifera living

on the modern salt marshes of the Severn Estuary, and it is this dataset, with updates

(Haslett, 2000; Haslett et al., 2001; Allen and Haslett, 2002), that enables the calibration

of fossil data.

Method

Bulk samples for foraminiferal analysis were initially weighed wet and then air-dried and

then weighed (dry bulk weight, g). Samples were then soaked in distilled water for 24

hours, then wet-sieved at 63µm, with the >63µm fraction being retained and weighed (g)

after drying. Aliquots of the 125-500µm fraction of each sample were dry sieved and

examined using reflected light microscopy for foraminifera (Knudsen and Austin, 1996;

Bell et al., 2002). Foraminifera specimens were counted and identified from known

aliquots of a sample, from which an estimate of the number of test per sample could be

made if the aliquot examined was less than the entire sample. In addition, other

- - 2

components of the samples were also noted and include coleoptera, ostracods, plant

remains (including seeds), iron pyrite crystals, and siliceous sponge spicules.

Results and Discussion

Results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 for samples from monoliths 1 and 2 respectively.

Only 7 of the integrated samples yielded foraminifera, with variable but generally low

abundance ranging from 1 to 18 specimens per gram. Preservation of foraminifera tests is

generally good with little indication of post-mortem alteration. All foraminifera species

recovered are agglutinating and typical of high intertidal estuarine environments (salt

marshes) where they live in situ. No calcareous foraminifera species, that occupy lower

intertidal surfaces, were found.

Monolith 1 samples 70, 82, 110 and 142cm yield only Jadammina macrescens which

represents the monospecific assemblage of Haslett et al. (2001) that inhabits the lower

part of the zone between Mean High Water Spring Tides (MHWST) and Highest

Astronomical Tides (HAT).

Monolith 1 samples 18, 34 and 102cm although lack foraminifera do contain marine

sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent deposition high in the zone between

MHWST-HAT equating with the ‘barren zone’ of Haslett et al’s (1997, 2001) salt marsh

foraminifera zonation.

Monolith 1 samples 50, 118, 134, 147, 158, 209 and 230cm lack both foraminifera and

sponge spicules and, therefore, may represent a non-marine depositional environment.

This is particularly true of samples 158, 209 and 230cm which appear to contain

freshwater/terrestrial beetles (coleopteran). Samples 50, 118, 134 and 147cm however,

lack any additional determinant so may represent freshwater/terrestrial deposition or

deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT.

Monolith 1 samples 98, 122, and 190cm yield the most diverse of the foraminifera

assemblages containing Trochammina inflata, Miliammina fusca as well as Jadammina

macrescens. This assemblage is typical of deposition around MHWST.

In monolith 1, the variation in abundance in the number of tests per gram from 1 to 18 was

considered in the previous report, which suggested that low test abundance is perhaps

linked to high sedimentation rates of other material (peat, silt, etc), effectively diluting the

contribution made by the foraminiferal standing crop to the sediment analysed, as in a salt

- - 3

marsh setting abundance variation is much more likely to be this factor rather than test

dissolution or sorting.

All samples from monolith 2 were found to be organic-rich and barren of foraminifera, and

other determinants, except for plant fragments. This may represent freshwater/terrestrial

deposition or deposition high in the zone between MHWST-HAT. Quartz grains are also

common, but tend to be angular in nature rather than rounded, so may indicate a

terrestrial, rather than marine, source.

Concluding Remark

The foraminifera recovered are generally well-preserved and diagnostic of particular high

intertidal palaeoenvironments above MHWST. Samples that lack foraminifera may have

been deposited either close to HAT or in a freshwater/terrestrial setting. The variable

abundance observed may be due to a sediment dilution effect, rather than test dissolution,

and/or sediment sorting.

References

Allen, J. R. L., 2001. Late Quaternary stratigraphy in the Gwent Levels (southeast Wales): the subsurface evidence. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 112, 289-315.

Allen, J. R. L. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Buried salt-marsh edges and tide-level cycles in the mid-Holocene of the Caldicot Level (Gwent), South Wales, UK. The Holocene, 12, 303-324.

