nair 1985 classification of agro forestry systems

8/11/2019 Nair 1985 Classification of Agro Forestry Systems

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A g r o f o re s tr y S y s t e m s 3 : 9 7 - 1 2 8 .

198 5 Mart inus Ni]ho f f /Dr W. Ju nk Publ ishers Dordrecht . Pr in ted in the Ne therlands .

lassification of agroforestry system s

P.K.R. NAIR

International Council for Research in Agroforestry, P.O. Box 30677,

Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract. Classification of agroforestry (AF) systems is necessary in order to provide a

framework for evaluating systems and developing action plans for their improvement.

The AF Systems Inventory (AFSI) being undertaken by ICRAF provides the background

information for an approach to classification.

The words system , sub-system and practice are commonly used in AF literature.

An AF system refers to a type of AF land-use that extends over a locality to the

extent of forming a land utilization type of the locality. Sub-system and practice are

lower-order terms in the hierarchy with lesser magnitudes of role, content and com-

plexity. In common parlance, however, these terms are used loosely, and almost

synonymously.

Several criteria can be used to classify and group AF systems (and practices).

The most commonly used ones are the sys tem s structure (composi tion and arrange-

men t o f components ), its funct ion, its socio-economic scale and level of management,

and its ecological spread. Structurally, the system can be grouped as agrisilviculture

(crops - including tree/shrub crops - and trees), silvopastoral (pasture/animals +

trees), and agrosilvopastoral (crops + pasture/animals + trees). Other specialized AF

systems such as apiculture with trees, aquaculture in mangrove areas, multipurpose

tree lots, and so on, can also be specified. Arrangement of components can be in time

(temporal) or space (spatial) and several terms are used to denote the various arrange-

ments. Func tional basis refers to the main ou tput and role of components, especially

the woody ones. These can be productive functions (producti on of basic needs such

as food, fodder, fuelwood, other products, etc.) and protective roles (soil conservation,

soil fertility improvement, prote ction offered by windbreaks and shelterbelts, and

so on). On an ecological basis, systems can be grouped for any defined ago-ecological

zone such as lowland humid tropics, arid and semi-arid tropics, tropical highlands,

and so on. The socio-economic scale of product ion and level of management of the

system can be used as the crit eria to designate systems as commercial, inte rmedia te ,

or subsistence. Each of these criteria has merits and applicability in specific situations,

but they have limitations too so that no single classification scheme can be accepted

as universally applicable. Classification will depend upon the purpose for which it is

intended.

Nevertheless since there are only three basic sets of components that are managed by

man in all AF Systems, viz. woody perennials, herbaceous plants and animals, a logical

first step is to classify AF systems based on their c omponent composition, into agri-

silvicultural, silvopastoral and agrosilvopastoral (or any other specialized) systems. Subse-

quently the systems can be grouped according to any of the purpose-oriented criteria.

The resulting system name can thus have any one of the three basic categories as a

pref ix; for example agrisilvicultural system for soil conservation.

Some o f t he major AF systems and practices of the tropics are grouped according to

such a framework. The scheme appears a logical, simple, pragmatic and purpose -orient ed

approach to classification of AF systems.


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1.

n t r o d u c t i o n

One o f t he i m por t an t s t ages i n t he evo l u t i on and em er gence o f ag r o f o r e s t r y

(AF) as a d i s t inc t l and-use approach has been (and, to some extent , s t i l l i s )

f ind i ng a de f i n i t i on f o r t he t e r m . Seve r al de f i n i ti ons have been p r opos e d ,

r ang ing f r om ve r y abs t r ac t i dea s t o r a t he r l eng t hy pa rab le s [ 13 ] . Th oug h t he

i ssue has not qui t e been se t t l ed , the surge of en thus iasm in def in ing agro-

f o r e s t r y s eem s t o have m i n i m i zed i f no t d i s appea r ed . I t i s now gene r a l l y

accep t ed t ha t AF r ep r e s en t s an app r oach o f i n t eg r a t ed l and -us e t ha t invo l ves

de l i be r a t e r e t en t i on o r adm i x t u r e o f t r e e s and o t he r woody pe r enn i a l s i n

c r op / an i m a l p r od uc t i on f ie l d s t o b ene f i t f r om t he r e s u l t an t e co l og i ca l and

econo m i c i n t e r ac t i ons [ 36 , 45 , 51 ] . Th r o ugh it s r epea t ed usage , t he t e r m

agr o f o r e s t r y ha s acqu i r ed wi de acce p t ab i l i ty i n land - use pa r l ance t o s uch an

ex t e n t t ha t t he que s t i on wh a t is A F? t ha t u s ed t o be a s ked ve r y f r eque n t l y

un t i l r e cen t l y , is s e ldom he a r d now . I n s t ead , i t ha s gone one s t ep f u r t he r i n

d e ta i l w h a t t y p e o f A F T . T h i s n o t o n l y im p l ie s t h e m u l t it u d e o f A F s y st e m s

and prac t i ces , bu t a lso un dersco res the im por tanc e of having a se t of c lass if i-

c a t i on s chem es f o r AF .

Al ong wi t h t he e l uc i da t i on o f the p r i nc i p le s and deve l opm en t o f t he

concep t s o f A F , va r ious wor ke r s have a l so t r i ed t o c l as s if y AF [ 10 , 211 25 ,

31 , 36 , 60 , 6 1 ] . Mos t o f t he s e a t t em pt s f o r m ed a pa r t o f t he exe r c is e i n

concep t deve l opm en t t han a s an a i d i n eva l ua t i ng and ana l ys i ng ex i s t i ng AF

s ys tem s . Now a s ubs tan t ia l bo dy o f i n f o r m a t i on ha s been ga t he r ed on t he

s t ruc tura l and fun c t iona l com plexi t i es of severa l of such exi s t ing sys tems

t h r o u g h I C R A F s o n -g o in g g lo b a l i n v e n t o r y o f A F s y st em s [ 2 7 ] . T h e r e f o r e

we a r e m or e r e s ou r ce f u l now t han eve r be f o r e t o c l as s if y AF Sys t em s on the

one hand, and exper ienc ing a grea te r need for such c lass i f i ca t ions on the

o t he r .

2 . Sys t em , s ub -s ys t em , and p r ac t i c e

T h e w o r d s s y s t e m , s u b - sy s te m a n d p r a c t ic e a re v e r y c o m m o n l y u s e d i n

AF l i t e ra ture . In sys tems ana lys i s l anguage , a

system

r e f e r s t o a g r oup o f

phys i ca l com p onen t s , i . e , , an a s sem blage o f ob j ec t s , con nec t ed o r r e l a t ed

i n s uch a m anne r s o a s t o f o r m and / o r a c t a s an en t i r e un i t ; an

e osysystem

cons i s ts of l iv ing o rgani sms and the i r non- l iv ing env i ronm ent wi th w hich th ey

are inseparably in te r - re la ted [3 , 12 ] . In l and-use t e rms , a sys tem refers to a

t ype o f l and us e s pec i f ic to an a r ea and de s c r i bed acco rd i ng t o i t s b i o t echn i ca l

o r s oc i o - econom i c a spec ts . F o r exam pl e , an ag r icu l tu r a l s y s t em , o r a f o r e s t r y

s ys t em deno t e s a t ype o f ag r i cu lt u r al o r f o r e s t r y l and us e o f t he l oca l i t y ,

de s c r i bed in t e r m s o f i t s m a i n com po nen t s , l eve l o f m anagem en t , na t u r e o f

ou t pu t , and s o on . The b r oad t e r m s us ed t o de s c r i be s pec i f i c s ys t em s a r e

us ua l ly c l ea r enough t o po r t r ay t he ba si c na t u r e o f t he s ys t em s : f o r exam pl e ,

r ic e p r odu c t i on s ys t em , s ubs i s tence ag r icu l tu r a l s y s t em s , p l an t a t i on c r op


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s y s t e m s , m i x e d c r o p p i n g s y s t e m s , m a i z e - w h e a t r o t a t i o n s y s t e m , l i v e s t o c k

p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m , c o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m , a n d s o o n . A n d , o f

cou r se , e ach one o f t he se ha s va r i ous sub -d iv i s ions and fo rms t oo .

