NapoleonFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation).

Napoleon I

Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres,

1806

Emperor of the French

Reign 18 May 1804 – 11 April 1814

20 March 1815 – 22 June 1815

Coronation 2 December 1804

Predecessor Himself as First Consul

Successor Louis XVIII (de jure in 1814)

King of Italy

Reign 17 March 1805 – 11 April 1814

Coronation 26 May 1805

Predecessor Himself as President of Italy

Successor None (kingdom disbanded, next king of Italy was Victor Emmanuel

II)

Spouse Joséphine de Beauharnais

Marie Louise of Austria

Issue

Napoleon II

Full name

Napoleon Bonaparte

House House of Bonaparte

Father Carlo Buonaparte

Mother Letizia Ramolino

Born 15 August 1769

Ajaccio, Corsica, France

Died 5 May 1821 (aged 51)

Longwood, Saint Helena

Burial Les Invalides, Paris, France

Signature

Religion Roman Catholicism (see Religions section)

Imperial Standard of Napoleon I

Napoleon Bonaparte (French: Napoléon Bonaparte [napoleɔ̃ bɔ̃nɑpaʁt], Italian:Napoleone Buonaparte; 15

August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter

stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars in Europe.

As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815, the first monarch of France bearing the title

emperor since the reign of Charles the Fat (881–887). His legal reform, the Napoleonic Code, has been a

major influence on many civil law jurisdictions worldwide, but he is best remembered for his role in the wars led

against France by a series of coalitions, the so-called Napoleonic Wars. He established hegemony over most

of continental Europe and sought to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, while consolidating an imperial

monarchy which restored aspects of the deposed Ancien Régime . Due to his success in these wars, often

against numerically superior enemies, he is generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of

all time, and his campaigns are studied at military academies worldwide.[1]

Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in Corsica in a family of noble Italian ancestry which had settled in Corsica in the

16th century. He trained as an artillery officer in mainland France. He rose to prominence under the French

First Republic and led successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions arrayed against France.

He led a successful invasion of the Italian peninsula.

In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later the French Senate

proclaimed him emperor, following a plebiscite in his favour. In the first decade of the 19th century, the French

Empire under Napoleon engaged in a series of conflicts—the Napoleonic Wars—that involved every major

European power.[1] After a streak of victories, France secured a dominant position in continental Europe, and

Napoleon maintained the French sphere of influence through the formation of extensive alliances and the

elevation of friends and family members to rule other European countries as French vassal states.

The Peninsular War and the invasion of Russia in 1812 marked turning points in Napoleon's fortunes.

His Grande Armée was badly damaged in the campaign and never fully recovered. In 1813, the Sixth

Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig; the following year the Coalition invaded France, forced Napoleon to

abdicate and exiled him to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he escaped Elba and returned to power,

but he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon spent the last six years of his life in

confinement by the British on the island of Saint Helena. An autopsy concluded he died of stomach cancer, but

there has been some debate about the cause of his death, as some scholars have speculated that he was a

victim of arsenic poisoning.

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Origins and education

2 Early career

o 2.1 Siege of Toulon

o 2.2 13 Vendémiaire

o 2.3 First Italian campaign

o 2.4 Egyptian expedition

3 Ruler of France

o 3.1 French Consulate

3.1.1 Temporary peace in Europe

o 3.2 French Empire

3.2.1 War of the Third Coalition

3.2.2 Middle-Eastern alliances

3.2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition

3.2.4 Peninsular War

3.2.5 War of the Fifth Coalition and remarriage

3.2.6 Invasion of Russia

3.2.7 War of the Sixth Coalition

3.2.8 Exile to Elba

3.2.9 Hundred Days

4 Exile on Saint Helena

o 4.1 Death

4.1.1 Cause of death

5 Reforms

o 5.1 Napoleonic Code

o 5.2 Metric system

6 Religions

o 6.1 Concordat

o 6.2 Religious emancipation

7 Personality

8 Image

9 Legacy

o 9.1 Warfare

o 9.2 Bonapartism

o 9.3 Criticism

o 9.4 Propaganda and memory

o 9.5 Legacy outside France

10 Marriages and children

11 Titles, styles, honours and arms

o 11.1 Titles and styles

o 11.2 Full titles

11.2.1 1804–1805

11.2.2 1805–1806

11.2.3 1806–1809

11.2.4 1809–1814

11.2.5 1815

12 Ancestry

13 Notes

14 Citations

15 References

16 External links

Origins and education

Napoleon's father, Carlo Buonaparte, was Corsica's representative to the court ofLouis XVI of France.

Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769 to Carlo Maria di Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino in his family's

ancestral home, Casa Buonaparte, in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica.[2] He was their fourth child and third son.

[2] This was a year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa.[3] He was

christened Napoleone di Buonaparte, probably named for an uncle (an older brother, who did not survive

infancy, was the first of the sons to be called Napoleone). In his twenties, he adopted the more French-

sounding Napoléon Bonaparte.[4][note 1]

The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin,[5][6][7][8] who had come to

Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century.[9][10]

His father, Nobile Carlo Buonaparte, an attorney, was named Corsica's representative to the court ofLouis

XVI in 1777. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Letizia Ramolino, whose firm

discipline restrained a rambunctious child.[11] Napoleon's maternal grandmother had married into the

Swiss Fesch family in her second marriage, and Napoleon's uncle, the later cardinalJoseph Fesch, would fulfill

the role as protector of the Bonaparte family for some years.

The nationalist Corsican leaderPasquale Paoli; portrait by Richard Cosway, 1798

He had an elder brother, Joseph; and younger siblings, Lucien,Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme. A

boy and girl were born before Joseph but died in infancy.[12] Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic just before

his second birthday, on 21 July 1771 atAjaccio Cathedral.[13]

Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background and family connections afforded him greater opportunities to

study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.[14] In January 1779, Napoleon was enrolled at a

religious school in Autun, in mainland France, to learn French. In May he was admitted to a military

academy at Brienne -le-Château .[15] He spoke with a marked Corsican accent and never learned to spell

properly.[16] Napoleon was teased by other students for his accent and applied himself to reading.[17] An

examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is

fairly well acquainted with history and geography... This boy would make an excellent sailor."[18][note 2]

On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Militaire  in Paris.

This ended his naval ambition, which had led him to consider an application to the BritishRoyal Navy.[20] He

trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete

the two-year course in one year.[21] He was the first Corsican to graduate from the École Militaire.[21] He had

been tested by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace, whom Napoleon later appointed to the Senate.[22]

Early career

Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican Republican volunteers

Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery

regiment.[15][note 3] He served on garrison duty in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution

in 1789, and took nearly two years' leave in Corsica and Paris during this period. A fervent Corsican nationalist,

Bonaparte wrote to the Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789:

As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning

the throne of liberty in waves of blood. Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me.[24]

He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists,

revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He supported the revolutionary Jacobin faction, gained the rank

of lieutenant colonel in the Corsican militia, and gained command over a battalion of volunteers. Despite

exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against a French army in Corsica, he was promoted to

captain in the regular army in July 1792.[25]

He returned to Corsica and came into conflict with Paoli, who had decided to split with France and sabotage

the French assault on the Sardinian island of La Maddalena in February 1793, where Bonaparte was one of the

expedition leaders.[26] Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split

with Paoli.[27]

Siege of Toulon

Main article: Siege of Toulon

In July 1793, he published a pro-republican pamphlet, Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire), which

gained him the admiration and support of Augustin Robespierre , younger brother of the Revolutionary

leader Maximilien Robespierre . With the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti, Bonaparte was

appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the siege of Toulon. The city had risen against

the republican government and was occupied by British troops.[28]

Bonaparte at the Siege of Toulon

He adopted a plan to capture a hill where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the

British ships to evacuate. The assault on the position, during which Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh, led to

the capture of the city. He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24. Catching the attention of

the Committee of Public Safety, he was put in charge of the artillery of France's Army of Italy.[29]

Whilst waiting for confirmation of this post, Napoleon spent time as inspector of coastal fortifications on the

Mediterranean coast near Marseille. He devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of France's

campaign against the First Coalition.[30] The commander of the Army of Italy, Pierre Jadart Dumerbion, had

seen too many generals executed for failing or for having the wrong political views. Therefore, he deferred to

the powerful représentants en mission , Augustin Robespierre and Saliceti, who in turn were ready to listen to

the freshly promoted artillery general.[31]

Carrying out Bonaparte's plan in the Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, the French army advanced north-east

along the Italian Riviera then turned north to seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea, they thrust west to

outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge. As a result, the coastal towns of Oneglia and Loano, as

well as the strategic Col de Tende (Tenda Pass), were taken by the French.[32] Later, Augustin Robespierre

sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine that country's intentions towards France.[30]

13 Vendémiaire

Main article: 13 Vendémiaire

Journée du 13 Vendémiaire. Artillery fire in front of the Church of Saint-Roch, Paris,Rue Saint-Honoré

Following the fall of the Robespierres in the Thermidorian Reaction  in July 1794, one account alleges that

Bonaparte was put under house arrest at Nice for his association with the brothers. Napoleon's

secretary, Bourrienne, disputed this allegation in his memoirs. According to Bourrienne, jealousy between the

Army of the Alps and the Army of Italy (with whom Napoleon was seconded at the time) was responsible.