Bell, M., Allen, J. R. L., Buckley, S., Dark, P. and Haslett, S. K., 2002. Mesolithic to Neolithic coastal environmental change: excavations at Goldcliff East, 2002. Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 13, 1-29.

Haslett, S. K., 1997. An Ipswichian foraminiferal assemblage from the Gwent Levels (Severn Estuary, UK). Journal of Micropalaeontology, 16, 136.

Haslett, S.K., 2000. Coastal Systems. Routledge, London, 240pp.

Haslett, S. K., Davies, P. and Strawbridge, F., 1997. Reconstructing Holocene sea-level change in the Severn Estuary and Somerset Levels: the foraminifera connection. Archaeology in the Severn Estuary, 8, 29-40.

Haslett, S.K., Strawbridge, F., Martin, N. A. and Davies, C. F. C., 2001. Vertical saltmarsh accretion and its relationship to sea-level in the Severn Estuary, UK: an investigation using foraminifera as tidal indicators. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 52, 143-153.

Knudsen, K. L. and Austin, W. E. N., 1996. Late Glacial foraminifera. In Andrews, J. T., Austin, W. E. N., Bergsten, H. and Jennings, A. E. (eds) Late Quaternary Palaeoceanography of the North Atlantic Margins. Geological Society Special Publication No. 111, pp. 7-10.

Headland Archaeology: NWB03, Site 34 Palaeoenvironmental Analyses

APPENDIX II

(Diatom Reports)

47


48

Newrath – Diatom Report

Prepared by Dr. Jason Jordan

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Methodology and Techniques 1

3. Results 2

4. Interpretation 3

5. References 3

1. Introduction

A total of 12 sediment samples from the Newrath site were prepared and assessed for

diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the provenance of the

depositional environments. The expected outcome was that the samples would show

that the site had initially been inundated by the sea, with marine and brackish water

environments dominating the sedimentary basin. Depending on preservation and

occurrence, diatom analysis of the samples would show any changes to the salinity of

the depositional environment quite clearly.

2. Methodology and Techniques

The sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques

(Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen

peroxide to remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water

to concentrate the diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A

pipette of the suspension was then placed onto a glass cover-slip and mounted onto

microscope slides with Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible

species preserved.

Diatom species identification is carried out with reference to Hartley et al. (1996),

Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls (1957-74). Diatom nomenclature follows

Hartley (1996) and salinity and lifeform classification is based upon Van Dam et al.

(1994), Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2).


49

3. Results

Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major species

contained within each sample. This would give a broad indication of the depositional

environment in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and any other

lithostratigraphy/sedimentary analysis that has been carried out.

Of the twelve samples prepared, only two had any diatoms preserved in them at all,

and these were far too sparse in terms of their concentration to allow full counts to be

conducted. Diatom taphonomy is quite well understood and in marsh environments it

is likely that either extreme acidity or extreme alkalinity are usually to blame for the

loss of biogenic silica from the deposited sediment. Diatoms can survive in fairly

harsh conditions but the mobility of biogenic silica controls their fossilisation. It

would appear that the Newrath site has a poor preservation potential for diatom silica,

something which is not unusual for a marsh/fen location. The changes in pH

associated with vegetation growth and decay in this type of environment mean that

diatom preservation is dependent on very localised conditions, pre and post

deposition. Where diatoms were present, the preservation was extremely poor but the

species encountered are given below.

Newrath Diatom Samples

Sample

Monolith 1

210cm 1 – no species present.



110cm 4 – only two individual species were encountered, both of which were Paralia

sulcata, a marine diatom indicative of storm deposits.


Monolith 2





50




128cm 12 – only one single specimen was identified, Gramatophora serpentine, a

marine diatom indicative of marine water and coastal depsoits.

4. Interpretation

The underlying brief for this analysis was not realised from the samples provided.

There is no clear indication of the depositional environments as the samples do not

contain any diatoms, however, the two samples that had the few diatom furstules

present are indeed marine species. This is not enough to allow a reconstruction to take

place but the indication is that the two identified samples have indeed been depositied

in and around a former shoreline.

5. References

Barber, H. and Haworth, E.Y. 1981. A guide to the morphology of the diatom frustule,

with a key to the British Freshwater Genera, Ambleside. Freshwater Biological

Association, 109pp.