T h e s e c o m m o n l a nd - u se s y s t e m s o f a g r i c u lt u r e a n d f o r e s t r y a r e , h o w e v e r ,

m o s t l y o r i e n t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f sp e c if ic c o m m o d i t y ( o r g ro u p s o f

s i m i l a r c o m m o d i t i e s ) s o t h a t i n l a n d - u s e l i t e r a t u r e , c o m m o d i t y - o r i e n t a t i o n

h a s e v o l v e d a s t h e f i rs t c o n s i d e r a t io n o f th e s y s t e m s n o m e n c l a t u r e . T h e c o m -

p l e x a n d m u l t i p l e o u t p u t n a t u r e o f A F p u t s s o m e re s t ri c ti o n s o n d e m a r c a t i o n

o f spec i f i c sy s t ems i n t h i s w ay . I n s t ea d , t he t e rm ag ro fo r e s t ry sy s t em a s u sed

in t he AF l i t e r a tu r e co r r e spo nds t o spec i f i c o r gene ra l i zed AF l and u t i l i z a t ion

type s [69 ] , t he ba s is f o r de f i n ing and dem arca t i ng t he va ri ous such sys t ems

be ing n o t on ly b io log i ca l o r t e chn i ca l, b u t a lso econo m ic o r soc ia l. I n a

s o c io l o g ic a l c o n t e x t , R a i n t r e e [5 1 ] e x p l a in s t h e c o n c e p t o f la n d m a n a g e m e n t

sys t em s fo r t he ' d i agnos t i c and de s ign (D D) ' pu rpose , a s t ha t pa r t o f t he M an-

E n v i r o n m e n t c o m p l e x o r 'h u m a n e c o s y s t e m ' w h e r e t h e o r g a ni z in g in f l u e n ce

o f t he manage r ( t he Man) i s f e l t mos t c l ea r l y and d i r ec t l y ; i n o the r words , a

r e l evan t dec i s i on -mak ing un i t w i th in a l oca l human ecosys t em. Obv ious ly t h i s

is a va r iab l e -s ca l e con cep t bec ause t he ex t e n t o f t he dec i s i on -mak ing un i t c an

v a r y f r o m t h e f a m i l y f a r m t o b r o a d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l u n i t s . T h u s , f r o m t h e

po in t o f v i ew o f d is t ingu i sh ing and c l a s s i fy ing AF Sys t em s , an A F sys t em can

be cons ide r ed a s a t y pe o f AF l and u se t ha t i s spec i fi c t o a l oca l i t y and

desc r i bed acco rd ing t o i t s b io log i ca l comp os i t i on and a r r angem en t , l evel o f

t e c h n ic a l m a n a g e m e n t , o r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f e at u re s .

T h e o t h e r c o m m o n l y - u s e d e x p r e s s i o n i n A F l i t e r a t u r e i s sub system.

S e m a n t i c a ll y i t i n d i ca t e s a l o w e r - o r d e r h ie r a r c h y o f t h e s y s t e m . A s y s t e m c a n

w e l l b e c o n c e i v e d t o b e c o m p o s e d o f v a r io u s s u b - s y s te m s , o r c o m p a r t m e n t s ,

e a c h w i t h d e f i n ab l e b o u n d a r i e s , t h o u g h b e i n g u n a b le t o e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t l y ;

i t i s i n t h i s w ay t h a t t he t e rm i s u sed i n a phys i ca l s ense i n t he sy t em s ana ly s i s

l anguage . B u t i n AF l i t e r a tu r e t he sub - sys t em r e f e r s t o a pa r t o f t he sy s t e m

w i t h a m o r e r e s tr i c te d r o le , c o n t e n t a n d c o m p l e x i t y t h a n t h e s y s t e m i ts e lf .

Dep end ing on t he c r i te r i a u sed fo r de f i n ing o r de signa ti ng t he sy s t em (b io -

l og ica l , soc io - econom ic , and so on ) , t he t ypes o f sub - sy s t em can a l so va ry .

Fo r exam ple an ag r i s il v i cu l t u ra l sy s t em can have s eve ra l t ype s o f sub - sys t ems

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f it s c o n s t i t u e n t c o m p o n e n t s ; b u t

a n o t h e r w a y o f l o o k i n g a t i t i s b a s e d o n t h e s y s t e m ' s o u t p u t , t h i s is , t o

c o n s id e r a s y s t e m t o b e c o m p o s e d o f s e v e r al s u b s y s t e m s , e a c h P r o d u c in g a

d e f i n e d ' b a s ic n e e d ' a s i ts m a j o r o u t p u t s o t h a t t h e r e c a n b e a f o o d s u b s y s t e m ,

an ene rgy sub sys t em , a she l te r subsys t e m, a c a sh subsys t em , and son on [51 ] .

Th i s a spe c t w i ll be cons ide r ed in grea te r de ta i l in a la te r sec t ion .

A n a g r o f o r e s t r y practice u s u a l ly d e n o t e s a s p e c if ic l a n d m a n a g e m e n t

o p e r a t i o n o f a n a g r o f o r e s t r y n a t u r e o n a f a r m o r o t h e r m a n a g e m e n t u n it .

Seve ra l such p r ac t i c e s w i ll be i nvo lved i n t he co ns t i t u t i on and m a in t ena nce

o f a n A F s y s t e m . C o m m o n l y t h e s e p r a c t ic e s i n c lu d e t h e a r ra n g e m e n t s o f


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com pon en t s i n space and t ime Vis -a -v is t he m a jo r f unc t i ons o f t he t r e e

c o m p o n e n t . A l l ey c r o p p i n g ( h e d g e r o w i n te r c r o p p i n g ) , b o u n d a r y p l a n ti n g o f

t r ee s, t r e e s and sh rubs a s she l t e rbe l ts and w indb reaks , u se o f wo od y pe r enn i a l s

in so i l conserva t ion , t ree gardens , woodlo ts on agr icu l tura l l ands , e tc . a re a l l

c o m m o n l y - f o u n d A F p r a c t ic e s . A n y o f th e s e p r a c ti c e s b e c o m e s a n A F

sys t em w hen i t i s deve loped o r sp r ead t o such an ex t e n t i n a spec i f ic l oca l

a r ea so a s t o f o rm a de f i n i t e l and u t i l i z a t i on t ype i n t ha t a r ea . One e s sen t i a l

po in t t o no t e he r e i s tha t an AF p rac t i c e can be found t o ex i s t even i n a non -

a g r o f o r e s t r y la n d u s e s y s t e m . A n e x a m p l e i s th e p r a c t ic e o f g r o w i n g r o w s o f

esbania grandiflora on t he bunds o f r i c e padd i e s i n J ava , I ndones i a . Th i s

woody spec i e s i s ha rves t ed fo r i t s l e aves a s g r een manure , i t s f l ower s a r e

ea t en a s a vege t ab l e , i t p rov ide s f i r ewood and i t adds t o t he f e r t i l i t y o f t he

so il und e rnea th t h rough b io log i ca l f i xa t i on o f a tm osph e r i c n i t r ogen . Thus

the wo od y spec i es i n t e r ac t s e co log i ca ll y and eco nom ica l l y w i th t he c rop

( r i c e ) p roduc t i on sys t em; i n o the r words , i t i s an AF practice i n a c rop

p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m .