[33] After an impassioned defense in a letter Bonaparte dispatched to representants Salicetti and Albitte, he was

acquitted of any wrongdoing.[34]

He was released within two weeks and, due to his technical skills, was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian

positions in the context of France's war with Austria. He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica

from the British, but the French were repulsed by the Royal Navy.[35]

Bonaparte became engaged to Désirée Clary , whose sister, Julie Clary, married Bonaparte's elder brother

Joseph; the Clarys were a wealthy merchant family from Marseilles.[36] In April 1795, he was assigned to

the Army of the West, which was engaged in the War in the Vendée—a civil war and royalist counter-

revolution in Vendée, a region in west central France, on the Atlantic Ocean. As an infantry command, it was a

demotion from artillery general—for which the army already had a full quota—and he pleaded poor health to

avoid the posting.[37]

He was moved to the Bureau of Topography of the Committee of Public Safety and sought, unsuccessfully, to

be transferred toConstantinople in order to offer his services to the Sultan.[38] During this period, he wrote a

romantic novella, Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own

relationship with Désirée.[39] On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular

service for his refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign. He faced a difficult financial situation and reduced

career prospects.[40]

On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention after they were excluded

from a new government, the Directory.[41] Paul Barras, a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction, knew of

Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the improvised forces in defence of the

Convention in the Tuileries Palace . Having seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard there three years

earlier, he realised artillery would be the key to its defence.[15]

He ordered a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, to seize large cannons and used them to repel the

attackers on 5 October 1795—13 Vendémiaire An IV in the French Republican Calendar. After 1,400 royalists

died, the rest fled.[41] He had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot", according to the 19th-century

historian Thomas Carlyle in The French Revolution: A History.[42]

The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden

fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory. Murat married one of his sisters and became his brother-

in-law; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals. Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the

Interior and given command of the Army of Italy.[27]

Within weeks he was romantically attached to Barras's former mistress, Joséphine de Beauharnais . They

married on 9 March 1796 after he had broken off his engagement to Désirée Clary.[43]

First Italian campaign

Main article: Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars

Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole, by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros, (ca. 1801), Musée du Louvre , Paris

Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy and led it on a

successful invasion of Italy. At the Battle of Lodi he defeated Austrian forces and drove them out ofLombardy.

[27] He was defeated at Caldiero by Austrian reinforcements, led by József Alvinczi , though Bonaparte regained

the initiative at the crucial Battle of the Bridge of Arcole and proceeded to subdue the Papal States.[44]

Bonaparte argued against the wishes of Directory atheists to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope as he

reasoned this would create a power vacuum which would be exploited by the Kingdom of Naples. Instead, in

March 1797, Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced it to negotiate peace.[45] The Treaty of Leoben gave

France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries, and a secret clause promised the Republic of

Venice to Austria. Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1,100 years of

independence; he also authorised the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark.[46]

His application of conventional military ideas to real-world situations effected his military triumphs, such as

creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his infantry. He referred to his tactics thus: "I have fought

sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the

first like the last."[47]

Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli, byPhilippoteaux

He was adept at espionage and deception and could win battles by concealment of troop deployments and

concentration of his forces on the 'hinge' of an enemy's weakened front. If he could not use his

favourite envelopment strategy, he would take up the central position and attack two co-operating forces at

their hinge, swing round to fight one until it fled, then turn to face the other.[48] In this Italian campaign,

Bonaparte's army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons and 170 standards.[49] The French army fought 67

actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte's tactics.[50]

During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics; he founded two

newspapers: one for the troops in his army and another for circulation in France.[51] The royalists attacked

Bonaparte for looting Italy and warned he might become a dictator.[52] Bonaparte sent General Pierre

Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'état and purge the royalists on 4 September — Coup of 18 Fructidor. This

left Barras and his Republican allies in control again but dependent on Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace

negotiations with Austria. These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Bonaparte returned

to Paris in December as a hero.[53] He met Talleyrand, France's new Foreign Minister—who would later serve in

the same capacity for Emperor Napoleon—and they began to prepare for an invasion of Britain.[27]

Egyptian expedition

Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria

Napoleon enters Alexandriaon 3 July 1798 by Guillaume-François Colson, 1800

Napoleon Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, (ca. 1868) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, Hearst Castle

Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 by Louis-François, Baron Lejeune, 1808

After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided France's naval power was not yet strong enough to confront

the Royal Navy in the English Channel and proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby

undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India.[27] Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in

the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with a Muslim enemy of the British in India, Tipu Sultan .[54]

Napoleon assured the Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the

Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."[55]According to a report written

in February 1798 by Talleyrand: "Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men

from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib and drive away the English."[55] The Directory agreed in

order to secure a trade route to India.[56]

In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. His Egyptian expedition

included a group of 167 scientists: mathematicians, naturalists, chemists and geodesistsamong them; their

discoveries included the Rosetta Stone, and their work was published in theDescription de l'Égypte in 1809.[57]

En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Malta on 9 June 1798, then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller. The

two-hundred Knights of French origin did not support the Grand Master,Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim ,

who had succeeded a Frenchman, and made it clear they would not fight against their compatriots. Hompesch

surrendered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three

men.[58]

General Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and on 1 July landed at Alexandria.

[27] He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks, Egypt's ruling military caste. This helped the

French practice their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids, fought on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi)

from the pyramids. General Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks' Egyptian

cavalry, but he formed hollow squares with supplies kept safely inside. Twenty-nine French[59] and

approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed. The victory boosted the morale of the French army.[60]

On 1 August, the British fleet under Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two French vessels in

the Battle of the Nile, and Bonaparte's goal of a strengthened French position in the Mediterranean was

frustrated.[61] His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced

repeated uprisings.[62] In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus

(Syria and Galilee). Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns

of Arish, Gaza, Jaffa, andHaifa.[63] The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal: Bonaparte, on discovering many

of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, ordered the garrison and 1,400 prisoners

to be executed by bayonet or drowning to save bullets.[61] Men, women and children were robbed and murdered

for three days.[64]

With his army weakened by disease—mostly bubonic plague—and poor supplies, Bonaparte was unable

to reduce the fortress of Acreand returned to Egypt in May.[61] To speed up the retreat, he ordered plague-

stricken men to be poisoned.[65] (However, British eyewitness accounts later showed that most of the men were

still alive and had not been poisoned.) His supporters have argued this was necessary given the continued

harassment of stragglers by Ottoman forces, and indeed those left behind alive were tortured and beheaded by

the Ottomans. Back in Egypt, on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir.[66]

Ruler of France

Main articles: 18 Brumaire and Napoleonic era

General Bonaparte surrounded by members of the Council of Five Hundred during the 18 Brumaire coup d'état, byFrançois

Bouchot

While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs through irregular delivery of newspapers and

dispatches. He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in theWar of the Second Coalition.[67] On

24 August 1799, he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and

set sail for France, despite the fact he had received no explicit orders from Paris.[61] The army was left in the

charge of Jean Baptiste Kléber.[68]

Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him orders to return to ward off possible invasions of French

soil, but poor lines of communication prevented the delivery of these messages.[67] By the time he reached

Paris in October, France's situation had been improved by a series of victories. The Republic was, however,

bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population.[69] The Directory discussed

Bonaparte's "desertion" but was too weak to punish him.[67]

Bonaparte was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, to solicit his support in a coup

to overthrow the constitutional government. The leaders of the plot included his brother Lucien; the speaker of

the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos; another Director, Joseph Fouché; and Talleyrand. On 9 November

(18 Brumaire by the French Republican Calendar) Bonaparte was charged with the safety of the legislative

councils, who were persuaded to relocate to the Château de Saint-Cloud, to the west of Paris, after the plotters

spread rumours of an imminent Jacobin insurrection.[70] By the following day, the deputies realised that in fact

they were the victims of a coup. Bonaparte led troops to seize control and disperse them, which left a rump

legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government.[61]

French Consulate

Main articles: French Consulate and War of the Second Coalition

Though Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, he was outmanoeuvred by Bonaparte, who drafted

the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul, and he took up residence at the

Tuileries.[71] This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France.[61] The constitution was approved in a

plebiscite held the following January, with 99.94 percent officially listed as voting "yes"—an implausibly high

result that could have only been obtained through fraud.

In 1800, Bonaparte and his troops crossed the Alps into Italy, where French forces had been almost completely

driven out by the Austrians whilst he was in Egypt.[note 4] The campaign began badly for the French after

Bonaparte made strategic errors; one force was left besieged at Genoa but managed to hold out and thereby

occupy Austrian resources.[73] This effort, and French general Louis Desaix's timely reinforcements, allowed

Bonaparte narrowly to avoid defeat and to triumph over the Austrians in June at the significantBattle of

Marengo.[74]

Bonaparte's brother Joseph led the peace negotiations in Lunéville and reported that Austria, emboldened by

British support, would not recognise France's newly gained territory. As negotiations became increasingly

fractious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreauto strike Austria once more. Moreau led France to

victory at Hohenlinden. As a result, the Treaty of Lunéville was signed in February 1801; the French gains of

the Treaty of Campo Formio were reaffirmed and increased.[74]

Temporary peace in Europe

See also: Haitian Revolution

Bonaparte, First Consul, byJean Auguste Dominique Ingres

Both France and Britain had become tired of war and signed the Treaty of Amiens in October 1801 and March

1802. This called for the withdrawal of British troops from most colonial territories it had recently occupied.

[73] Bolstered by this treaty, Napoleon was made First Consul for life in a 10 May plebiscite, with an implausible

99.76 percent voting in favour.

The peace was uneasy and short-lived. Britain did not evacuate Malta as promised and protested against

Bonaparte's annexation of Piedmont and his Act of Mediation, which established a newSwiss Confederation,

though neither of these territories were covered by the treaty.[75] The dispute culminated in a declaration of war

by Britain in May 1803, and he reassembled the invasion camp at Boulogne.[61]

Bonaparte faced a major setback and eventual defeat in the Haitian Revolution. By the Law of 20 May

1802 Bonaparte re-established slavery in France's colonial possessions, where it had been banned following

the Revolution.[76] Following a slave revolt, he sent an army to reconquer Saint-Domingueand establish a base.