Denys, L. 1991/2.A check-list of the diatoms in the Holocene coastal deposits of the

western Belgian Coastal Plain with a survey of their apparent ecological requirements

1. Professional Paper No. 246.Geological Survey of Belgium, 41pp.

Hartley, B., Barber, H. G., Carter, J. R. and Sims, P. A. 1996. An Atlas of British

Diatoms. Biopress, Bristol, 601pp.

Hendey, N.I. 1964. An introductory account of the smaller algae of the British

Coastal Waters, Part V: Bacillariophyceae (diatoms). London, HMSO, 317pp.

Van Dam, H., Mertens, A. and Sinkeldam, J. 1994. A coded checklist and ecological

indicator values of freshwater diatoms from the Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of

Aquatic Ecology, 28 (1), 117-133.


51

Van der Werf, A. and Hils, H. 1957-74. Diatomienflore Van Nederland, 8Parts,

Koenigstein. Otto Koeltz Science Publishers.

Vos, P.C. and de Wolf, H. 1993. Diatoms as a tool for reconstructing sedimentary

environments in coastal wetlands; methodological aspects. Hydrobiologia, 269/270,

285-296.


52

Waterford Monolith 1: Diatom analysis

Report prepared by Dr Sue Dawson

For Headland Archaeology (Scott Timpany)

1.Introduction

Twelve silt-clay and peat samples from monolith 1 were sub-sampled and subject to

preparation for diatom analysis. The aim of the analysis was to determine the

environment of deposition of the silt-clays and peats and whether the sediments

retained information relating to the former presence of marine sediments, and thus

information regarding the former relative sea level history of the site.

2. Methodology and Techniques The twelve sediment samples were prepared according to standard laboratory techniques (Barber and Haworth, 1981) involving distillation on a hotplate with Hydrogen peroxide to remove any organic matter and then a series of washes with distilled water to concentrate the diatoms and reduce the amount of clay and silt particulate matter. A pipette of the suspension was then placed onto a glass cover‐slip and mounted onto microscope slides with Naphrax, a high refractive index, to illustrate the possible species preserved. Diatom species were identified with reference to Hendey (1964) and Van der Werf and Huls, 1957‐74). Diatom nomenclature follows Hartley (1986) and salinity and lifeform classification is based upon Vos and de Wolf (1993) and Denys (1991/2). In general, Polyhalobous and mesohalobous diatom classes broadly reflect marine and brackish conditions whilst oligohalobous and halophilics classes reflect freshwater and terrestrial environments. Results Samples were examined for their diatom preservation potential and the major

species contained in each sample. This would give a broad indication of the

provenance of the sediments in conjunction with other microfossil analyses and the

lithostratigraphy.

Of all 12 prepared, 3 samples had sufficient species to undertake a full count to 300

diatom valves; 7 samples were sparse and 1 sample did not contain any diatoms.


53

Where samples were fossiliferous; diatom preservation was good and an assessment

of depositional environment was possible. Where samples were sparse and full counts

not able to be undertaken, an overall assessment of the likely mode of deposition was

possible in all but one sample.

Sample 1 (cm)

(18cm depth) – green-grey silt

The sample of silt is sparse. However, there are sufficient species to determine the

sedimentary provenance. Marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira

stelliger, together with the marine-brackish Cocconeis scutellum indicate deposition

within marine waters. The presence of Diploneis interrupta attest to more brackish

conditions. The limited number of species suggest deposition within an estuarine

environment within the intertidal zone.

Sample 2 (34 cm)- green-grey silt

The silt is sparse in microfossils. The main species within the silt is the brackish

Diploneis interrupta. Polyhalobous species are represented by Paralia sulcata.. The

limited number of species indicate intertidal estuarine conditions.

Sample 3 (50 cm)- green-grey silt

The silt has marine species Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, and Rhaphoneis

amphiceros (the latter which lives on sand/mud flats. Together with the brackish

species Diploneis interrupta, the diatoms infer a mud/sand flat estuarine environent in

the intertidal zone.

Sample 4 ( 70 cm)- silt

The silt is sparse in diatoms but fragments of Paralia sulcata and sponge spicules

attest to the presence of marine waters in the formation of the silt.