Hie r a r ch i ca l l y , t he sy s t em , the sub - sys t em and t he p r ac t ic e f o rm d i f f e r en t

l evel s o f o rgan i za t i on o f t he co m pon en t s , i . e ., a sy s t em to con s i s t o f seve ra l

sub - sys t em s and each su b - sys t em to cons i s t o f s eve ra l p r ac t ic e s . Depen d ing on

the deg ree o f evo lu t i on and t he l evel o f phys i ca l sp read , t he se t e rm s a l so

r ep re sen t d i f f e r en t ex t en t s t o w h ich t hey a r e ado p t ed i n a g iven l oca l i t y , a

sys t em be ing w ide ly -p r ac t i s ed t o f o rm a l and u t i l i z a t i on t ype o f t he l oca l it y ,

a p r a c t ic e b e i n g a d e f in i te m a n a g e m e n t o p e r a t i o n i n v o lv i n g t h e c o m p o n e n t s ,

and a subsys t em f a ll ing in be twe en . H ow eve r , the w ords a r e u sed r a the r

p r o m i s c u o u s l y a n d e v e n s y n o n y m o u s l y in c o m m o n A F u s a g e , s o t h a t i t

b e c o m e s d i f fi c u lt t o d i f f e r e n t ia t e t h e m f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . B u t i t is h o p e d t h a t

t he f i e ld exa mp le s and de sc r i p t i ons p r e sen t ed i n subse quen t s ec t i ons o f th i s

pap e r w i l l ma ke t he d i s t i nc t i on b e tw een t he t e rm s c lea r e r.

3 . Pu rpo se and c r i t e r ia o f c l a s s i f ic a t i on

M os t o f t he ex i s t ing i n fo rm a t ion con ce rn ing AF sys t em s is de sc r i p ti ve . The

desc r i p t i ons and da t a c an be a s sembled i n s eve ra l way s t o f ac i l i t a t e t he i r

s t o r age , r e t ri eva l and , t o some ex t e n t , com par i son . How eve r such an a s sem-

b l age o fd a t a i s on ly an e s sen ti a l f i rs t s t ep i n deve lop ing a p r ac t i c a l and r ea li s ti c

f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a ly s in g t h e s y s t e m s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f A F . T h e p u r p o s e o f

c l a s s i f i c a t i on shou ld e s sen t i a l l y be t o p rov ide such a f r amework . Bu t depend -

ing on t he focus and em phas i s o f such s t r a t eg i es and ac t i on p l ans , the s t r uc tu r e

o f t he f r am ew ork w i ll a l so va ry . Es sen t ia l l y any c l a s s i f ic a t i on s cheme shou ld

- i n cl u d e a l oc ig ic a l w a y o f g r o u p i n g t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s o n w h i c h p r o d u c t i o n

o f t h e s y s t e m w i ll d e p e n d ;

i nd i ca t e ho w the s y s t em i s ma naged (po in t i ng ou t pos s ib i li t ie s o f manage -

m e n t i n t e rv e n t i o n s t o i m p r o v e t h e s y s t e m s e f fi c ie n c y ) ;

- o f f e r f l ex ib i l it y i n r e -g roup ing t he i n fo rm a t ion ; and

be ea s i ly und e r s too d and r ead i l y hand l ed (p r ac t i c a l ) .


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The com plex i t i e s o f t he se r equ i r em en t s suggest t ha t j u s t a si ng le c la ss if i-

c a t io n s c h e m e c a n n o t s a t is f a c to r i ly a c c o m m o d a t e a ll o f t h e m . A s e ri es o f

c l s s i f i c a t i ons w i l l be needed , and each one ha s t o be ba sed on a de f i n i t e

c r i t e r i on t o se rve a d i f f e r en t pu rpo se . Lundg ren [36 ] po in t s ou t t ha t t he m os t

c o m m o n l y u s e d c r it e ri a s o f a r h a v e b e e n s p a t ia l a n d t e m p o r a l a r ra n g e m e n t o f

c o m p o n e n t s , r e l a ti v e im p o r t a n c e a n d r o le o f c o m p o n e n t s , p r o d u c t i o n a i m s /

o u t p u t s f r o m t h e s y s t e m s a n d s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c fe a t u re s . W h ile s o m e o f

the c l a s s if i c a ti on s chemes have been b a sed on on ly one o f t he se c r i t e ri a ( f o r

e x a m p l e , r o l e o f c o m p o n e n t s : 3 1 ; t e m p o r a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o m p o n e n t s : 6 1 ) ,

som e o the r s have t r i ed t o i n t eg ra t e s eve ra l o f t he se c r i t e r ia i n h ie r a r ch i ca l

s c h e m e s in r a t h e r s im p l e w a y s [ 6 0] o r m o r e c o m p l e x o n es [ 10 , 6 4 ] . A n

as se s smen t o f t he va r i ous c r i t e r i a ( t o be ) u sed in c l a s si f y ing AF ind i ca t e s t ha t

t h e y r e f e r t o t h e s y s t e m s s t ru c t u r e , f u n c t i o n ( o u t p u t ) , s o c i o - e c o n o m i c n a t u r e ,

o r e co log i ca l ( env i ronmen ta l ) sp r ead . These cha r ac t e r i s t i c s a l so deno t e t he

m o s t c o m m o n p u r p o s e s t o b e s e r ve d in c l a s s if ic a ti o n s c h e m e s . T h e r e f o r e m o s t

AF sys t em s (i nc lud ing su b - sys t ems and p r ac t i c e s a s we l l ) c an be ca t ego r i zed /

g rou ped acco rd ing t o t he fo l l owing s e t s o f c r it e r ia :

s t r uc tu r a l ba s i s - r e f e r s t o t he co m pos i t i on o f t he com pon en t s , i nc lud ing

s p a ti a l a d m i x t u r e o f t h e w o o d y c o m p o n e n t , v e rt ic a l s t r a ti f ic a t i o n o f t h e

c o m p o n e n t m i x a n d t e m p o r a l a r ra n g e m e n t o f th e d i f f er e n t c o m p o n e n t s ;

- f unc t i ona l ba s i s - r e f e r s t o t he m a jo r f unc t i on o r r o l e o f t he sy s t em,

m a i n l y o f t h e w o o d y c o m p o n e n t s ( th e s e c a n b e p r o d u c t iv e , e.g . p r o d u c -

t i on o f f ood , f odde r , f ue lwood and so on , o r p ro t ec t i ve , e . g . w indb reak ,

she l t e rbe l t , so i l conse rv a t i on and so on ) .

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b as is - r e fe r s t o t h e l e v e l o f i n p u t s o f m a n a g e m e n t ( lo w -

i n p u t , h i g h - in p u t ) o r i n te n s i t y o r s ca le o f m a n a g e m e n t a n d c o m m e r c i a l

goa l s ( subs i s t ence , commerc i a l , i n t e rmed ia t e ) ;

e co log i ca l ba s i s - r e f e r s t o t he env i ronm en ta l cond i t i on and eco log i ca l

s u i t ab i l it y o f s y s t e m s , o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c e r t a in t y p e s o f sy s t e m s c an

be m ore app rop r i a t e f o r c e r t a i n eco log ica l cond i t i ons : t hus t he r e can be a

se t o f A F sys t em s fo r a r id and s emi - a r id l ands , t r op i ca l h igh -l ands , low- l and

humid t r op i c s , and so on .