The force was, however, destroyed by yellow fever and fierce resistance led by Haitian generals Toussaint

Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Faced by imminent war against Britain and bankruptcy, he

recognised French possessions on the mainland of North America would be indefensible and sold them to the

United States—the Louisiana Purchase—for less than three cents per acre (7.4 cents per hectare).[77]

French Empire

Main article: First French Empire

See also: Coronation of Napoleon I and Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon faced royalist and Jacobin plots as France's ruler, including the Conspiration des poignards  (Dagger

plot) in October 1800 and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as the infernal machine) two months

later.[78] In January 1804, his police uncovered an assassination plot against him which involved Moreau and

which was ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbon former rulers of France. On the advice of Talleyrand,

Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien, in violation of neighbouring Baden's

sovereignty. After a secret trial the Duke was executed, even though he had not been involved in the plot.[79]

The Coronation of Napoleon byJacques-Louis David in 1804

Napoleon used the plot to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as emperor,

as a Bourbon restoration would be more difficult if the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the

constitution.[80] Napoleon was elected as "Emperor of the French" in a plebiscite held in November. As before,

this vote was implausibly lopsided, with 99.93 percent officially voting yes.

He was crowned by Pope Pius VII as Napoleon I, on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris and then

crowned Joséphine Empress. The story that Napoleon seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII

during the ceremony to avoid his subjugation to the authority of the pontiff is apocryphal; the coronation

procedure had been agreed in advance.[note 5] [81] Ludwig van Beethoven , a long-time admirer, was disappointed

at this turn towards imperialism and scratched his dedication to Napoleon from his 3rd Symphony.[80]

At Milan Cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. He

created eighteenMarshals of the Empire from amongst his top generals, to secure the allegiance of the army.

War of the Third Coalition

Main article: War of the Third Coalition

Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by François Gérard1805. The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three

Emperors, was Napoleon's greatest victory, where theFrench Empire effectively crushed the Third Coalition.

Great Britain broke the Peace of Amiens and declared war on France in May 1803. Napoleon set up a camp

at Boulogne-sur-Mer to prepare for an invasion of Britain. By 1805, Britain had convinced Austria and Russia to

join a Third Coalition against France. Napoleon knew the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy in a

head-to-head battle and planned to lure it away from the English Channel.[82]

The French Navy would escape from the British blockades of Toulon and Brest and threaten to attack the West

Indies, thus drawing off the British defence of the Western Approaches, in the hope a Franco-Spanish fleet

could take control of the channel long enough for French armies to cross from Boulogne and invade England.

[82] However, after defeat at the naval Battle of Cape Finisterre in July 1805 and Admiral Villeneuve's retreat to

Cádiz, invasion was never again a realistic option for Napoleon.[83]

As the Austrian army marched on Bavaria, he called the invasion of Britain off and ordered the army stationed

at Boulogne, his Grande Armée, to march to Germany secretly in a turning movement—the Ulm Campaign.

This encircled the Austrian forces about to attack France and severed their lines of communication. On 20

October 1805, the French captured 30,000 prisoners at Ulm, though the next day Britain's victory at the Battle

of Trafalgar meant the Royal Navy gained control of the seas.[84]

Six weeks later, on the first anniversary of his coronation, Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz.

This ended the Third Coalition, and he commissioned the Arc de Triomphe to commemorate the victory. Austria

had to concede territory; the Peace of Pressburg led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and creation

of the Confederation of the Rhine with Napoleon named as itsProtector.[84]

Napoleon would go on to say, "The battle of Austerlitz is the finest of all I have fought."[85] Frank McLynn

suggests Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz he lost touch with reality, and what used to be French

foreign policy became a "personal Napoleonic one".[86] Vincent Cronin  disagrees, stating Napoleon was not

overly ambitious for himself, that "he embodied the ambitions of thirty million Frenchmen".[87]

Middle-Eastern alliances

Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-Persian alliance

The Persian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini meets with Napoleon I atFinckenstein Palace, 27 April 1807,

byFrançois Mulard

Even after the failed campaign in Egypt, Napoleon continued to entertain a grand scheme to establish a French

presence in the Middle East.[54] An alliance with Middle-Eastern powers would have the strategic advantage of

pressuring Russia on its southern border. From 1803, Napoleon went to considerable lengths to try to convince

the Ottoman Empire to fight against Russia in the Balkans and join his anti-Russian coalition.[88]

Napoleon sent General Horace Sebastiani as envoy extraordinary, promising to help the Ottoman Empire

recover lost territories.[88] In February 1806, following Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz and the ensuing

dismemberment of the Habsburg Empire, the Ottoman EmperorSelim III finally recognised Napoleon as

Emperor, formally opting for an alliance with France"our sincere and natural ally", and war with Russia and

England.[89]

A Franco-Persian alliance was also formed, from 1807 to 1809, between Napoleon and thePersian

Empire of Fat′h -Ali Shah Qajar , against Russia and Great Britain. The alliance ended when France allied with

Russia and turned its focus to European campaigns.[54]

War of the Fourth Coalition

Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition

The Treaties of Tilsit: Napoleon meeting with Alexander I of Russia on a raft in the middle of the Neman River

The Fourth Coalition was assembled in 1806, and Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in

October.[90] He marched against advancing Russian armies through Poland and was involved in the bloody

stalemate of the Battle of Eylau on 6 February 1807.[91]

After a decisive victory at Friedland, he signed the Treaties of Tilsit; one with Tsar Alexander I of Russia which

divided the continent between the two powers; the other with Prussia which stripped that country of half its

territory. Napoleon placed puppet rulers on the thrones ofGerman states, including his brother Jérôme as king

of the new Kingdom of Westphalia. In the French-controlled part of Poland, he established the Duchy of

Warsaw with KingFrederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler.[92]

With his Milan and Berlin Decrees, Napoleon attempted to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain

called the Continental System. This act of economic warfare did not succeed, as it encouraged British

merchants to smuggle into continental Europe, and Napoleon's exclusively land-based customs enforcers

could not stop them.[93]

Peninsular War

Main article: Peninsular War

Portugal did not comply with the Continental System, so in 1807 Napoleon invaded with the support of Spain.

Under the pretext of a reinforcement of the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, Napoleon invaded Spain

as well, replaced Charles IV with his brother Joseph and placed his brother-in-law Joachim Murat in Joseph's

stead at Naples. This led to resistance from the Spanish army and civilians in the Dos de Mayo Uprising.[94]

Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, as King of Spain

In Spain, Napoleon faced a new type of war, termed a guerrilla or little war, in which the local population,

inspired by religion and patriotism, was heavily involved. The French had to contend not only with the Spanish-

allied regular armies, but also opposition by the local populace via various types of low intensity conflict such as

ambushes, sabotage and armed uprisings.

Following a French retreat from much of the country, Napoleon took command and defeated theSpanish Army.

He retook Madrid, then outmanoeuvred a British army sent to support the Spanish and drove it to the coast.

[95] Before the Spanish population had been fully subdued, Austria again threatened war, and Napoleon

returned to France.[96]

The costly and often brutal Peninsular War continued in Napoleon's absence; in the second Siege of

Zaragoza most of the city was destroyed and over 50,000 people perished.[97] Although Napoleon left 300,000

of his finest troops to battle Spanish guerrillas as well as British and Portuguese forces commanded by Arthur

Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, French control over the peninsula again deteriorated.[98]

Following several allied victories, the war concluded after Napoleon's abdication in 1814.[99] Napoleon later

described the Peninsular War as central to his final defeat, writing in his memoirs "That unfortunate war

destroyed me... All... my disasters are bound up in that fatal knot."[100]

War of the Fifth Coalition and remarriage

Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition

Napoleon at Wagram, painted by Horace Vernet

In April 1809, Austria abruptly broke its alliance with France, and Napoleon was forced to assume command of

forces on the Danube and German fronts. After early successes, the French faced difficulties in crossing

the Danube and suffered a defeat in May at the Battle of Aspern-Essling near Vienna. The Austrians failed to

capitalise on the situation and allowed Napoleon's forces to regroup. He defeated the Austrians again

at Wagram, and the Treaty of Schönbrunn was signed between Austria and France.[101]

Britain was the other member of the coalition. In addition to the Iberian Peninsula, the British planned to open

another front in mainland Europe. However, Napoleon was able to rush reinforcements to Antwerp, owing to

Britain's inadequately organised Walcheren Campaign.[102]

He concurrently annexed the Papal States because of the Church's refusal to support the Continental System;

Pope Pius VII responded by excommunicating the emperor. The pope was then abducted by Napoleon's

officers, and though Napoleon had not ordered his abduction, he did not order Pius' release. The pope was

moved throughout Napoleon's territories, sometimes while ill, and Napoleon sent delegations to pressure him

on issues including agreement to a new concordat with France, which Pius refused. In 1810 Napoleon

married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, following his divorce of Joséphine; this further strained his

relations with the Church, and thirteen cardinals were imprisoned for non-attendance at the marriage

ceremony.[103] The pope remained confined for 5 years and did not return to Rome until May 1814.[104]

First French Empire at its greatest extent in 1811

  French Empire

  French satellite states

  Allied states

In November 1810, Napoleon consented to the ascent to the Swedish throne of Bernadotte, one of

his marshals, with whom Napoleon had always had strained relations. Napoleon had indulged Bernadotte's

indiscretions because he was married to Désirée Clary , his former fiancée and sister of the wife of his

brother Joseph. Napoleon came to regret accepting this appointment when Bernadotte later allied Sweden with

France's enemies.[105]

Invasion of Russia

Main article: French invasion of Russia

The Moscow fire depicted by an unknown German artist

The Congress of Erfurt sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, and the leaders had a friendly personal

relationship after their first meeting at Tilsit in 1807.[106] By 1811, however, tensions had increased and

Alexander was under pressure from the Russian nobility to break off the alliance. An early sign the relationship

had deteriorated was the Russian's virtual abandonment of the Continental System, which led Napoleon to

threaten Alexander with serious consequences if he formed an alliance with Britain.[107]

By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture

of Poland. On receipt of intelligence reports on Russia's war preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande

Armée to more than 450,000 men.[108] He ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the Russian heartland

and prepared for an offensive campaign; on 23 June 1812 the invasion commenced.[109]

Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, a painting by Adolph Northen

In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war

the Second Polish War—the First Polish War had been the Bar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against

Russia in 1768. Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of Poland to be joined with the Duchy of Warsaw and

an independent Poland created. This was rejected by Napoleon, who stated he had promised his ally Austria

this would not happen. Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs because of concerns this might

provoke a reaction in his army's rear. The serfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during

France's retreat.[110]

The Russians avoided Napoleon's objective of a decisive engagement and instead retreated deeper into

Russia. A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk in August; the Russians were defeated in a series

of battles, and Napoleon resumed his advance. The Russians again avoided battle, although in a few cases

this was only achieved because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated to attack when the opportunity arose.