54

Sample 5 (82 cm)- grey-brown silts with peat

The silt with some peats are very sparse in diatoms. However, fragments of Paralia sulcata and Nitzschia punctata (marine‐brackish intertidal mudflats) suggest deposition in an intertidal estuarine environment. Sample 6 (98 cm)‐ dark grey‐brown silty peat The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of

deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer

deposition within the intertidal zone:

Marine species:

Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger, Rhabdonema arcuatum, Rhabdonema minutum,

Rhaphoneis amphiceros,

Brackish species: Nitzschia accuminata, Navicula peregrina, Diploneis interrupta, Nitzschia

navicularis, Nitzschia punctata.

Sample 7 (118 cm)- orange/brown peaty-silt

The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of

deposition. The following species infer deposition within the intertidal zone:

Marine species: Paralia sulcata, Cocconeis scutellum, Rhaphoneis amphiceros,

Brackish species: Diploneis didyma, Diploneis interrupta, Navicula digito-radiata, Nitzschia

navicularis.

Sample 8 (122 cm)‐ orange/br peaty‐silt The silty peat has abundant diatoms to allow a full assessment of environment of

deposition. The following species together with the presence of Sponge spicules infer

deposition within the intertidal zone:

Marine indicators:

Sponge spicules, Paralia sulcata, Rhaphoneis amphiceros,

Brackish indicators: Nitzschia navicularis, Diploneis interrupta.


55

Sample 9 (142 cm)- orange/br silt Phragmites peat transition

The silt –peat transition is sparse in diatoms. However, limited numbers of Paralia sulcata, Diploneis didyma, and Diploneis interrupta indicate an upper intertidal estuarine environment.

Sample 10 (158 cm)- br/black Phragmites peat with silt

The peats are almost barren of diatoms. However, the following freshwater species are present in limited numbers; Fragilaria construens, Fragilaria construens var venter and Pinnularia microstauron. The lack of brackish and marine species within the peats attest to the lack of marine waters in their formation.

Sample 11 (190 cm)‐ brown‐black wood peat The peat is sparse, limited numbers of the freshwater species Eunotia arcus indicate a terrestrial source.

Sample 12 (230 cm)- brown Phragmites peat

No diatoms present

4. Interpretation

Diatom analyses from Monolith 1, Waterford display a variable preservation

of diatom within the sediment sequences analysed. Many of the peat and

upper silt samples are sparse. The silty peat samples allow a full assessment

of deposition.

The lowermost sediments are peats and are poor in diatoms. This may reflect

the possible dissolution of any species due to the acidic nature of the

sediments. However, the limited numbers of Oligohalobous (fresh) species

indcate deposition away from marine influence. Within the peat‐silt transition

limited numbers of brackish species may suggest deposition within the upper

intertidal zone, although without full counts it is only possible to infer this


56

interpretation. The silty peat and peaty silts between 82cm and 122cm depth

have abundant diatoms species and allow an accurate assessment of the

sediment provenence. The sediment sample reflect an intertidal estuarine

environment characterised by a brackish influence, with Navicula peregrina,

Nitzschia puntata, Nitzschia navicularis and Diploneis interrupta in most

abundance. This reflects sedimentation in the upper reaches of the intertidal

zone. The upper silts (18cm to 70cm) are sparse, however the brackish‐marine

and marine species including Paralia sulcata, Podosira stelliger together with

Coscinodiscus are planktonics and infer a more marine environment, although

still within an estuarine environment.

5. Summary

Diatoms analysed from samples within Monolith 1 indicate deposition within an

intertidal estuarine environment. Initially, the assemblages suggest a high intertidal

area around MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) and the gradual increase in

marine waters. The organic silts are indicative of an intertidal mudflat environment,

with many of the brackish-marine species adapted to living on mud and sand flats.

The upper silts are more marine and suggest slightly deeper waters, although the

assemblages are still evidence of deposition within an intertidal estuarine

environment.

The sediments and diatoms suggest an increasing marine influence at the monlith site.

This could be further investigated, especially around the freshwater to brackish-

marine transition to ascertain the depth at which the freshwater sediements are

replaced by brackish sediments and more marine sediments.

n25 waterford bypass, contract 3. final report on archaeological investigations at site 34 in the...

Documents