T h e s e b r o a d b a s e s o f c la s s if i ca t io n o f A F s y s t e m s ar e b y n o m e a n s i n d e -

p e n d e n t o r m u t u a l l y e x c lu s iv e . I n d e e d i t is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e y h a v e t o b e i n t er -

r e l a t ed because t he s t r uc tu r a l and func t i ona l ba se s r e l a t e t o t he woody

com po ne n t s i n t he sy s t em whe rea s t he soc io - econom ic and eco log ica l s t r at i fi -

c a t i on r e f e r t o t he o rgan i za t i on o f t he sy s t em s acco rd ing t o ce r t a i n de f i ned

c o n d i t i o n s (s o c i o - e c o n o m i c o r e c o lo g ic a l) . A n d i n a n y d e f i n e d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

o r eco log i ca l s i t ua t i on , t he sy s t ems shou ld s t i l l have spec i f i c s t r uc tu r e ( com-

p o s i t i o n a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o m p o n e n t s ) a n d f u n c t i o n / r o l e . T h u s t h e

c o m p l e x i t y o f A F c l a ss i fi c a ti o n c a n c o n s i d e r a b ly b e r e d u c e d i f t h e s t r u c t u r al

and fu nc t i ona l a spec t s a r e t aken a s t he p r im ary cons ide r a t i ons i n ca t ego r i -

z a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m s a n d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a n d a g r o - e c o l o g ic a l / en v i r o n m e n t a l

( a s we l l a s an y o the r such phys i ca l o r soc i a l) f a c to r s t ake n m ore a s a ba s is f o r


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102

s t r a t i f y ing o r group ing t he sy s t ems fo r de f i n i t e pu rpose s , t han fo r c lass i fy ing

t hem . T hese app roache s fo r c l a s s i f ic a t ion o f AF sys t em s a r e sum ma r i s ed i n

Table 1 .

4 . S t ruc tu r a l

b s i s f o r c l s s i c i t i o n

S t r u c t u r e o f t h e s y s t e m c a n b e d e f i n e d i n te r m s o f i ts c o m p o n e n t s ( co n s t i-

t u e n t s ) a n d t h e e x p e c t e d r o le s o r f u n c t i o n s o f e a c h ( m a n i f e s te d i n te r m s o f

o u t p u t s ) . I t i s n o t o n l y th e n a t u r e ( t y p e ) o f c o m p o n e n t s t h a t is i m p o r t a n t ,

bu t a l so t he i r a r r angemen t .

4 1 B a s e d o n t h e n a t u r e o f c o m p o n e n t s

I n A F l a n d u s e s y s t e m s t h e r e a re t h r e e b a s ic s e ts o f e le m e n t s o r c o m p o n e n t s

t h a t a r e m a n a g e d b y m a n , n a m e l y , t h e t r e e ( = w o o d y p e r e n n i a l ) , t h e h e r b

( ag r i cu l t u r a l c rops i nc lud ing pa s tu r e spec i e s ) and t he an ima l . I n o rde r f o r a

l and -use sy s t em to be d e s igna t ed a s an AF sys t em , it sho u ld a lways have t he

f i r s t one , i . e . , t he woody pe r enn i a l . I n mos t AF sys t ems , t he s econd once ( t he

he rba ceou s speci e s ) i s a l so i nvo lved , t he no t ab l e exce p t i ons cou ld be ap i cu l t u r e

wi th t r e e s and aq uacu l t u r e ( p i s c i cu l tu r e ) i n m angrove a rea s w i th t r e e s. The

th i rd s e t o f co m pon en t s ( an ima l s ) is p r e sen t in som e AF sys t ems . Th i s l e ads

to a s imp le c l a s s i f i c a t i on o f AF sys t ems a s g iven be low and dep i c t ed i n

Figure 1.

Agr i s f lv icu l tura l - c rop s and t rees inc luding shru bs /v in es / t rees and t rees

S i l vopas to r a l - pa s tu r e / an ima l s and t r ee s

Agros f l vopas to r a l - c rops , pa s tu r e / an im a l s and tr ee s .

A d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e a r e a f e w s y s t e m s s u c h a s m u l t i p u r p o s e w o o d l o t s ( t h a t

i n t e r a c t e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d e c o l o g ic a l ly w i t h o t h e r l a n d- u se p r o d u c t i o n

c o m p o n e n t s a n d h e n c e f a ll u n d e r t h e p u r v i e w o f A F d e f i n it i o n ), a p i c u l tu r e

wi th t r e e s and aquas i l v i cu lt u r e . I n t he absence o f a be t t e r t e rm to encom pass

t h e se f o r m s o f A F , t h e y c a n b e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r u n d e r o t h e r s .

T h i s c a t e g o r i z a ti o n o f A F s y s t e m s i n t o t h r e e m a j o r t y p e s is so fu n d a -

m e n t a l t h a t a n y o n e o f th e s e c a n c o n v e n i e n t ly b e u s e d a s a p re f i x to o t h e r

t e r m s e m a n a t i n g f r o m o t h e r e f f o r t s t o c l a s s i fy / g r o u p A F s y s t e m s i n o r d e r to

e x p l i c it l y e x p re s s th e b a s ic c o m p o s i t i o n o f c o n s t i t u e n ts o f a n y s u c h s y s t e m .

Fo r exam ple , the r e can be an ag r i si lv i cu lt u ra l sy s t em fo r f oo d p rod uc t i on ,

a c o m m e r c i a l s i l v o p as t o ra l s y s t e m f o r f o d d e r a n d f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n l o w l a n d

sub -hum id (o r d ry ) t r op i c s , an ag r i s i l vopas to ra l sy s t em fo r f o od p ro duc t i o n

and so i l conse rva t i on in h igh l and hum id t r op i c s , and so on . T he re fo r e it s eems

l og i ca l, c o m p a t i b l e a n d p r a g m a t i c t o a c c e p t t h e n a t u r e o f c o m p o n e n t s a s t h e

bas i c c r it e r i on i n t he h i e r a r chy o f AF c l a ss i fi c a ti on .

The re can be s eve ra l o the r c r i te r i a o f the l ower o rde r t o dem arca t e sub -

sys t ems and p r ac t i c e s . I n add i t i on t o t he func t i ona l c a t ego r i za t i on o f sub -

sys t em s a s t he food su b - sys t em, t he fod de r sub - sys t em , and so on , t he r e can

be s t r uc tu r a l c a t ego r i za t i on t oo . Fo r exam ple , t he va r i ous sub - sys t em s and


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8/32

104

u 6

T r q l R i o n d

~ b s O ff

p o s t u r e s

SYST ~

o n d o t h e r

MiXtures

of lOnt o t ion

CrOpS

~

F i g u r e 1 C a t e g o r i z a t io n o f a g ro f o r e s t ry s y s t e m s b a s e d o n t h e n a t u r e o f c o m p o n e n t s

(with exam ples of co mm on sub-systems/practicesunder eac h system).

prac t ices in agr i s i lv icul ture inc lude hedgerow in te rcropping (a l l ey c ropping) ,

use of imp rove d fa l low spec ies in sh if t ing cul t iva t ion , m ul t i s to rey combi -

na t i ons o f m u l t i spec i e s p l an t com m uni t i e s , m u l t i pu r pose t r ee s and sh r ubs on

f a r m l ands , shade t r ee s f o r com m er c i a l p l an t a t i on c r ops , ag r o f o r e s t r y fue l -

w ood p r oduc t i on , she l t e r be l t s and w i ndbr eaks on c r op p r oduc t i on f i e l d s , and

so on . S i l vopas t o r a l sys t em s i nc l ude an i m a l p r oduc t i on sy t em s i n w h i ch

m u l t i p u rp o s e w o o d y p e r e n n ia l s p ro v i d e th e f o d d e r ( p r o t e i n b a n k ) o r f u n c t i o n

as living fences a ro und graz ing land or a re re ta ined as com me rc ia l shade /

bro w se/ f ru i t t r ees in pa s ture l ands . E xam ples o f agros i lvopas tora l sys tems

i nc lude t he u se o f w oo dy hedg e r ow s f o r b r ow se , m u l ch and g r een m an ur e as

w e l l a s f o r so il conse r va t i on , the c r o p / t r ee / l i ve s t ock m i x a r oun d hom es t ead

( hom e ga r dens ) , and so on . Mor e f i e l d exam pl e s o f e ach ca t ego r y o f sys t em

shal l be pre sente d in a l a t t e r se c t ion .