Owing to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the French found it increasingly difficult to forage food for

themselves and their horses.[111]

The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September: the Battle of Borodino resulted in

approximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead, wounded or captured, and may have been the

bloodiest day of battle in history up to that point in time.[112] Although the French had won, the Russian army

had accepted, and withstood, the major battle Napoleon had hoped would be decisive. Napoleon's own

account was: "The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow. The French showed themselves

to be worthy of victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of being invincible."[113]

The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow. Napoleon entered the city, assuming its fall would end

the war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's governor Feodor Rostopchin,

rather than capitulation, Moscow was burned. After a month, concerned about loss of control back in France,

Napoleon and his army left.[114]

The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat, including from the harshness of the Russian

Winter. The Armée had begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed

the Berezina River in November 1812.[115] The Russians had lost 150,000 in battle and hundreds of thousands

of civilians.[116]

War of the Sixth Coalition

Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition

Adieux de Napoléon à la Garde impériale dans la cour du Cheval-Blanc du château de Fontainebleau [Napoleon's farewell

to the Imperial Guard in the White Horse courtyard of the Palace of Fontainebleau] – on 20 April 1814; by Antoine Alphonse

Montfort, Palace of Versailles national museum

There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812–13 while both the Russians and the French rebuilt their

forces; Napoleon was then able to field 350,000 troops.[117] Heartened by France's loss in Russia, Prussia

joined with Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal in a new coalition. Napoleon assumed

command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Coalition culminating in the Battle of Dresden in

August 1813.[118]

Despite these successes, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon, and the French army was pinned

down by a force twice its size and lost at the Battle of Leipzig. This was by far the largest battle of the

Napoleonic Wars and cost more than 90,000 casualties in total.[119]

Napoleon withdrew back into France, his army reduced to 70,000 soldiers and 40,000 stragglers, against more

than three times as many Allied troops.[120] The French were surrounded: British armies pressed from the south,

and other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the German states. Napoleon won a series of victories in

the Six Days' Campaign, though these were not significant enough to turn the tide; Paris was captured by the

Coalition in March 1814.[121]

On 2 April, the Sénat conservateur  passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur ("Emperor's Demise Act"),

which declared Napoleon deposed. Napoleon had advanced as far as Fontainebleau when he learned that

Paris had surrendered. When Napoleon proposed the army march on the capital, his marshals decided to

mutiny.[122] On 4 April, led by Ney, they confronted Napoleon. Napoleon asserted the army would follow him,

and Ney replied the army would follow its generals. Bowing to the inevitable, on 4 April he abdicated in favour

of his son, with Marie-Louise as regent. However, the Allies refused to accept this under prodding from

Alexander, who suggested that Napoleon might find an excuse to retake the throne. Bowing to the inevitable,

Napoleon was forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two days later.

Exile to Elba

British etching from 1814 in celebration of Napoleon's first exile to Elba at the close of the War of the Sixth Coalition

The Allied Powers having declared that Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the restoration of peace in

Europe, Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the

thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, which he is not ready to

do in the interests of France.

Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April 1814.

—Act of abdication of Napoleon[123]

In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the victors exiled him to Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the

Mediterranean, 20 km (12 mi) off the Tuscan coast. They gave him sovereignty over the island and allowed him

to retain his title of emperor. Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill he had carried since a near-capture by

Russians on the retreat from Moscow. Its potency had weakened with age, and he survived to be exiled while

his wife and son took refuge in Austria.[124] In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army,

developed the iron mines, and issued decrees on modern agricultural methods.[125]

Hundred Days

Main article: Hundred Days

Napoleon returned from Elba, by Karl Stenben, 19th century

Separated from his wife and son, who had come under Austrian control, cut off from the allowance guaranteed

to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in

the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon escaped from Elba on 26 February 1815. He landed at Golfe -Juan  on the French

mainland, two days later.[126]

The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815.

Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse and, when he was within gunshot range,

shouted, "Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if you wish."[127]

The soldiers responded with, "Vive L'Empereur!" and marched with Napoleon to Paris; Louis XVIII fled. On 13

March, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw, and four days later Great Britain,

Russia, Austria, and Prussia bound themselves to each put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule.[128]

Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days. By the start of

June the armed forces available to him had reached 200,000, and he decided to go on the offensive to attempt

to drive a wedge between the oncoming British and Prussian armies. The French Army of the North crossed

the frontier into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, in modern-day Belgium.[129]

Napoleon's forces fought the allies, led by Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , at the Battle of

Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from

the field while the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank. Napoleon was defeated

because he had to fight two armies with one, attacking an army in an excellent defensive position through wet

and muddy terrain.

His poor health that day may have affected his presence and vigour on the field, added to the fact that his

subordinates may have let him down. Despite this, Napoleon came very close to victory. Outnumbered, the

French army left the battlefield in disorder.

Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both the legislature and the people had turned violently on him.

Realizing that his position was untenable, he abdicated on 22 June in favour of his son. He left Paris three days

later and settled at Josephine's former home inMalmaison. Coalition forces swept into France soon afterward,

intent on restoring Louis XVIII to the French throne.

When Napoleon got word that Prussian troops had orders to capture him dead or alive, he fled to Rochefort,

intending to escape to the United States. However, with British ships blocking every port to prevent his escape,

Napoleon formally demanded political asylum from the British Captain Frederick

Maitland on HMS   Bellerophon  on 15 July 1815.[130]

Exile on Saint Helena

Napoleon on Saint Helena

Napoleon was imprisoned and then exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km

(1,162 mi) from the west coast of Africa. In his first two months there, he lived in a pavilion on the Briars estate,

which belonged to a William Balcombe. Napoleon became friendly with his family, especially his younger

daughter Lucia Elizabeth who later wrote Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon.[131] This friendship ended in

1818 when British authorities became suspicious that Balcombe had acted as an intermediary between

Napoleon and Paris and dismissed him from the island.[132]

Napoleon moved to Longwood House in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was

damp, windswept and unhealthy. The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to

hasten his death, and he often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his

custodian, Hudson Lowe.[133]

With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirs and criticised his captors—particularly Lowe.

Lowe's treatment of Napoleon is regarded as poor by historians such as Frank McLynn.[134] Lowe exacerbated a

difficult situation through measures including a reduction in Napoleon's expenditure, a rule that no gifts could

be delivered to him if they mentioned his imperial status, and a document his supporters had to sign that

guaranteed they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely.[134]

Longwood House, Saint Helena: site of Napoleon's captivity

In 1818, The Times reported a false rumour of Napoleon's escape and said the news had been greeted by

spontaneous illuminations in London.[note 6] There was sympathy for him in the British Parliament: Lord

Holland gave a speech which demanded the prisoner be treated with no unnecessary harshness.[136] Napoleon

kept himself informed of the events throughThe Times and hoped for release in the event that Holland became

prime minister. He also enjoyed the support of Lord Cochrane, who was involved in Chile's and Brazil's struggle

for independence and wanted to rescue Napoleon and help him set up a new empire in South America, a

scheme frustrated by Napoleon's death in 1821.[137]

There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled soldiers from

the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to

rescue him with a primitive submarine.[138] For Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the

persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also

appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.[139]

Death

Further information: Napoleon's Death Mask and Retour des cendres

Napoleon's funeral carriage passes along the Champs-Élysées, engraving by Louis-Julien Jacottet after a drawing by Louis

Marchand

His personal physician, Barry O'Meara, warned the authorities of his declining state of health mainly caused,

according to him, by the harsh treatment of the captive in the hands of his "gaoler", Lowe, which led Napoleon

to confine himself for months in his damp and wretched habitation of Longwood. O'Meara kept a clandestine

correspondence with a clerk at the Admiralty in London, knowing his letters were read by higher authorities: he

hoped, in such way, to raise alarm in the government, but to no avail.[140]

In February 1821, Napoleon's health began to fail rapidly, and on 3 May two British physicians, who had

recently arrived, attended on him but could only recommend palliatives.[141] He died two days later, after

confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali.[141] His last words were,

"France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine." ("France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.")[141]

Napoleon's original death mask was created around 6 May, though it is not clear which doctor created it.[142][note

7] In his will, he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he should be

buried on St. Helena, in the Valley of the Willows. Hudson Lowe insisted the inscription should read "Napoleon

Bonaparte"; Montholon and Bertrand wanted the Imperial title "Napoleon" as royalty were signed by their first

names only. As a result the tomb was left nameless.[141]