I t m ay b e n ote d tha t the t e rm agr i s i lv icul ture ( ra th er than agros ilvi -

cu l t u r e ) i s u sed t o deno t e t he com bi na t i on o f t r e e s and c r ops , w he r ea s


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1 5

agrosf lvopas tora l ( ra th er than agr i s ilv ipastora l) is used for c ro ps + animals /

pas ture + t rees . Th e in ten t ion he re is to l imi t the use of the word agr is ilvi -

cu l t u r e on l y t o t hose co m b i na t i ons i nvol v ing ag r i cu lt u ra l c r ops and t r ee s . The

word agros i lv icul ture can encompass a l l forms of agr icul ture ( inc luding animal

husb andr y ) w i t h t r e e s , and t hus be ano t he r w or d f o r ag r o f o r e s tr y . Th a t aga in

is the reason ing be hin d the use of the al l- inclusive agr o pre f ix to agrosilvo-

pas t o r a l. I t i s w or t h m e n t i on i ng i n t h i s con t e x t t ha t du r i ng the p r oces s o f

evo l u t i on o f t he w or d ag r o f o r e s t r y , som e op i n i ons had bee n exp r e s sed t ha t

t he p r op e r u sage o f t he t e r m ( f r om t he l ingu is ti c po i n t o f v i ew ) shou l d be

ag r i f o r e s t ry and no t a g r o f o r e s t r y [ s ee 59 ] . Bu t t he w or d ag r o f o r e s t r y ha s

b e c o m e s o f i r m l y im p l a n t e d t h a t i t w o u l d n o w b e v e r y c o n fu s in g i f a n o t h e r

w or d w e r e t o be popu l a r i s ed t o encom pass t he s am e concep t . A f t e r a l l , one

can f ind severa l o ther usages in t echnica l l anguages tha t ma y not s t r i c t ly

sa t i s fy the n ice t i es o f con ven t iona l l inguis ti c usage .

4 2 B a s e d o n t h e a rr a n g em e n t o f c o m p o n e n t s

A r r a n g e m e n t o f c o m p o n e n t s r e fe r s t o p l a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s y st e m . E v e n

i n A F Sys t em s i nvo lv i ng an im a l s , t he m an agem en t o f such an im a l s a cco r d i ng

to a def in i t e p lan , suc h as, say , a ro ta t io na l graz ing schem e, is in con s idera t ion

m o r e o f t he p l an t s t ha n o f t he an im a l s . Such p l an t a r r angem en t s i n m u l t i -

spec ies combina t ions can involve d imens ions in space and t ime.

Spa t i a l a r r angem en t s o f p l an t s i n A F m i x t u r e s can r e su l t i n m i xed dense

s t rands ( as i n ho m e ga r dens) o r in m i xed spa rce s tands (a s i n m os t sys t em s o f

t rees in pas tures ) . M oreove r , the spec ies (or spec ies mixes) can be in zones or

s t ri p s o f va r y i ng w i d t hs . The r e can be s ever al f o r m s o f such zones va r y i ng

f r om m i c r ozo na l a r r angem e n t ( such a s a l t e r na t e r ow s ) t o m ac r ozon a l ones. A

c o m m o n l y m e n t i o n e d e x a m p l e o f t h e z o n a l p a t t e r n i s th e h e d g e r o w in t e r-

c r opp i ng ( a l l ey c r opp i ng ) [ 58 , 67 ] . A n ex t r em e f o r m o f t he zona l p l an t ing is

t he bounda r y p l an t i ng o f t r e e s on edges o f p l o t s and f i e l d s f o r a va r i e t y o f

pu r poses and ou t p u t s ( f r u i ts , f odde r , f ue l w ood , f enc i ng and p r o t e c t i on , soft

conse r va t i on / w i ndbr eak , and so on ). I t is a lso i m p or t an t t o n o t e t ha t ex t r em e

f o r m s o f m ac r ozon a l a r r angem en t s can le ad t o sole c r opp i ng sys tem s ; bu t t he

i n t e r ac ti ve a s soc i a t i on o f d i f f e r en t com pon en t s c an be u sed a s t he c r i t e r i on t o

dec i de the l i m i ts be t w ee n zona l A F and so le c r op ( com po nen t ) p l o ts .

Tem por a l a r r angem en t s o f p l an ts i n A F can also t ake va ri ous f o r m s . A n

ex t r em e exam pl e is t he conv en t i ona l sh i ft ing cu l t i va t ion cyc l e s i nvo lv i ng

2 - 4 y e a r s o f c r o p p in g c y c l e a n d m o r e t h a n 1 5 y e a rs o f fa l lo w c y cl e , w h e n a

se l ec t ed w oody spec i e s o r m i x t u r e s o f spec i e s cou l d be p l an t ed . S i m i l a r l y ,

some s i lvopas tora l sys tems may involve grass l eys in ro ta t ion , wi th the same

spec ies of grass remaining on the l and for severa l years . These t em po ra l

a r ra n g e m e n t s o f c o m p o n e n t s i n A F h a s b e e n d e s c ri b ed b y t e rm s s u c h as

co i nc i den t , concom i t an t , ove r l app i ng ( o f w h i ch t he ex t r em e ca se i s r e l ay

c r opp i ng ) , s epa r a t e , i n t e r p o l a t ed , and so on ( 25 , 32 ) . These te r m s a r e m o r e

eas i ly expla ined , than def ined , as in Figure 2 .


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106

Figure 2. Temporal arrangement of components in agroforestry systems (adapted from

Huxley: 25 ; Kronick: 31, and Y oung: 69).

Tempora l a rr angemen t S ch em a t i cl lustrat ion Examples

(also see Table 5)

Coincident Coffee under shade trees;

Pasture under trees

Taungya

Annual crops under coconut;

Seasonal grazing of cattle in

pastures under trees

Home garden

Black pepper and rubber

Improved fallow species in

shifting cultivation

time

(time scale will vary for each com bination)

Concomitant

Intermittant

(space-dominant)

Interpolated

(space- and time-dominant)

Overlapping

Separate

(time-dominant)

woody component

non-woody component

5 . F u n c t i o n a l cl ssif ic t ion o f groforestry systems

T w o f u n d a m e n t a l a t t r ib u t e s o f a ll A F S y s t e m s a re p r o d u c t i o n and su s t a i na

b i l i t y . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t A F s y s t e m s h a v e a p r o d u c t i v e f u n c t i o n ( p r o d u c i n g

one o r mo re p rodu c t s , u sua l l y ba s i c need s ) a s we l l a s a se rv ice ro l e (o f

p r o t e c t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n in g t h e p r o d u c t i o n s y s te m s ) .

Ra in t r ee [51 ] a rgues t ha t any l and u se sy s t em , r ega rd l e ss o f i t s deg ree o f

c o m m e r c i a li z a t io n , c a n b e d e s c ri b e d a n d e v a l u a te d in t e r m s o f th e o u t p u t s o f

r e l evan t ba s i c needs such a s food , ene rgy , she l t e r , r aw ma te r i a l s , c a sh , and so

on . T h i s is t he s t r a t egy wh ich und e r l i ne s the ba s i c needs app ro ach wi th in t he

m e t h o d o l o g y f o r A F d i a g n o s i s a n d d e s i g n d e v e l o p m e n t b y I C R A F [ 2 8 ] .