Napoleon's tomb at Les Invalides

In 1840, Louis Philippe I obtained permission from the British to return Napoleon's remains to France. The

remains were transported aboard the frigate Belle-Poule, which had been painted black for the occasion, and

on 29 November she arrived in Cherbourg. The remains were transferred to the steamship Normandie, which

transported them to Le Havre, up the Seine to Rouen and on to Paris.[144]

On 15 December, a state funeral was held. The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down

the Champs-Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalidesand then to the cupola in

St Jérôme's Chapel, where it stayed until the tomb designed byLouis Visconti was completed. In 1861,

Napoleon's remains were entombed in a porphyrysarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides.[144]

Cause of death

Napoleon's physician, François Carlo Antommarchi, led the autopsy, which found the cause of death to

be stomach cancer. Antommarchi did not, however, sign the official report.[145] Napoleon's father had died of

stomach cancer, though this was seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy.[146] Antommarchi found

evidence of a stomach ulcer, and it was the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted to avoid

criticism over their care of the emperor.[141]

Napoléon sur son lit de mort (Napoleon on his death bed), by Horace Vernet, 1826

In 1955, the diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchand, appeared in print. His description of Napoleon in the

months before his death led Sten Forshufvud  to put forward other causes for his death, including

deliberate arsenic poisoning, in a 1961 paper in Nature.[147] Arsenic was used as a poison during the era

because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. Forshufvud, in a 1978 book with Ben

Weider, noted the emperor's body was found to be remarkably well-preserved when moved in 1840. Arsenic is

a strong preservative, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothesis. Forshufvud and Weider observed

that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking high levels of orgeat syrup that contained

cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring.[147]

They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expulsion of

these compounds and that the thirst was a symptom of the poison. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given

to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left behind extensive tissue damage.[147] A 2007 article

stated the type of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts was mineral type, the most toxic, and according to

toxicologist Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion his death was murder.[148]

The wallpaper used in Longwood contained a high level of arsenic compound used for dye by British

manufacturers. The adhesive, which in the cooler British environment was innocuous, may have grown mould

in the more humid climate and emitted the poisonous gas arsine. This theory has been ruled out, as it does not

explain the arsenic absorption patterns found in other analyses.[147]

There have been modern studies which have supported the original autopsy finding.[148] Researchers, in a 2008

study, analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, and from his family and other

contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current

average. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a

boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were

constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives.[note 8] Studies published in 2007 and

2008 dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning, and confirmed evidence of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as

the cause of death.[150]

Reforms

Bonaparte instituted lasting reforms, including higher education, a tax code, road and sewer systems, and

established the Banque de France  (central bank). He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic

Church, which sought to reconcile the mostly Catholic population to his regime. It was presented alongside

the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. Later that year, Bonaparte became President of

the French Academy of Sciences and appointed Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre its Permanent Secretary.[57]

In May 1802, he instituted the Legion of Honour, a substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of

chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements; the order is still the highest decoration in France.

[151] His powers were increased by the Constitution of the Year X including: Article 1. The French people name,

and the Senate proclaims Napoleon-Bonaparte First Consul for Life.[152] After this he was generally referred to

as Napoleon rather than Bonaparte.[23]

Napoleon's set of civil laws, the Code Civil—now often known as the Napoleonic Code—was prepared by

committees of legal experts under the supervision of Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, the Second Consul.

Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of theCouncil of State that revised the drafts. The development

of the code was a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly

written and accessible law. Other codes ("Les cinq codes") were commissioned by Napoleon to codify criminal

and commerce law; a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, which enacted rules of due process.

[153] See Legacy.

Napoleonic Code

Main article: Napoleonic Code

First page of the 1804 original edition of the Code Civil

The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of Europe, though only in the lands he conquered, and

remained in force after Napoleon's defeat. Napoleon said: "My true glory is not to have won 40

battles...Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. ... But...what will live forever, is my Civil

Code."[154] The Code still has importance today in a quarter of the world's jurisdictions including in Europe, the

Americas and Africa.[155]

Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development

of bourgeois society in Germany by the extension of the right to own property and an acceleration towards the

end of feudalism. Napoleon reorganised what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of more than a

thousand entities, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine; this provided the basis for

the German Confederationand the unification of Germany in 1871.[156]

The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule.[157] These

changes contributed to the development of nationalism and the nation state.[158]

Metric system

Main articles: History of the metric system, Mesures usuelles , and Units of measurement in France

The official introduction of the metric system in September 1799 was unpopular in large sections of French

society, and Napoleon's rule greatly aided adoption of the new standard across not only France but the

French sphere of influence. Napoleon ultimately took a retrograde step in 1812 when he passed legislation to

introduce the mesures usuelles  (traditional units of measurement) for retail trade[159]—a system of measure that

resembled the pre-revolutionary units but were based on the kilogram and the metre; for example the livre

metrique (metric pound) was 500 g[160] instead of 489.5 g—the value of the livre du roi (the king's pound).

[161] Other units of measure were rounded in a similar manner. This however laid the foundations for the

definitive introduction of the metric system across Europe in the middle of the 19th century.[162]

Religions

Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church

Napoleon's baptism took place in Ajaccio on 21 July 1771; he was piously raised and received a Christian

education; however, his teachers failed to give faith to the young boy.[163] As an adult, Napoleon was described

as a "deist with involuntary respect and fondness for Catholicism."[164] He never believed in a living God;

Napoleon's deity was an absent and distant God,[163] but he pragmatically considered organised religions as key

elements of social order,[163] and especially Catholicism, whose, according to him, "splendorous ceremonies

and sublime moral better act over the imagination of the people than other religions".[163]

Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine de Beauharnais, without religious ceremony, on 9 March 1796.

During the campaign in Egypt, Napoleon showed much tolerance towards religion for a revolutionary general,

holding discussions with Muslim scholars and ordering religious celebrations, but General Dupuy, who

accompanied Napoleon, revealed, shortly after Pope Pius VI's death, the political reasons for such behaviour:

"We are fooling Egyptians with our pretended interest for their religion; neither Bonaparte nor we believe in this

religion more than we did in Pius the Defunct's one".[note 9] In his memoirs, Bonaparte's

secretary Bourienne wrote about Napoleon's religious interests in the same vein.[166] His religious opportunism

is epitomized in his famous quote: "It is by making myself Catholic that I brought peace to Brittany and Vendée.

It is by making myself Italian that I won minds in Italy. It is by making myself a Moslem that I established myself

in Egypt. If I governed a nation of Jews, I should reestablish the Temple of Solomon."[167]However, according

to Juan Cole, "Bonaparte's admiration for the Prophet Muhammad, in contrast, was genuine".[168]

Napoleon was crowned Emperor Napoleon I on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris by Pope Pius VII.

On 1 April 1810, Napoleon religiously married the Austrian princess Marie Louise. During his brother's rule in

Spain, he abolished the Spanish Inquisition in 1813. In a private discussion with general Gourgaud during his

exile on Saint Helena, Napoleon expressed materialistic views on the origin of man,[note 10]and doubted

the divinity of Jesus, stating that it is absurd to believe that Socrates, Plato, Muslims, and the Anglicansshould

be damned for not being Roman Catholics.[note 11] He also said to Gourgaud in 1817 "I like the Mohammedan

religion best. It has fewer incredible things in it than ours."[171] and that "the Mohammedan religion is the finest

of all".[172] However, Napoleon wasanointed by a priest before his death.[173]

Concordat

Further information: Concordat of 1801

Leaders of the Catholic Church taking the civil oath required by the Concordat

Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics, the Concordat of 1801 was signed on 15

July 1801 between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church

of France and brought back most of its civil status.

During the French Revolution, the National Assembly had taken Church properties and issued the Civil

Constitution of the Clergy, which made the Church a department of the State, removing it from the authority of

the Pope. This caused hostility among the Vendeanstowards the change in the relationship between the

Catholic Church and the French government. Subsequent laws abolished the traditional Gregorian

calendar and Christian holidays.

While the Concordat restored some ties to the papacy, it was largely in favor of the state; the balance of

church-state relations had tilted firmly in Napoleon's favour. Now, Napoleon could win favor with the Catholics

within France while also controlling Rome in a political sense. Napoleon once told his brother Lucien in April

1801, "Skillful conquerors have not got entangled with priests. They can both contain them and use

them."[174] As a part of the Concordat, he presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles.

Religious emancipation

Further information: Napoleon and the Jews

Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries,

from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers.

Despite the anti-semitic reaction to Napoleon's policies from foreign governments and within France, he

believed emancipation would benefit France by attracting Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced

elsewhere.[175]

He stated, "I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to

me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. It takes weakness to chase them out of the

country, but it takes strength to assimilate them."[176]He was seen as so favourable to the Jews that the Russian

Orthodox Church formally condemned him as "Antichrist and the Enemy of God".[177]

Personality

All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence. Although not

physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly

bent the strongest leaders to his will.[178] Second, his intellectual powers were unrivaled.[179] He had

a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units, and maps. He devoured statistical

information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He

understood military technology, but was not an innovator in that regard.[180] He was an innovator in using the

financial, bureaucratic, and diplomatic resources of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that

information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly

dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was

expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead.

Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals,

Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whomever did in a similar situation.

Critics said he won many battles simply because of luck; Napoleon responded, "Give me lucky generals,"

aware that "luck" comes to leaders who recognize opportunity, and seize it.[181] After 1812, Napoleon seems to

have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to

the occasion. After that débâcle, compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a

physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general.[179]

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding

generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great

wars.[182] Above all he inspired his men—Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000

soldiers,[183] for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personalities neutralized

material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely

win.[184]

Image

Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon

Napoleon is often represented in his green colonel uniform of theChasseur à Cheval, with a largebicorne and a hand-in-

waistcoatgesture.

Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon who symbolises military genius and political power.Martin van

Creveld described him as "the most competent human being who ever lived".[185] Since his death, many towns,

streets, ships, and even cartoon characters have been named after him. He has been portrayed in hundreds of

films and discussed in hundreds of thousands of books and articles.[186]

During the Napoleonic Wars he was taken seriously by the British press as a dangerous tyrant, poised to

invade. He was often referred to by the British as Boney. A nursery rhyme warned children that Bonaparte

ravenously ate naughty people; the "bogeyman".[187] The British Tory press sometimes depicted Napoleon as

much smaller than average height, and this image persists. Confusion about his height also results from the

difference between the French pouce and British inch—2.71 and 2.54 cm, respectively; he was about 1.7 m

(5'7") tall, above average height for the period.[note 12][189]

In 1908 Alfred Adler, a psychologist, cited Napoleon to describe an inferiority complex in which short people

adopt an over-aggressive behaviour to compensate for lack of height; this inspired the termNapoleon complex.

[190] The stock character of Napoleon is a comically short "petty tyrant" and this has become a cliché in popular

culture. He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne hat with a hand-in-waistcoat gesture—a reference to the

painting produced in 1812 by Jacques-Louis David.[191]

Legacy

Warfare

Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare and Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte

Statue in Cherbourg-Octevilleunveiled by Napoleon III in 1858. Napoleon I strengthened the town's defences to prevent

British naval incursions.

In the field of military organization, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine

Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert, and from the reforms of preceding French governments, and then developed

much of what was already in place. He continued the policy, which emerged from the Revolution, of promotion

based primarily on merit.[192]

Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the

staff system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine.

These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.[192] Though he consolidated

the practice of modern conscription introduced by the Directory, one of the restored monarchy's first acts was

to end it.[193]

His opponents learned from Napoleon's innovations. The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed

from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery

practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's

defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then

exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on

artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry

and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers.[194] Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained

largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th-century operational mobility underwent

significant change.[195]

Napoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon's

methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies.[196] Napoleon was

regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the operational art of war, and

historians rank him as a great military commander.[197] Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of

the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon."[198]

Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmanoeuvring, of enemy armies

emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts which made wars costlier and more

decisive. The political impact of war increased significantly; defeat for a European power meant more than the

loss of isolated enclaves. Near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts, intensifying the

Revolutionary phenomenon of total war.[199]

Bonapartism

Main article: Bonapartism

Bonapartism refers to his nephew Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte who exploited the family name to be elected

president in 1848 and then made himself Emperor Napoleon III.

Criticism

The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, showing Spanish resisters being executed by Napoleon's troops.

Napoleon ended lawlessness and disorder in post-Revolutionary France.[200] He was, however, considered a

tyrant and usurper by his opponents.[201] His critics charge that he was not significantly troubled when faced

with the prospect of war and death for thousands, turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts

throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike. His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision

to reinstate slavery in France's oversea colonies are controversial and have an impact on his reputation.[202]

Napoleon institutionalised plunder of conquered territories: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's

forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre  for a grand central museum; his

example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators.[203] He was compared to Adolf Hitler most

famously by the historianPieter Geyl in 1947[204] and Claude Ribbe in 2005.[205] David G. Chandler, a historian of

Napoleonic warfare, wrote in 1973 that, "Nothing could be more degrading to the former [Napoleon] and more

flattering to the latter [Hitler]."[206]

Critics argue Napoleon's true legacy must reflect the loss of status for France and needless deaths brought by

his rule: historian Victor Davis Hanson writes, "After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars,

perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost."[207] McLynn notes that, "He

can be viewed as the man who set back European economic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of

his wars."[201] However, Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon

was responsible for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions

which aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution.[208]

Propaganda and memory

Main article: Napoleonic propaganda

Napoleon Crossing the

Alps, romanticversion by Jacques-Louis

David in 1805

Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, realistversion by Paul

Delaroche in 1848

Napoleon's masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and

established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling aspects of the press, books, theater, and art,

was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and

stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's

reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as

emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though

uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and

controlling different forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.[209]

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory are best understood when considered

within the socio-political context. They played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon

restoration monarchy in 1815–30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic

veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution.[210]

Widespread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism,

individual and collective liberties, and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials,

notably displaying the tricolor and rosettes, and subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's

life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations, and demonstrated the prevailing and successful goal of the

varied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the Bourbon regime.[210]

Datta (2005) shows that, following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic

legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two

novels from the period—Victorien Sardou 's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès's Les

Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp'sNapoléonette (1913)

Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Epoque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political

and cultural ends.[211]

Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one

fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent

the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a

vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that

accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.[211]

International Napoleonic Congresses are held regularly and include participation by members of the French

and American military, French politicians and scholars from different countries.[212]

In January 2012, the mayor of Montereau -Fault-Yonne , near Paris—the site of a late victory of Napoleon—

proposed development of acommemorative theme park at a projected cost of 200 million euros.[213]

Legacy outside France

Bas-relief of Napoleon I in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives

Napoleon was responsible for overthrowing many Ancien Régime –type monarchies in Europe and spreading

the official values of the French Revolution to other countries. In particular, Napoleon's French nationalism had

the effect of influencing the development of nationalism elsewhere—often inadvertently. German nationalism of

Fichte rose to challenge Napoleon's conquest of Germany. The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula

not only greatly fuelled Spanish and Portuguese national sentiment; it also helped provoke the Spanish

American wars of independence. The Napoleonic ideal of a liberal/bourgeois empire would influence the First

Mexican Empire and the Empire of Brazil. Napoleon also inflamed Italian nationalism, famously providing the

design for the flag of Italy on the basis of the French tricolour.

The Napoleonic Code is a codification of law including civil, family and criminal law that Napoleon imposed on

French-conquered territories. After the fall of Napoleon, not only was Napoleonic Code retained by many such

countries including the Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Italy and Germany, but has also been used as the basis

of certain parts of law outside Europe including the Dominican Republic, the US state of Louisiana and the

Canadian province of Quebec.[214]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to

Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.[215]

A number of leaders have been influenced by Napoleon. Muhammad Ali of Egypt sought alliance with

Napoleon's France and sought to modernize Egypt along French governmental lines. In the 20th century, Adolf

Hitler admired and emulated Napoleon as a leader and empire-builder, Hitler paid homage to Napoleon by

visiting his tomb after Germany occupied France in World War II.[205]

Marriages and children

Napoleon's first wife, Joséphine,

Empress of the French

Napoleon's second wife, Marie-

Louise, Empress of the French

Napoleon married Joséphine de Beauharnais  in 1796, when he was 26; she was a 32-year-old widow whose

first husband had been executed during the Revolution. Until she met Bonaparte, she had been known as

"Rose", a name which he disliked. He called her "Joséphine" instead, and she went by this name henceforth.

Bonaparte often sent her love letters while on his campaigns.[216] He formally adopted her son Eugène and

cousin Stéphanie and arranged dynastic marriages for them. Joséphine had her daughter Hortense marry

Napoleon's brotherLouis.[217]

Joséphine had lovers, including a Hussar lieutenant, Hippolyte Charles, during Napoleon's Italian campaign.

[218] Napoleon learnt the full extent of her affair with Charles while in Egypt, and a letter he wrote to his brother

Joseph regarding the subject was intercepted by the British. The letter appeared in the London and Paris

presses, much to Napoleon's embarrassment. Napoleon had his own affairs too: during the Egyptian campaign

he took Pauline Bellisle Foures, the wife of a junior officer, as his mistress. She became known as "Cleopatra"

after the Ancient Egyptian ruler.[219][note 13]

While Napoleon's mistresses had children by him, Joséphine did not produce an heir, possibly because of

either the stresses of her imprisonment during the Reign of Terror or an abortion she may have had in her 20s.

[221] Napoleon ultimately chose divorce so he could remarry in search of an heir. In March 1810, he

married Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie Antoinette byproxy; thus he had

married into a German royal and imperial family.[222]

They remained married until his death, though she did not join him in exile on Elba and thereafter never saw

her husband again. The couple had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (1811–1832), known from

birth as the King of Rome. He became Napoleon II in 1814 and reigned for only two weeks. He was awarded

the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no children.[222]

Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son: Charles Léon (1806–1881) by Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne ,.

[223][223] He may have had further unacknowledged illegitimate offspring as well, such as Karl Eugin von Mühlfeld

by Victoria Kraus;[101] Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte (1816–1910) by Albine de Montholon ; and Jules

Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire, whose mother remains unknown.[224] In addition; he was widely assumed to be the

biological father of Count Alexandre Joseph Colonna-Walewski (1810–1868) by Countess Marie Walewska;

who was, however, acknowledged by his mother's husband as his son, and he was not acknowledged by

Napoleon.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Emperor Napoleon I of France

House of Bonaparte

Political offices

Preceded byFrench Directory

Provisional Consul of France11 November – 12 December 1799

Served alongside: Roger Ducos and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès

Became Consul

New title

Consulate created

First Consul of France12 December 1799 – 18 May 1804

Served alongside: Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès (Second Consul)

Charles-François Lebrun (Third Consul)

Became Emperor

Regnal titles

Vacant

French Revolution

Title last held by

Louis XVI of Franceas King of the French

Emperor of the French18 May 1804 – 11 April 1814

Succeeded byLouis XVIII of France

as King of France and Navarre

Vacant

Title last held by

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperoras last crowned monarch, 1530

King of Italy17 March 1805 – 11 April 1814

Vacant

Title next held by

Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy

Preceded byLouis XVIII of France

as King of France and Navarre

Emperor of the French20 March – 22 June 1815

Succeeded byLouis XVIII of France

as King of France and Navarre(Napoleon II according to his will only)

Vacant

Title last held by

Louis XVI of France

Co-Prince of Andorra1806 – 11 April 1814

Succeeded byLouis XVIII of France

New title

State created

Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine12 July 1806 – 19 October 1813

Rhine Confederation dissolved

successive ruler:Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor

as President of the German Confederation

Titles in pretence

New title— TITULAR —

Emperor of the French11 April 1814 – 20 March 1815

Vacant

Title next held by

Napoleon II

Titles and styles

Monarchical styles of

Napoleon I of France

Reference style His Imperial Majesty

Spoken style Your Imperial Majesty

Alternative style My Lord

Monarchical styles of

Napoleon I of Italy

Reference style His Royal Majesty

Spoken style Your Royal Majesty

Alternative style My Lord

18 May 1804 – 11 April 1814: His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the

French

17 March 1805 – 11 April 1814: His Imperial and Royal Majesty the

Emperor of the French, King of Italy

20 March 1815 – 22 June 1815: His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the

French

Full titles

1804–1805

His Imperial Majesty Napoleon I, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of theRepublic, Emperor of the

French.