Acco rd ing t o t h i s app ro ach , t he s e rv i ce ro l e s o f wo od y pe renn i a l s a r e a l so

t a k e n a s f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t in g t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o n e o r m o r e o f t h e s e

b a s ic n e e d s . F o r e x a m p l e , s o i l c o n s e r v a t io n a f f e c t e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e A F

p r a c ti c e s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f i ts c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a u g m e n t i n g t h e

s u s t a in a b i li t y o f c r o p p r o d u c t i o n ; a m e l i o r a t i o n o f m i c r o c l i m a t e t h r o u g h

we l l -de s igned a r r angem en t s o f t r e e s and c rops ( e .g . she l te r -be l ts ) c an be

eva lua t ed i n t e rm s o f i t s e f f ec t on c rop y i e ld s , and so on .

H o w e v e r , th i s e m p h a s i s o n p r o d u c t i o n o f o u t p u t s p l ac e s a n u n d u e i m p o r t -

a n c e o n t h is a t t r i b u t e a t t h e c o s t , i f n o t e x c l u s io n , o f t h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t

a t t r i bu t e , v i z . su s t a inab i l i t y . A l though p roduc t ion i s a ve ry impor t an t con -

s ide ra t i on i n A F , i t i s t he su s t a inab i l i t y a spec t t ha t ma kes it d i f f e r en t f rom

o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s t o l a n d u s e. M o r e o v e r al l A F s y s t e m s w i ll b e p r o d u c i n g

m o r e t h a n o n e b a s ic - n ee d o u t p u t ( l a r g e ly s o b e c a u s e o f t h e m u l t i p u r p o s e

n a t u r e o f t h e a s s o c ia t ed w o o d y p e r e n n i a l c o m p o n e n t ) . T h e r e f o r e , a ll A F


11/32

107

sys tems have bo th the p roduc t ive and p ro tec t ive ro l e s , t hough to va ry ing

degrees o f magn i tude . Depen ding on the relat ive dom inance of the par t icula r

ro le , the sy stem can be te rm ed as produ ct ive or pro tec t ive as indica ted in

Table 2.

This summary Table (which a lso indica tes the spa t ia l a r rangement of

w o o d y c o m p o n e n t s a n d th e n a t u r e o f t h e i r i n t e ac t i o n w i t h o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s )

shows the inadequacy o f choos ing the p rod uc t ion o f a pa r t i cu la r ba sic -need

ou tpu t as the so le c r i te r ion for c lassi fy ing A F sy stems. How ever , i f produc-

t ion o f an ou tp u t , o r fo r tha t ma t t e r any such o the r a spec t, may be chosen a s

the basis fo r under taking an eva lua t ion of ava ilable AF opt ion s wi th a v iew to

se lec ting the m ost approp r ia te ones to fu l f i l l the s ta ted objec tive .

6 . Ecologica l and s o c i o e c o no m i c g r o up ing o f ag r o fo r e st r y s y s t e m s

6 1 Ecological grouping

Severa l enumera t ions of AF prac t ices have been presented f rom var ious

geographical regions to a large number of seminars, workshops, e tc . during

the pa s t 5 -6 yea r s. No tab le among them inc lude such g roup di scussions he ld

a t CATIE, Turr ia lba , Costa Rica [11] , ICRAF, Nairobi [7 , 9 , 24 , 25] and

IITA , Ibad an [38 ] . There have a lso been severa l com pi la t ions on speci fic

system s as wel l as cou ntry / regio n overviews, such as the Acacia albida s y s t e m

in West Afr ica [17] ,

Prosopis cineraria

sys t em in wes te rn Ind ia [3 9 ] , and

rev iews on A F in f ran cophon e Af r i ca [15 ] and Ind ian sub -con t inen t [16 ] .

Also , severa l o ther repor ts have been publ ished [37 , 43 , 44 and so on] .

Recent ly a se r ies of AF systems descr ip t ions has a lso s ta r ted appear ing in

Agroforestry Systems a s a n o u t p u t f r o m I C R A F s A F S y s te m s I n v e n t o r y

Projec t .

Most of these AF Systems documenta t ion per ta in to spec i f ic ecologica l

si tua tions fro m dif fer en t geographical regions. I t is thu s easy to fin d several

de sc r ip t ions on AF sys t ems in say , h igh land sub-humid t rop ic s (o r t rop ica l

h igh lands a s po pu la r ly kn ow n) fo r example : t he Chagga sys t em in M oun t

Ki l iman jaro in Tan zania [18] , h i l l fa rming in Western Nepal [19] , an d mu l t i -

purpose t ree in tegra t ion on the h ighlands of Rwanda [48] . Simi la r ly a la rge

num ber o f sys t em desc r ip tions can be foun d fo r va r ious o the r ecolog ical

regions too . Recommendat ions on AF technologies have a lso been suggested

for spec i f ic agroecologica l regions ( for exam ple , fo r h i l ly regions of Rwa nda:

41 ; fo r slop ing areas: 69).

Desc r ip t ions o f ex i st ing sys t ems a s we ll a s r ecomm enda t ions o f p o ten t i a l

A F technologies for spec if ic agro-ecologica l zo nes inc lude a m ixture o f

va r ious fo rms o f AF ( in t e rms o f the na tu re a s we l l a s a r rangemen t o f

components). Thus there can be agrisi lvicultural , si lvopastorai or agrosilvo-

pastora l sys tems in an y o f the ecologica l regions. Y oung [69] ana lyzed the

AF po ten t i a l fo r s lop ing l ands us ing the p r im ary da ta co l l ec ted by IC RA F s


12/32

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14/32

110

AF Sys t em s I nve n t o r y P r o j ec t and o t he r s f o r e i gh t s ys t em s i n s l op ing lands i n

var ious par t s of the wo r ld . A sum ma ry of h is ana lys is i s prese nted in Tab le 3 .

I t show s tha t a l l the three bas ic ca tegor ies of A F sys tem (agr is i lv icul tura l ,

s i lvopas tora l and agros i lvopas tora l ) can be seen in th i s par t i cu la r l and form.

This i s t rue for o th er agro-ecologica l zones a lso .

In summary, agro-ecologica l zona t ion a lone cannot be t aken as a sa t i s -

f ac t o r y bas is f o r c l a ss i fi c at ion o f A F Sys t em s . Sever a l AF Sys t em s and

prac t i ces a re re levant (ex i s t ing as wel l as potent i a l ) to any major agro-

ecologica l zon e ; depe nding on the special c ond i t ions o f any zo ne , the emphas i s

of th e sys tem /prac t i ce wi ll a l so vary . F or exam ple , in t ropica l h ighlands , one

o f t he m a i n cons i de r a t i ons wou l d be t he p r o t ec t i ve r o l e ( s o i l cons e r va t i on

po tent i a l ) of AF , w hereas in sparse ly-po pula ted semi-ar id savannas , s ilvo-

pas t o r a l s y s tem s f o r p r odu c t i on o f l i ve s tock ( and f ue l w ood) wo u l d be o f

p r i o r i t y cons i de r a t ion .

6.2 Socio economic grouping

Soc i o - econom i c c r i t e r i a s uch a s s ca l e o f p r oduc t i on and l eve l o f t e chno l ogy

inpu t and ma nage me nt have a lso bee n u sed as c r i t e r ia for class ify ing A F

s ys tem s . Lu ndgr en [ 36 ] t hus g r oups s ys t em s i n t o com m er c i a l, i n t e r m ed i a t e

and subs i s tence sys tems .

The t e r m com m er c i a l i s u s ed whe r e t he p r od uc t i on o f t he ou t pu t , u s ua l ly

a s ingle com m od i ty , for sa le is the m ajor a im of the sys tem ; sca le o f opera t ions

is o f t en m ed i um t o l ar ge and l and ow ne r s h i p m ay be gov e r nm en t , co r po r a t e

o r p r i va te ; l abour is no r m a l l y pa id o r o t he r wi s e con t r ac t ed . Exam pl e s inc l ude

com m er c i a l p r odu c t i on o f ag r icu l tu r a l p l an t a t i on c r ops s uch a s rubbe r ,

o i lpa l m s and coco nu t , wi t h p e r m anen t unde r p l an t i ngs o f f oo d c rops , o t he r

c r ops , o r pa s t u r e/ an i m a l s ; com m er c i a l p r od uc t i on o f s hade - t o l er a t ing p lan-

t a t i on c r ops l i ke co f f ee , t e a , and cacao unde r o ve r s t o r ey shade tr ee s ;

r o t a t i ona l t i m be r / f o od c r op s ys tem s i n wh i ch a s ho r t phas e o f f ood c r op

pr o duc t i on i s u s ed a s a s il v icu l tu r a l m e t ho d t o ens u r e e s tab l i shm en t o f the

t imb er spec ies (var ious form s of t aungy a) ; comm erc ia l graz ing and ranch ing

un der l a rge-sca ie t im ber and pulp p lanta t ions ; e tc .

I n t e r m ed i a t e AF Sys t em s a r e t hos e t ha t a r e i n t e r m ed i a t e be t w een

com m er c i a l and s ubs is t ence scale s o f p r od uc t i o n and m anag em en t . P r odu c t i on

o f p e r enn i a l c a sh c r ops and s ubs is t ence c r ops is und e r t aken on m ed i um - t o -

smal l - s i zed fa rms where the cash c rops ca te r for the cash needs , and the food

c r ops m ee t t he f am i l y s f ood needs . Us ua ll y fa r m er s wh o e i t he r ow n t he l and ,

o r have l ong - t e rm t en ancy r igh t s t o l and , r e s i de and wo r k t hem s e l ves on the

l and , s upp l em en t ed by pa i d t em por a r y l abour . The m a i n d i s t i ngu i s h i ng

f ea t u r e s o f t he i n t e r m ed i a t e s ys t em f r om t hos e o f t he com m er c i a l s y s t em on

t he one end and s ubs is t ence s ys t em on t he o t he r a r e ho l d i ng size and l evel o f

econ om i c p r os pe r i t y . Seve ra l AF s ys t em s i n m an y pa r t s o f t he wo r l d can be

g r ouped a s i n t e r m ed i a t e s ys t em s , e s pec i a ll y t hos e ba s ed o n p l an t a t i on c r ops

such as cof fe e , cacao , coc on ut , e t c . S im i la rly there a re a lso severa l


15/32

i n t e r m ed i a t e A F s ys t em s bas ed on a l ar ge num ber o f fr u i t tr e e s , e s pec ia l ly i n

the A s ia-Paci fi c reg ion [45] and sho r t - ro ta t io n t imb er species such as

A l b i z i a

f a l c a t a r i a

i n t he Ph i li pp i nes [ 50 ] and I ndones i a [ 4 4 ] .

Subs i s t ence AF s ys t em s a r e t hos e w he r e t he u s e o f land is d i r ec t ed t owar d

s a t i s f y i ng t he ba s i c needs , and m anaged m os t l y by t he owne r / occupan t and

h i s f am i l y . Cas h c r ops , i nc l ud ing s al e o f s u r p lus p r od uc t i o n o f com m odi t i e s

m a y w e l l be a pa r t o f t he s e s ys tem s , bu t a r e on l y s upp l em en t a r y . Mos t o f t he

A F s ys t em s p r ac t i s ed i n va ri ous pa r t s o f t he deve l op i ng coun t r i e s com e unde r

t he s ubs is t ence ca t ego r y . Al l f o r m s o f t r ad i t iona l s h i f ti ng cu l ti va t i on f oun d

t h r o ugh ou t t he t r op i c s a r e t he m o s t wi de- s p read exam pl e . How eve r , a ll f o r m s

o f subs i s tence A F sys tem s are no t as und es i rable or resourse-deple t ing as

t radi t iona l sh i f t ing cul t iva t ion . For example , the in tegra ted , mul t i - spec ies

s ys t em s o f hom ega r dens f ound i s a l m os t a l l t h i ck l y - popu l a t ed a r ea s i s a

p r og r e s s ive A F s ys t em ( 4 , 64 ) . S i m i la r ly s ever al co m m endab l e s ys tem s o f a

s ubs i s t ence na t u r e can be f ound i n m any o t he r r eg i ons a l s o ; f o r exam pl e i n

La t in Am er ica [66] ; a r id Wes t Af r iac [62] ; hu m id West Af r ica [20] ; India

[26] and so on .

Gr o up i ng o f A F s ys t em s acco r d i ng t o t he s e s oc i o - econom i c and m anage -

m en t c r i te r i a is ye t a no t h e r way o f s t r a ti f y i ng t he s ys t em s f o r a pu rpos e -

o r i en t ed ac t i on p l an . I n d eve l op m e n t e f fo r t s , f o r exam pl e , s uch an app r oach

wi ll be usefu l. H ow ever , there a re som e draw backs i f these c r i t e r i a a re acc epted

as the pr im ary basi s for c lass ify ing the sys tems . F i r s t, the c r i t e r i a in def in ing

the var ious c lasses a re no t w el l -quant i f i ab le ; the s t andards se t for such a

d i f f e r en t i a t i on wi ll r e f l e c t t he gene r a l s oc i o - econom i c s it ua t i on o f t he l oca l it y .

W hat i s cons id ered as subs i s tenc e l eve l in on e se t of s i tua t ions m ay wel l f a l l

und e r i n t e r m ed i a t e o r even a h i ghe r ca t ego r y in ano t he r se t o f s i tua t ions .

Sec ond ly , these c lass bou nda r ies wi ll a lso chang e wi th t ime. A good examp le

is t he gum - a r ib i c p r od uc t i o n s ys t em o f t he Sudan . I t u s ed t o be a f l ou ri s h ing

i n t e r m e d i a t e s ys t em cons i st ing o f a p l anned r o t a t i on o f A c a c i a s e n e g a l f o r

g u m p r o d u c t i o n f o r 7 - 1 2 y e a r s . A c a c i a s e n e g a l a l s o p r ov i ded f odde r and

f i r ewo od and i m pr ove d s o il f e r t i l i t y [ 54 ] . Bu t wi t h t he adven t o f a r ti f ic i a l

s ubs t i t u t e s f o r gum a r ab i c , t he

A c a c i a s e n e g a l

m i l l e t s y s t em has now

r egene r a t ed i n t o a s ubs i st ence s ys t em .

Th e r e f o r e t he s e s oc i o - econom i c fac t o r s t ha t a r e l ike l y t o change wi t h t i m e

and m anagem en t cond i t i ons canno t r i g i d l y be adop t ed a s t he s a t i s f ac t o r y

p r i m a r y bas is f o r an ob j ec ti ve c l a ss i fi c a ti on s chem e , b u t t hey can be e m p l oyed

as a bas is fo r grouping th e sys tem s for a def ine d objec t ive or ac t ion p lan .