1805–1806

His Imperial and Royal Majesty Napoleon I, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic,

Emperor of the French, King of Italy.

1806–1809

His Imperial and Royal Majesty Napoleon I, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic,

Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.

1809–1814

His Imperial and Royal Majesty Napoleon I, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic,

Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, Mediator of the Helvetic

Confederation.

1815

His Imperial Majesty Napoleon I, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic, Emperor of the

French.

Ancestry

           

     

     

         

  16. Giuseppe Maria Buonaparte(1663–1703)

 

         

  8. Sebastiano Nicola Buonaparte (1683–1720/60)  

 

     

         

  17. Maria Colonna Bozzi(1668–1704)

 

         

  4. Giuseppe Maria Buonaparte(1713–1763)  

 

     

     

         

  18. Carlo Tusoli 

         

 

9. Maria Anna Tusoli(1690–1760)

 

 

     

         

  19. Isabella 

         

  2. Carlo Maria Buonaparte(1746–1785)  

 

     

     

               

  10. Giuseppe Maria Paravicini 

 

               

  5. Maria Saveria Paravicini(1715–bef. 1750)  

 

     

     

         

  22. Angelo Agostino Salineri 

         

  11. Maria Angela Salineri 

 

     

         

  23. Francetta Merezano 

         

 

1. Napoleon I, Emperor of the French and King of Italy

(1769–1821) 

 

           

     

     

         

  24. Giovanni Girolamo Ramolino(1645–?)

 

         

  12. Giovanni Agostino Ramolino 

 

     

         

  25. Maria Laetitia Boggiano 

         

 

6. Giovanni Geronimo Ramolino  

(1723–1755) 

     

     

         

  26. Andrea Peri(1669–?)

 

         

  13. Angela Maria Peri 

 

     

         

  27. Maria Maddalena Colonna d'Istria 

         

  3. Maria Letizia Ramolino(1750–1836)  

 

     

     

     

         

  28. Giovanni Antonio Pietrasanta 

         

  14. Giuseppe Maria Pietrasanta 

 

     

       

 

  29. Paola Brigida Sorba 

         

  7. Angela Maria Pietrasanta (1725–1790)  

 

     

               

  15. Maria Giuseppa Malerba 

 

               

Notes

1. Jump up^ His name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio,Napolionne,

and Napulione.[4]

2. Jump up^ Aside from his name, there does not appear to be a connection

between him and Napoleon's theorem.[19]

3. Jump up^ He was mainly referred to as Bonaparte until he became First

Consul for life.[23]

4. Jump up^ This is depicted in Bonaparte Crossing the Alps by Hippolyte

Delaroche and in Jacques-Louis David's imperial Napoleon Crossing the

Alps, he is less realistically portrayed on a chargerin the latter work.[72]

5. Jump up^ Napoleon gave the pope a tiara following the ceremony, now

referred to as the Napoleon Tiara.

6. Jump up^ A custom in which householders place candles in street-facing

windows to herald good news.[135]

7. Jump up^ It was customary to cast a death mask or mold of a leader.

Four genuine death masks of Napoleon are known to exist: one in The

Cabildo, a state museum located in New Orleans, one in a Liverpool

museum, another in Havana and one in the library of the University of

North Carolina.[143]

8. Jump up^ The body can tolerate large doses of arsenic if ingested

regularly, and arsenic was a fashionable cure-all.[149]

9. Jump up^ "Nous trompons les Égyptiens par notre simili attachement à

leur religion, à laquelle Bonaparte et nous ne croyons pas plus qu'à celle

de Pie le défunt."[165]

10. Jump up^ "I think the matter that made man was slime, warmed by the

sun and vivified by electric fluids. What are animals —an ox, for example

— but organized matter? Well, when we see that our physical frame

resembles theirs, may we not believe that we are only better organized

matter... The most simple idea consists in worshiping the sun, which gives

life to everything. I repeat, I think man was created in an atmosphere

warmed by the sun, and that after a certain time this productive power

ceased." [169]

11. Jump up^ "I do not think Jesus Christ ever existed. I would believe in the

Christian religion if it dated from the beginning of the world. That Socrates,

Plato, the Mohammedan, and all the English should be damned is too

absurd. Jesus was probably put to death, like many other fanatics who

proclaimed themselves to be prophets or the expected Messiah. Every

year there were many of these men."[170]

12. Jump up^ Napoleon's height was 5 ft 2 French inches according to

Antommarchi at Napoleon's autopsy and British sources put his height at

5 foot and 7 British inches: both equivalent to 1.7 m.[188] Napoleon

surrounded himself with tall bodyguards and had a nickname of le petit

caporal which was an affectionate term that reflected his reported

camaraderie with his soldiers rather than his height.

13. Jump up^ One night, during an illicit liaison with the actress Marguerite

George, Napoleon had a major fit. This and other more minor attacks have

led historians to debate whether he had epilepsy and, if so, to what extent.

[220]

Citations

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Schom, Alan (1998).Napoleon Bonaparte (1.

HarperPerennial ed.). New York: HarperPerennial.ISBN 0-06-092958-8.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b Delors, Catherine."15th of August 1769: birth of

Napoleone di Buonaparte". Retrieved 3 November 2012.

3. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.6

4. ^ Jump up to:a b Dwyer 2008, p.xv

5. Jump up^ The court and camp of Bonaparte, J & J Harper, 1832, p.

17, Google Book

6. Jump up^ Ida M. Tarbell, A Short Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, Kessinger

Publishing, 2005, p. 1,Google Book

7. Jump up^ The other conquest. Harper & Row. 1967. Retrieved 3 August

2011.

8. Jump up^ French Fortifications, 1715–1815. McFarland. 30 November

2009.ISBN 9780786458073. Retrieved 3 August 2011.

9. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.2

10. Jump up^ 2012 DNA tests found some of the family's ancestors were

from theCaucasus region;lefigaro.fr (15 January 2012). "Le Figaro   – Mon

Figaro   : Selon son ADN,les ancêtres de Napoléon seraient du

Caucase!".Le Figaro. Retrieved 20 February 2012.; The study

found haplogroup type E1b1c1*, which originated in Northern Africa circa

1200 BC; the people migrated into the Caucasus and into

Europe. "Haplogroup of the Y Chromosome of Napoléon the First; Gerard

Lucotte, Thierry Thomasset, Peter Hrechdakian; Journal of Molecular

Biology Research " . December 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2012.

11. Jump up^ Cronin 1994, pp. 20–21

12. Jump up^ Harvey, R. The War of Wars, Robinson, 2006. pp.58–61.

13. Jump up^ "Cathedral—Ajaccio". La Fondation Napoléon. Retrieved 31

May 2008.

14. Jump up^ Cronin 1994, p.27

15. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roberts 2001, p.xvi

16. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.18

17. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.29

18. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.21

19. Jump up^ Wells 1992, p.74

20. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.23

21. ^ Jump up to:a b Dwyer 2008, p.42

22. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.26

23. ^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.290

24. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.37

25. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.55

26. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.61

27. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Roberts 2001, p.xviii

28. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.132

29. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.76

30. ^ Jump up to:a b Dwyer 2008, pp.145–9

31. Jump up^ Chandler 1973, p.30

32. Jump up^ Boycott-Brown 2001, pp.88–92

33. Jump up^ Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon, p.39.

34. Jump up^ Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon, p.38.

35. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.157

36. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, pp.76, 84

37. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.92

38. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.26

39. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.164

40. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.93

41. ^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.96

42. Jump up^ Johnson 2002, p.27

43. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.102

44. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.129

45. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, pp.284–5

46. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.132

47. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.145

48. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.142

49. Jump up^ Harvey 2006, p.179

50. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.135

51. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.306

52. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.305

53. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.322

54. ^ Jump up to:a b c Watson 2003, pp.13–14

55. ^ Jump up to:a b Amini 2000, p.12

56. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.342

57. ^ Jump up to:a b Alder 2002

58. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.175

59. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.179

60. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.372

61. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Roberts 2001, p.xx

62. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, pp.392

63. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, pp.411–24

64. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.189

65. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.193

66. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.442

67. ^ Jump up to:a b c Connelly 2006, p.57

68. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.444

69. Jump up^ Dwyer 2008, p.455

70. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.215

71. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.224

72. Jump up^ Chandler 2002, p.51

73. ^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.235

74. ^ Jump up to:a b Schom 1997, p.302

75. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.265

76. Jump up^ Jackson 2004, p.33

77. Jump up^ Connelly 2006, p.70

78. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.243

79. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.296

80. ^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.297

81. Jump up^ Woolley, Reginald Maxwell (1915). Coronation Rites.

Cambridge University Press. pp. 106–107.