7. A fr mew ork for cl ssif ic tion o f groforestry system s

Th e foreg oing ana lys is revea ls the fo l lowing:

Th e usua l ly used c r i t e r i a for c lass ify ing A F sys tems and prac t i ces a re : (1)

S t r u c t u r e o f t h e s y s t e m ( n a t u r e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o m p o n e n t s ) ; ( 2 ) F u n c -

t i on o f t he s ys t em ( r o l e and o u t p u t o f com po nen t s ) ; ( 3 ) Agr o - eco log i ca l


16/32

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18/32

114

Table 4. Framework for a purpose-oriented classification of agroforestry systems*

First step Subsequen t steps(s)

Classification based on Criteria Ma jor areas of Application

the nature o f components

Agrisilvicultural

Silvopastoral

Agrosilvopastoral

- Other (specify)

Arrangement of

components

in time

in space

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components

- productive

- protective

(service)

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aspects

Research on plant

management f or optimizing

interactions

Development projects for

exploiting agroforestry

potential

Land-use planning,

regional development

R D programmes,

Socio-econom ic ai3alysis

of agroforestry potential,

Resource utilization plan

*See Table 1 for major approaches in classification and Table 5 for a listing of examples

and characteristics o f existing agroforestry systems and practices.

z o n e s w h e r e t h e s y s t e m e x i st s o r i s a d o p t a b l e ; a n d ( 4 ) S o c i o - e c o n o m i c sc al es

a n d m a n a g e m e n t l e v el s o f t h e s y s t e m .

E a c h o f t h e s e c r i t e r ia h a s m e r i t s a n d a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n s p e c i f ic s i tu a t i o n s ; b u t

t h e y h a v e l im i t a t i o n s a l s o s o t h a t n o s i n g l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c h e m e c a n b e

a c c e p t e d a s a u n iv e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e o n e . C l a s s i f i c a t io n o f A F s y s t e m w i l l h a v e

t o b e p u r p o s e - o r i e n t e d .

T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e - p r o b l e m c a n b e r e d u c e d i f t h e s tr u c t u ra l a n d f u n c-

t i o n a l a s p e c ts o f t h e s y s t e m a r e t a k e n a s t h e c r i t er i a f o r ca t e g o r i z in g th e

s y s t e m s a n d a g r o - e c ol o g i c al a n d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a s p e c ts a s t h e b a s is f o r

g r o u p i n g t h e m .

S i n c e t h e r e a r e o n l y t h r e e b a si c se t s o f c o m p o n e n t s t h a t a r e m a n a g e d b y

m a n i n a ll a g r o f o r e s t r y s y s t e m s ( w o o d y p e r e n n ia l s , h e r b a c e o u s p l a n t s a n d

a n im a l s ) , a l o g i c a l f i r s t s t e p t o c l a s s if y A F i s b a s e d o n t h e n a tu r e o f t h e s e

c o m p o n e n t s , v i z ( 1 ) a g r i s il v i c u lt u r a l; ( 2 ) s i l v o p a s to r a l ; a n d ( 3 ) a g r o s il v o -

p a s to r a l ( t h e r e a r e a l s o a f e w o th e r s p e c i a l i z e d s y s t e m s ) .

H a v i n g d o n e s u c h a p r e l i m i n a r y c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , t h e s y s t e m s c a n su b se -

q u e n t l y b e g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g to a n y o f t h e p u r p o s e - o r i e n t e d c r i te r i a

m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . E a c h o f t h e r e s u l t i n g g r o u p c a n h a v e a n y o n e o f t h e a b o v e

th r e e c a t e g o r i e s a s a p r e f i x , f o r e x a m p le : ( 1 ) s i l v o p a s to r a l s y s t e m f o r c a t t l e

p r o d u c t i o n i n t r o p i c a l s a v a n n a s ; ( 2 ) a g r i s i lv i c u l tu r a l s y s t e m f o r s o il c o n s e r -

v a t i o n a n d f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n t r o p i c a l h i g h l a n d s , a n d s o o n . A f r a m e w o r k f o r

c l a s s i fi c a t io n o f A S s y s t e m s b a s e d o n t h e s e c o n s id e r a t i o n s i s g iv e n i n T a b l e 4 .


19/32

115

As mentioned earlier, there are several field examples of extensively

practised AF systems in various parts of the world. ICRA F s Agroforestry

Systems Inventory Project has collected information on a large number of

such systems and practices with a view to analysing their merits, weaknesses

and constraints, ide ntify ing their research needs and e xtrapolat ing the essen-

tial aspects of the systems to ot her adoptable areas. Sum mary accounts have

been given of a large numb er of such systems [44] as well as the wood y

species involved [46]. Some of these field examples of AF are grouped

together in Table 5 according to the framework for classification proposed

above. At first, the systems are designated according to the nature of

component s, and then, for each category, i nforma tion is given on other major

characteristics that can be used as the criteria for grouping them subse quentl y

for any specified purpose. This appears to be a logical, simplel pragmatic and

purpose- oriented approach t o classification of AF systems.

e f e r e n c e s

1. Alvim R and Nair PKR (1985) Agroforestry practices involving agricultural plan-

tation crops in southeast Bahia, Brazil. Agroforestry Systems (in press)

2. Ambar S (1982) Overview of the results of traditional agroforestry study in

Ci-Tarum river basin, West Java. Paper presented to The Regional Seminar-Workshop

in Agroforestry, 18 -22 October, 1982. SEARCA, CoUege, Laguna, The Philippines

3. Arnold GW and de Wit CT (eds) (1976) Critical Evaluation of Systems Analysis in

Ecosystem Research and Management. Centre for Agric. Pub. Docum., Wageningen,

The Netherlands

4. Atmosoedaryo S and Wijayakusumah K (1979) Ecological aspects of agroforestry in

the lowland humid tropics: Southeast Asia. In: Chandler T and Spurgeon D (eds)

InternationalCooperation in Agroforestry, pp 117-128. ICRAF, Nairobi

5. Boonkird S-A, Fernandes ECM and Nair PKR (1984) Forest villages - an agro-

forestry approach to rehabilitating forest lands degraded by shifting cultivation in

Thailand. Agroforestry Systems 2:87-102

6. Bourke RM (1984) Food, coffee and Casuarina: an agroforestry system from the

Papua New Guinea highlands. Agroforestry Systems 2: 273- 27 9

7. Buck L (ed) (1981) Proceedings of the Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry.

November, 1980. ICRAF/Univ Nairobi, Nairobi

8. Budowski G (1981) An attempt to quantify some current agroforestry practices in

Costa Rica. In: Huxley PA (ed) Plant Research and Agroforestry, pp 43-62 .

ICRAF, Nairobi

9. Chandler T and Spurgeon D (eds) (1979) International Cooperation in Agroforestry.

Proceedings of ICRAF/DSE Conference. ICRAF, Nairobi

10. Combe J and Budowski G (1979) Classification of agroforestry techniques. In: de

las Salas (ed) Proceedings of the Workshop on Agroforestry Systems in Latin

America, pp 17-47. CATIE, Costa Rica

11. de las Salas G (ed) (1979) Proceedings of the Workshop on Agroforestry Systems in

Latin America. CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica

12. de Wit CT and J Goudrian (1974) Simulation of Ecological Processes. Centre for

Agric Pub Docum, Wageningen,The Netherlands

13. Editors (1982) What is agroforestry? Agroforestry Systems 1: 7-12

14. Evans PT and Romhold JS (1984) Paraiso Melia azedarach var. Gigante ) woodlots:

an agroforestry alternative for the small farmer in Paraguay. Agroforestry Systems

2:199-214

15. Food and Agriculture Organization (1981a) Agroforesterie Africaine. FAO, Rome

16. Food and Agriculture Organization (1981b) India and Sri Lanka: Agroforestry.

FAO, Rome


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a

a

a

A

b

z

a

p

C

d

a

a

r

c

C

o

o

m

o

a

T

m

g

n

s

A

n

a

m

n

a

E

e

o

o

u

m

c

o

q

m

E

h

n

v

u

n

A

n

a

m

n

a

E

h

n

p

g

a

I

n

p

A

b

z

a

p

nair 1985 classification of agro forestry systems

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