82. ^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.321

83. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.332

84. ^ Jump up to:a b Goetz 2005, p.301

85. Jump up^ Schom 1997, p.414

86. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.350

87. Jump up^ Cronin 1994, p.344

88. ^ Jump up to:a b Karsh 2001, p.11

89. Jump up^ Karsh 2001, p.12

90. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.356

91. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.370

92. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.426

93. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.497

94. Jump up^ Gates 2001, p.20

95. Jump up^ Chandler 1995, p.631

96. Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.408

97. Jump up^ Harvey 2006, p.631

98. Jump up^ Gates 2001, p.177

99. Jump up^ Gates 2001, p.467

100.Jump up^ Napoleon Bonaparte, Memorial de Sainte-Helene, Vol 1 (Paris:

Garnier fretes, 1961 (1823), pp. 609–610

101.^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.423

102.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.422

103.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.470

104.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, pp.433–5

105.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.472

106.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.378

107.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.495

108.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.507

109.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.506

110.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, pp.504–505

111.Jump up^ Harvey 2006, p.773

112.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.518

113.Jump up^ Markham 1988, p.194

114.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.522

115.Jump up^ Markham 1988, pp.190, 199

116.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.541

117.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.549

118.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.565

119.Jump up^ Chandler 1995, p.1020

120.Jump up^ Fremont-Barnes 2004, p.14

121.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.585

122.Jump up^ Gates 2003, p.259

123.Jump up^ "Napoleon's act of abdication". Bulletin des lois de la

Republique Française. Retrieved 28 August 2009.

124.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, pp.593–4

125.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.597

126.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.604

127.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.605

128.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.607

129.Jump up^ Chesney 2006, p.35

130.Jump up^ Cordingly 2004, p.254

131.Jump up^ Balcombe 1845

132.Jump up^ Thomson 1969, pp.77–9

133.Jump up^ Schom 1997, pp.769–770

134.^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.642

135.Jump up^ Woodward 2005, pp.51–9

136.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.644

137.Jump up^ Macaulay 1986, p.141

138.Jump up^ Wilkins 1972

139.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.651

140.Jump up^ Albert Benhamou, Inside Longwood   – Barry O'Meara's

clandestine letters, 2012

141.^ Jump up to:a b c d e McLynn 1998, p.655

142.Jump up^ Wilson 1975, pp.293–5

143.Jump up^ Fulghum 2007

144.^ Jump up to:a b Driskel 1993, p.168

145.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.656

146.Jump up^ Johnson 2002, pp.180–1

147.^ Jump up to:a b c d Cullen 2008, pp.146–48

148.^ Jump up to:a b Cullen 2008, p.156

149.Jump up^ Cullen 2008, p.50

150.Jump up^ Cullen 2008, p.161, and Hindmarsh et al 2008, p.2092

151.Jump up^ Blaufarb 2007, pp.101–2

152.Jump up^ Edwards 1999, p.55

153.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.255

154.Jump up^ Wanniski 1998, p.184

155.Jump up^ Wood 2007, p.55

156.Jump up^ Scheck 2008, Chapter: The Road to National Unification

157.Jump up^ Astarita 2005, p.264

158.Jump up^ Alter 2006, pp.61–76

159.Jump up^ Hallock, William; Wade, Herbert T (1906). "Outlines of the

evolution of weights and measures and the metric system". London: The

Macmillan Company. pp. 66–69.

160.Jump up^ Denis Février. "Un historique du mètre" (in French). Ministère

de l'Economie, des Finances et de l'Industrie. Retrieved 10 March 2011.

161.Jump up^ Thierry Sabot (1 October 2000). "Les poids et mesures sous

l’Ancien Régime" [The weights and measures of the Ancien Régime] (in

French). histoire-genealogie. Retrieved 10 February 2011.

162.Jump up^ O'Connor 2003

163.^ Jump up to:a b c d "L'Empire et le Saint-Siège". Napoleon.org. Retrieved

15 June 2011.

164.Jump up^ "Revue des Deux Mondes   – 1867   – tome 71,

p.386" (in (French)). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 15 June 2011.

165.Jump up^ Jacques Bainville, Napoleon I, p.94

166.Jump up^ "Bonaparte and Islam.". Center for History and New

Media atGeorge Mason University. Retrieved 12 July 2012.

167.Jump up^ "Napoleon: Man of Peace". Napoleon-series.org. 17 November

1999. Retrieved 4 November 2011.

168.Jump up^ Juan Cole, Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East,

Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, p.29

169.Jump up^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena'' (1903), pp. 270–271

170.Jump up^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena'' (1903), pp. 276–277

171.Jump up^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena'' (1903), pp. 274–275

172.Jump up^ Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena'' (1903), pp. 279–280

173.Jump up^ Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon

Bonaparte. Scott, Webster & Geary. 1839. p. 586. Retrieved 5 February

2011.

174.Jump up^ Aston, Nigel (2002).Christianity and Revolutionary

Europe c.1750–1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46027-1.

175.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.436

176.Jump up^ Schwarzfuchs 1979, p.50

177.Jump up^ Cronin 1994, p.315

178.Jump up^ Jack Coggins (1966).Soldiers And Warriors: An Illustrated

History. Courier Dover Publications. p. 187.

179.^ Jump up to:a b See David Chandler, "General Introduction" to

his Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method

of History's Greatest Soldier(1975).

180.Jump up^ Sally Waller (2002).France in Revolution, 1776–1830.

Heinemann. p. 188.

181.Jump up^ Gregory R. Copley (2007). The Art of Victory: Strategies for

Personal Success and Global Survival in a Changing World. Simon and

Schuster. p. 97.

182.Jump up^ J. M. Thompson,Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and

Fall (1954), p.285

183.Jump up^ Christopher Hibbert (1999). Wellington: A Personal History. Da

Capo Press. p. 171.

184.Jump up^ Steven Englund,Napoleon: A Political Life(2004), pp.379ff

185.Jump up^ van Crevald, Martin (1987). Command in War. Massachusetts:

Harvard University Press. p. 64.ISBN 0-674-14441-4.

186.Jump up^ "Napoleon Bonaparte (Character)". IMDB. Retrieved 12

October 2008.and Bell 2007, p.13

187.Jump up^ Roberts 2004, p.93

188.Jump up^ Dunan 1963

189.Jump up^ "Sarkozy height row grips France". BBC. 8 September 2009.

Retrieved 13 September 2009.

190.Jump up^ Hall 2006, p.181

191.Jump up^ Bordes 2007, p.118

192.^ Jump up to:a b Archer et al 2002, p.397

193.Jump up^ Flynn 2001, p.16

194.Jump up^ Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic

Artillery Tactics Reconsidered," Journal of Military History 2001 65(3):

617–640. in JSTOR;online

195.Jump up^ Archer et al 2002, p.383

196.Jump up^ John Shy, "Jomini" in Peter Paret, ed. Makers of Modern

Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (1986).

197.Jump up^ Archer et al 2002, p.380

198.Jump up^ Roberts 2001, p.272

199.Jump up^ Archer et al 2002, p.404

200.Jump up^ Abbott 2005, p.3

201.^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.666

202.Jump up^ Repa, Jan (2 December 2005). "Furore over Austerlitz

ceremony". BBC. Retrieved 5 April 2010.

203.Jump up^ Poulos 2000

204.Jump up^ Geyl 1947

205.^ Jump up to:a b Hudson, Christopher (24 July 2008). "The French Fuhrer:

Genocidal Napoleon was as barbaric as Hitler, historian claims". The Daily

Mail. Retrieved 21 October 2013.

206.Jump up^ Chandler 1973, p. xliii

207.Jump up^ Hanson 2003

208.Jump up^ Cronin 1994, pp.342–3

209.Jump up^ Alan Forrest, "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in

Napoleonic France." French History, 2004 18(4): 426–445

210.^ Jump up to:a b Sudhir Hazareesingh, "Memory and Political Imagination:

the Legend of Napoleon Revisited."French History, 2004 18(4): 463–483

211.^ Jump up to:a b Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the

Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." French

Historical Studies 2005 28(1): 1–30

212.Jump up^ "Call for Papers: International Napoleonic Society, Fourth

International Napoleonic Congress". La Fondation Napoléon. Retrieved 27

June 2008.

213.Jump up^ Laurent, Ottavi (8 February 2012). "A New Napoleonic

Campaign for Montereau". Foundation Napoleon.

214.Jump up^ "Napoleonic Code". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13

April 2012.

215.Jump up^ Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." History

Today, May 1998 v48 n5 pp.50–55

216.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.117

217.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.271

218.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.118

219.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.188

220.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.284

221.Jump up^ McLynn 1998, p.100

222.^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.663

223.^ Jump up to:a b McLynn 1998, p.630

224.Jump up^ Lowndes 1943

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International Napoleonic Society

Biography  by the US Public Broadcasting Service

The last years in St. Helena  Illustrated chronology of Napoleon's captivity

in St. Helena.

Inside Longwood  Descriptions of Longwood House, St. Helena, and other

places in the island, as well as articles about Napoleon's captivity.

Booknotes  interview with Alan Schom on Napoleon Bonaparte , 26 October

1997.

Works by or about Napoleon  in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Memoirs of Napoleon  at Project Gutenberg

John Holland Rose . The Life of Napoleon I at Project Gutenberg

John Gibson Lockhart . The History of Napoleon Buonaparte at Project

Gutenberg

William Milligan Sloane . The Life of Napoleon I. at Project Gutenberg Vol.

1/4

William Milligan Sloane . The Life of Napoleon I. at Project Gutenberg Vol.

3/4

Authority control

WorldCat

 

VIAF : 106964661

 

LCCN : n79054933

 

ISNI : 0000 0001 2283 8283

 

GND : 118586408

 

BNF : cb12008245w

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